Whose Feathers? Changes and Conflicts in the Use …homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~anthro/download/journal/91-3.pdfJournal of Archaeology and Anthropology ‧91：85-122‧2019 88 research in

Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology9185-1222019 DOI 106152jaa201912_(91)0003

85

Whose Feathers

Changes and Conflicts in the Use of

Mountain Hawk-eagle Feathers among

Rukai Communities in Taiwan

Sasala Taiban Jun-lin Chen Yuan-hsun Sun

ABSTRACT

In Rukai culture the mountain hawk-eagle is a very sacred and symbolic

bird to aristocratic families Recently some scholars have called the

governmentrsquos attention to address the near extinction of the mountain

hawk-eagles by restricting the hunting and trapping of this species through

strengthening the law enforcement The following research primarily focuses

on the continuity of the indigenous cultures of Taiwan by conducting interviews

with individuals from the Rukai communities regarding the changes and

conflicts between the traditional use of feathers by ceremonial practitioners

versus the conservation of the mountain hawk-eagles This study suggests that

the government should invite relevant authorities indigenous representatives

and local leaders to establish a co-management committee with legitimate

power so as to ensure the sustainable feather usage of the mountain

hawk-eagle species

Keywords mountain hawk-eagle ethnoecology political ecology eagle

repository imitation feathers

Professor Department of Sociology National Sun Yat-sen University Corresponding author

taibansasalagmailcom MSc Institute of Wildlife Conservation National Pingtung University of Science and

Technology Professor Institute of Wildlife Conservation National Pingtung University of Science and

Technology

Journal of Archaeology and Anthropology9185-1222019

86

誰的羽毛魯凱族熊鷹羽毛利用的變遷與衝突

台邦bull撒沙勒陳俊霖孫元勳

摘要

在魯凱族文化中熊鷹是極具代表性的猛禽族人認為熊鷹羽毛具有象徵性

權利的意義是部落頭目或重要人物的表徵近幾年野生動物保育意識高漲有

些學者認為原住民狩獵文化不合時宜有關單位必須正視原住民利用熊鷹羽毛導

致熊鷹瀕臨滅絕的事實因此呼籲加強執法杜絕熊鷹的獵捕本研究以民族生

態學及政治生態學的角度欲瞭解魯凱族使用熊鷹羽毛的文化及與保育的衝突

當中訪談了 52 位族人包括頭目獵人及社區幹部等等本研究發現魯凱族仍

然保有獵捕熊鷹的禁忌和倫理希望有關當局能與族人合作例如設置熊鷹羽毛

庫制定部落公約成立資源共管委員會設立獵人學校以及推展生態旅遊等

措施找出熊鷹保育和文化保存雙贏的途徑

關鍵詞熊鷹民族生態學政治生態學熊鷹羽毛庫仿真羽毛

國立中山大學社會學系教授通訊作者taibansasalagmailcom 國立屏東科技大學野生動物保育研究所碩士

國立屏東科技大學野生動物保育研究所教授

Sasala Taiban Jun- Lin Chen Yuan-Hsun Sun Whose Feathers Changes and Conflicts in the Use of Mountain Hawk-eagle Feathers among Rukai Communities in Taiwan

87

1 Introduction

Since time immemorial people have relied on a variety of natural resources for survival

Apart from the life-sustaining flesh that it provides the skin fur feathers and teeth of

animals have been used for warmth adornment and conducting various religious sacrificial

rituals (Lawrence 1990 Murray 2011) People have been using animal resources for a long

time a practice that has generated distinct cultures and knowledge The science of

ethnoecology emerged from research on peoplersquos utilization and management of animal

resources and has garnered much attention in recent years In addition to research on animals

ethnoecology mostly addresses issues concerning social development and continuity of

traditional culture and knowledge in modern times

In Paiwan and Rukai communities in Taiwan the mountain hawk-eagle1 is a very

emblematic bird of prey and has been discussed in many ethnographic studies (Demalat 2002

Gu 1989 Hu 2011 Pan 1996 1998 Shi 1971 Wu 1993) The first reference to sacrificial

ceremonies naming places and taboos related to mountain hawk-eagles appeared during the

Japanese colonial period (Kojima and Kobayashi 2004[1922] 145-146) after which more

anthropological researches on the subject started to emerge Studies suggested that mountain

hawk-eagle feathers carry a symbolic meaning representing chieftains and other important

members in the community (Hu 2011) Gursquos (1989) notes taken during her research on the

clothing culture of the Paridrayan community in Taiwan indicated that the use of mountain

hawk-eagle feathers in this community related to positions and titles Hu also discussed the

cultural significance and the use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers in the Paiwan Kuljaljau

community a practice that has long been passed down to later generations (Hu 2011 11-43)

Meanwhile with the emergence of wildlife conservation natural sciences have been

incorporated into ethnoecological researches to investigate the indigenous use of mountain

hawk-eagle feathers and the conservation issue of this species Despite the widely recognized

importance of indigenous cultural preservation the hunting culture of indigenous peoples is

inconsistent with contemporary trends Relevant authorities must acknowledge that the use of

mountain hawk-eagle feathers by indigenous peoples is driving mountain hawk-eagles to

extinction a fact which calls for bolstering the strength of law enforcement and the cessation

of mountain hawk-eagle hunting (Chung 2001 Lin 2000 Yang 2004) As ethnoecological


88

research in Taiwan is still in its early developmental stage there is a lack of relevant studies

especially studies on the usage of mountain hawk-eagle feathers in indigenous communities

A clear and comprehensive discussion of the actual use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers in

indigenous communities is problematic For instance there has been no systematic research

on Rukai communities which are known for using mountain hawk-eagle feathers more often

than any other indigenous groups in Taiwan This makes it difficult to conduct a large-scale

analysis to compare the culture usage and attitudes towards mountain hawk-eagle feathers

across different communities Thus a more thorough examination and understanding is

needed in order to strengthen ethnoecological researches in Taiwan

After the recent Convention on Biological Diversity the issue of cultural diversity has

drawn worldwide attention Interest has grown with respect to the tension between

conservation and indigenous cultures The code of professional ethics established in the 10th

International Congress of Ethnobiology held in Chiang Rai Thailand on November 8 2006

stated that culture and language are essentially linked to land and territory and that culture

language and biodiversity are inseparable Therefore the International Society of

Ethnobiology acknowledged that indigenous peoples traditional societies and local

communities have the rights and responsibilities to practice conservation and to preserve their

culture and language while managing their land territory and traditional resources and

declared their key roles in maintaining biodiversity on Earth

Over the past few decades indigenous rituals beliefs and taboos in hunting gathering

and farming have made a unique contribution to ecological conservation and indigenous

ways of knowing have gradually received attention and recognition from the governments and

the preservation organizations This traditional knowledge also known as traditional

ecological knowledge (TEK) is endorsed and praised by anthropologists and ecologists

(Armitage 2003 Becker and Ghimire 2003 Berkes and Folke 2002 Brodt 2001 Ghimire and

Pimbert 1997 Goacutemez-Baggethun et al 2013 Goacutemez-Pompa and Kaus 1992 McNeely 1994

Smith 2001) Therefore maintaining traditional resource management method or innovating

new patterns of resource management system founded on traditional concepts including TEK

has become a focus of discussion in natural resources management since 1990 (Hanna et al

1996 Hellier et al 1999 Ostrom 1990) In his book Sacred Ecology Traditional Ecological


89

Knowledge and Resource Management Berkes points out that several fascinating case studies

outlining the ways in which indigenous cultures can manage and care for their lands

sustainably The examples of tropical rainforests semi-arid regions Pacific Islands the

Caribbean and the James Bay region are interesting They show how indigenous cultures have

an in-depth understanding of their local ecosystems and how they develop adaptive strategies

to ensure the maintenance of a healthy productive and sustainable ecosystem (Berkes 1999)

In this study we argue that indigenous cultures should not be distorted and become

victims of conservation Therefore it is necessary not only to study the cultural use of eagle

feathers of the Rukai but also to explore the symbolic implications behind the culture At the

same time the study will also explore the possibility of seeking a win-win solution for

indigenous cultures and conservation through the amendment of the conservation law and the

establishment of the mountain hawk-eagle feather repository This two-year study on the use

of mountain hawk-eagle feathers was conducted in three Rukai groups namely the Western

Rukai in Pingtung the Eastern Rukai in Taitung and the Xiasan Rukai in Kaohsiung and 52

people from 14 indigenous communities were recruited for the study This study aimed to

determine approaches that would allow the coexistence of indigenous cultures and

conservation which would also bring about implications for modern conservation and

positive and constructive benefits to the preservation of indigenous cultures the sustainable

development of mountain forest environments and the effective management of natural

resources

2 Literature Review

Without a written language to serve as a narrative tool in indigenous cultures indigenous

peoples are often mistakenly regarded as people without history Their legends oral histories

and local stories are generally considered to be unreliable and are often ridiculed Therefore

ethnographic studies often omit discussions of traditional ecological wisdom place names and

meanings and systems of symbolic representation However the recent implementation of the

Indigenous Traditional Territory Survey by the government has inspired more studies on

indigenous territories place names and land surveys to be conducted Many studies on


90

traditional ecological knowledge have been published in ethnoecology environmental

anthropology and agricultural ecology in the last 50 years (Hunn 1999) In particular

researches in ethnoecology and environmental anthropology have found that the livelihood

strategies used in indigenous communities were often adapted to their local environments in

order to achieve balance with them (Altieri 1995 Nazarea 1999)

Ethnoecology is a study of the relation and interaction between the local community and

its surroundings Levi-Strauss (1969) believes that local knowledge is a system of

classification with scientific significance and can be used as another means to understand the

world for Western researchers Clifford Geertz (1983) an expert in symbolic anthropology

believes that local knowledge is the common sense developed by local residents to understand

the surrounding environment (Geertz 1983) Evans-Pritchard believes that indigenous

knowledge is a logical process of thought and practice and is equal in value to Western

sciences (Evans-Pritchard 1963) In addition many scholars believe that the ethnoecological

classification system is an accumulation of knowledge from observing and utilizing animals

plants and natural phenomenon over a long period of time by local communities and may

therefore provide the modern society with ways to interact with the environment and live in

harmony with nature (Castetter 1944 Conklin 1957 Nazarea 1999)

In recent years many international scholars have gone beyond the scope of culture and

incorporated the issues of power knowledge and politics into conservation Their studies

point out that conservation policy should not be isolated from the broader affairs of politics

economics and cultures rather it should undergo a process of negotiation and confrontation

among stakeholders (Bryant 1997 Escobar 1996 Gadgil and Guha 1993 Hecht and

Cockburn 1989 Merchant 1994 Peet and Watts 1996) Such an idea made political ecology

one of the hottest areas of research at the end of the twentieth century More and more

anthropologists ecologists and geologists begin to emphasize the dynamics and conflicts

between culture and space and believe that it is necessary to examine the meanings of cultural

politics in the utilization management and representation of resources in different geological

environments (Sivaramakrishnan 1999 16) On this particular point issues such as changes in

the use of lands and resources are bound to relate to conflicts in politics instead of being a

simple topic of culture that is separate from power dialectics


91

Among the indigenous communities in Taiwan mountain hawk-eagle feathers are mainly

used by the Paiwan and the Rukai The Rukai people believe that the mountain hawk-eagle is

an incarnation of the hundred-pacer and only the chieftains and warriors have the privilege to

wear the feathers In the past the Rukai people were not allowed to hunt mountain

hawk-eagles if a mountain hawk-eagle was inadvertently killed tribal members were bound

to conduct a ceremony to comfort the birdrsquos soul otherwise bad luck would come along (Hsu

1987) Elders from Kucapungane a Rukai community said that their ancestors came from the

eastern coast of Taiwan crossed the Central Mountain Range under the guidance of the

clouded leopard and the mountain hawk-eagle After arriving at Kucapungane the clouded

leopard refused to move any further thus the ancestors decided to stay and settle down As a

result Kucapungane is known as ldquothe home of the clouded leopardsrdquo To express their

gratitude the Rukai people prohibited the hunting of mountain hawk-eagles and clouded

leopards Moreover the mountain hawk-eagle is considered sacred as established through oral

traditions so the Kucapungane people prohibited eagle hunting If an eagle is killed or

captured by mistake it is released or abandoned and cannot be eaten or taken back to the

community the failure to release or abandon it is believed to bring danger and bad luck

(Kadresengan 1996)

The Rukairsquos use of feathers as a symbol of privilege has a long history The mountain

hawk-eagles symbolize chieftains and warriors while the feathers of Mikado pheasants and

Swinhoersquos pheasants are also symbols of significant status contributions or achievements In

the past if a tribal member suffered from an incident or went missing the community would

dispatch young members to the rescue mission The first person to retrieve the victim would

have the privilege to wear a Mikado pheasant feather Those who prayed for rain and helped

the community survive the drought were also allowed to wear Swinhoersquos pheasant feathers

Runners who were responsible for delivering important news or the hunters who managed to

capture or kill over five male wild boars received the privilege to wear lilies in public places

and decorate their house fronts with lilies or animal symbols to honor their heroic deeds

(Taiban 2006)

The aforementioned research mainly summaries the tradition of the use of mountain

hawk-eagle by the Rukai from the perspective of anthropology and cultural studies and it


92

might be difficult to understand the current situation of excessive hunting that may occur

when the Rukai are using mountain hawk-eagle feathers Sunrsquos (2007) study indicated that the

eagle taming market and the indigenous use of eagles have resulted in an increase in the

commercial hunting of mountain hawk-eagles since the 1960s At the peak of this hunting

activity from 2000 to 2005 about 40 mountain hawk-eagles were captured each year As a

result the population of mountain hawk-eagles has decreased Thus in addition to a

comprehensive research on Rukairsquos traditional use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers

contemporary use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers and the conflict between tradition and

conservation must be investigated

3 Research Methods

This study focused on the Rukai communities in southern Taiwan including Vutai

Kabalelradhane Labwane Karamemedisane Adiri Kinulane Auba Kudrengere

Kucapungane and Laladengane in Pingtung County Terdreka Oponoho and Kongadavange

in Kaohsiung City and Tarumak in Taitung County (Figure 1) Researchers conducted

in-depth interviews and a literature review to understand the use and management principles

of mountain hawk-eagles

The content of in-depth interviews included feather sources and purposes

feather-wearing methods and the acceptance of alternatives to feathers A map mountain

hawk-eagle images photos of flying mountain hawk-eagles and imitation eagle feathers were

prepared for the survey This study interviewed 52 people from 14 communities Interviewees

included chieftains elders hunters and community leaders The interviews and literature

review aimed to collect data concerning peoplersquos views on the use of mountain hawk-eagle

feathers to establish a reference and basis for future research on mountain hawk-eagle

conservation and use


93

Figure 1 The locations of the Rukai communities in Taiwan

4 Origin and Methods relating to Mountain Hawk-Eagle Feather-Wearing Culture

41 Origin of the wearing of mountain hawk-eagle feathers

All Rukai members follow the tradition of wearing mountain hawk-eagle feathers Elders

said that this custom already existed before the Japanese colonial period which suggests that

the custom has existed for several centuries However the origin of this tradition cannot be

identified An elder in Vutai said that a Rukai chieftain who possesses the exclusive rights to

land management mountain and river management and management over tribal members

may wear a mountain hawk-eagle feather The land that a flying eagle looks upon is entirely

its hunting ground and thus belongs to that eagle Therefore an eagle feather which

represents power and respect cannot be worn by anyone other than the chieftain The

chieftain of the Karamemedisane said that a chieftain must have laegelaege (rivers)

kataengane (land) and dalupane (hunting ground) as well as the right to manage the people

living within the territory in order to be called raedre (highest-ranking chieftain) and be


94

regarded as the true chieftain of the community

The chieftain of Kucapungane believes that the mountain hawk-eagle flies in the air

much like the ruler to patrol the land under its watch to guard the resources in the field and

to maintain order within its territory The chieftain who wears the feathers of the mountain

hawk-eagle like the eagle emanates a sense of dignity and authority The people may obtain

permission from the chieftain to use the land for farming and then provide a portion of the

harvest to the chieftain as a tribute In addition upon return from a gainful hunting expedition

within the chieftainrsquos territory hunters must offer the preyrsquos internal organs and thighs as gifts

to the chieftain as a display of allegiance

Not only the chieftains the finest headhunters could also adorn themselves with

mountain hawk-eagle feathers in the past After a headhunting expedition warriors would

present heads of the enemies to the chieftain and each of the warriors would be conferred with

a mountain hawk-eagle feather to honor their bravery in protecting the community

42 Weddings and funerals

A mountain hawk-eagle feather is an important betrothal gift when two chieftain families

intermarry In the past marrying families would consult with the highest-ranking chieftain on

the number of betrothal gifts to prepare which was determined by their social status in the

community The family from a lower social status is to present betrothal gifts to the family of

higher status Clay pots or money could be used to substitute for mountain hawk-eagle

feathers

In the Kongadavange community a marriage between a chieftainrsquos family and that of a

noble tribal member requires the sabadulrau ritual during which a mountain hawk-eagle

feather is presented to the chieftainrsquos family as a betrothal gift If sabadulrau were not done

the noble family could not adopt the chieftainrsquos family name The mountain hawk-eagle

feather that is normally used as a betrothal gift is the primary feather (P10 Figure 2) called

kalesekesane Feathers used in the weddings among the Karamemedisane chieftains are

palrici and mulnimulrithane2 If the betrothal gifts do not include glass beads they could be

replaced with the primary feather (P4 Figure 2) The description above demonstrates that the

precious value of mountain hawk-eagle feathers as they could be regarded as a symbol of the


95

high prestige and status of the family during the wedding process It further illustrates that the

special value of the mountain hawk-eagle feathers is sufficient to match that of the glass beads

and clay pots

Figure 2 Positions of primary (P10-P1) and secondary (S1-S10) feathers of

the mountain hawk eagle

In addition when a Kucapungane chieftain is buried at a funeral a mountain hawk-eagle

feather is put on his head and a taravigivigi (priest) is asked to conduct the ceremony once

the ceremony is finished the feather is taken and not buried together with the deceased and

the honor can be passed on to the offspring of the deceased On the other hand in the death of

a sibabara (headhunting warrior) the mountain hawk-eagle feather is buried and not given to

the deceasedrsquos offspring In the past Tarumak chieftains were buried with mountain

hawk-eagle feathers as a symbol of honor As burial practices have changed and cremation has

become more common mountain hawk-eagle feathers are no longer buried with the deceased

and are passed down to the next generations


96

43 Use of feathers

The shape (lanceolate or round) pattern and barb count of the mountain hawk-eagle

feathers worn by a Rukai member will indicate his or her social status in the community The

use of feathers from the outer primary feathers (P10-P1 Figure 2) to inner secondary feathers

(S1-S10 Figure 2) in different communities would be described below

431 Primary feathers (P10-P1)

The first outer feather of the mountain hawk-eagle is called kalesekesane (P10) which

means ldquolittle fingerrdquo or ldquofingernailrdquo in the Rukai language This is the strongest feather that

helps the mountain hawk-eagle to fly upwards A kalesekesane is usually used as a betrothal

gift and can be worn only by senior members of the community In terms of value it is second

only to a palrici and is commonly referred to as ldquothe second rankrdquo The P7-P9 feathers

located between the outermost primary feather (P10) and the most valuable feathers (P5-P6)

are called taububane which means ldquosheathrdquo as the mountain hawk-eagle folds its wings into

its taububane The mountain hawk-eaglersquos longest feathers the palrici are located in the

position of lanceolate feathers (P5-P6) and have the form of a knife Called ldquothe first rankrdquo

these are the most valuable feathers and are used in the head ornaments of the chieftains The

palrici are considered by the Rukai people to be the most honorable feathers and are also the

longest feathers with the highest barb count According to the Terdreka community palrici

means ldquoturnrdquo Being the longest feather it represents the greatest power in the community and

the ability to drive and transform the community and only the chieftains could wear this

feather Most of the Rukai people use feathers from both wings of the male mountain

hawk-eagles while the Karamemedisane plucks only palrici from the left wing of the male

mountain hawk-eagles The inner feather adjacent to palrici is called silu (P4) which means

ldquonecklacerdquo Silu is also referred to as mulrimulrithane which means ldquomost valuable glass

beadsrdquo It ranks third in terms of value and is thus called the ldquothe third rankrdquo When glass

beads are missing from the betrothal gifts they can be replaced by silu Next to silu (P4) is

lrabu (P3) which ranks fourth in terms of value and is called the ldquothe fourth rankrdquo When

there was a conflict between a community and other families a headhunting warrior could

wear lrabu and the valuable palrici Terdreka headhunting warriors could wear mountain

hawk-eagle feathers in their hair as a symbol of their heroic deeds


97

432 Secondary feathers (S1-S10)

The Rukai do not attach much significance to round-shaped secondary feathers (S1-S10)

and call them siapakepake In the Adiri community there is a particular type of secondary

feather called the kasilu which means ldquopearlrdquo In the past the kasilu could only be worn by

chieftains and nobles The feather closest to the eaglersquos body is called panasingisingi All

mountain hawk-eagle feathers are called adisi in the Rukai language but lumu by the Auba

community The Vutai and the Karamemedisane consider the round blunt feathers (secondary

feathers S10-P4) to be palrici and the lanceolate feathers (primary feathers P10-P5) to be

kalisekesane

433 Number of worn feathers

In the Rukai culture the number of mountain hawk-eagle feathers that people can wear

depends on their class The highest-ranking chieftain of the Kudrengere can wear three

feathers the secondary chieftain can wear two feathers and nobles can only wear one The

chieftain can choose how many feathers to wear according to his preference Family members

who are no longer a part of the highest-ranking chieftainrsquos immediate family can only wear

inner or secondary feathers The Kucapungane people usually wear two feathers in V-shaped

arrangement while a headhunting warrior wears only one palrici The number of mountain

hawk-eagle feathers worn by Kucapungane people ranges from one to three The most

common combination is one long feather and two short feathers An elder from the

Kucapungane said that in the past chieftains wore one feather to indicate their identity and

did not need to wear more The Labwane do not have any protocols regarding the number of

feathers to wear In earlier times one feather was sufficient and a maximum of two small

feathers could be added to the side Multiple feathers were not necessary as one feather

already signified the honorable position held by a community member The highest-ranking

chieftain in Kinulane used to wear one feather However in order to distinguish chieftains and

nobles from individuals who wore feathers yet disregarded traditional protocols the

community decided that the highest-ranking chieftain would wear three feathers the nobles

would wear two feathers and are prohibited from wearing palrici feathers

In Vutai the highest-ranking and secondary chieftains and the nobles wear different

numbers of feathers The highest-ranking chieftain can wear two to three feathers whereas


98

noble families that branched off from the chieftainrsquos family can only wear one feather and

distant relatives and marginal nobles cannot wear any feathers According to a hunter from

Vutai chieftains wear feathers with different barb counts depending on their position those

with higher position can wear feathers with more barbs One mountain hawk-eagle feather has

a maximum of nine barbs the number of which is smaller in shorter feathers The class of

chieftains and nobles can be determined based on the barb count in the feathers they wear

In Adiri the highest-ranking chieftain can wear three feathers secondary chieftains can wear

two feathers and lower-class nobles can wear one The right to wear palrici is restricted to the

highest-ranking chieftain other chieftains and nobles are not allowed to wear palrici

5 Changes in the use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers

In Rukai society only the highest-ranking chieftains and headhunters used to have the

rights and privileges to wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers However nowadays mountain

hawk-eagle feathers are not regarded as sacred as they used to be With the loss of chieftainrsquos

power due to the disintegration of traditional social structure increase of marriages between

different ethnicities rise of commoners and the influence of the market economy more and

more ordinary tribal members have begun to wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers Apart from

the raedre (highest-ranking chieftains) secondary tertiary and even marginal nobles began to

wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers without regard to traditional protocol and this has led to

class confusion As a result the use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers has become increasingly

common

51 Disintegration of social class structure

In the old days traditional norms in Rukai tribal communities were followed strictly

Each community was akin to a nation-state Chieftains possessed the power to govern and was

endowed with a substantial ability to lead the community In addition to inherited land rights

chieftains could wear rare adornments and head ornaments Hsu (1987) indicated that

community members shared captured animals with their community In addition captured

wild boars were first shown to the elders chieftains and hunters within the community after

which these individuals would then decide whether the hunter was qualified to wear a lily for


99

the achievement

When making traditional clothing commoners needed to receive approval from the

chieftains to proceed If a community member wore something that did not correspond to his

or her status he or she could be reprimanded by the community In a traditional Rukai society

disapproving communal chatter is the best form of punishment as it is difficult for indigenous

peoples to live their lives in a community when public opinion turns against them However

the power of public opinion and punishments has been declining resulting in the failure to

enforce community norms and protocols

The disintegration of the traditional structure of chieftains and social class has caused

gradual changes in the Rukai culture Nowadays totems representing chieftains can be seen

engraved by the houses of low-class nobles in Rukai communities More and more people are

wearing mountain hawk-eagle feathers publicly These phenomena which run contrary to

traditional protocols are indicative of the transformation of the traditional concept of social

classes The main reasons for the disentitlement of the chieftain position include the

intervention of external political power and the influence of national policies particularly

traditional social structure was greatly affected by a directive prohibiting tribute to chieftains

enforced during the Japanese colonial rule

In olden times commoners farmed and hunted in exchange for the chieftainrsquos allocation

of land and privileges but this relationship ended under the Japanese directives Chieftains

who were not familiar with labor activities needed to forego their privileges and sell their land

to commoners in exchange for daily necessities (Hsu 1991 22) Land survey performed under

Kuomintangrsquos policy led to land privatization which further reduced commonersrsquo willingness

to pay tribute to chieftains Moreover with the introduction of local self-governance elections

after World War II the community power structure went through drastic changes The election

system was established by the Taiwanese government after the 1950s and led to many

commoners being elected as political leaders of the community As a result traditional

chieftains immediately lost their societal function and their power was transferred to the

officials elected by the people Additionally with the changing economy chieftains now need

to engage in production in order to earn their living Chieftains from many Rukai

communities said that there is currently no difference between chieftains and commoners and


100

that all of them need to work in order to survive Thus chieftains need to compete with

commoners for job opportunities and this change has put an end to the traditional society

where upper and lower classes existed With the loss of the chieftainrsquos power lower-class

nobles began to wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers which was originally worn only by

chieftains As chieftains cannot restrict their peoplersquos behavior the wearing of mountain

hawk-eagle feather became increasingly widespread

52 Community marriage frequency and popularity

An Oponoho elder said that in the past the community did not hold mountain

hawk-eagles feathers in high regard but with the growing number of marriages between

communities the wearing of mountain hawk-eagle feathers as a custom was integrated into

the Oponoho culture in order to adapt to the betrothal gift requirements As a result more

people began to wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers The Oponoho is a small community in

which marriages between different social classes are common thus most people in the

community are related to the aristocratic bloodlines meaning that more and more people have

been wearing mountain hawk-eagle feathers

This phenomenon can also be observed in other Rukai communities Particularly the

forming of relations between commoners and nobles through intra- or inter-community

marriages is common among the western Rukai The tradition of wearing mountain

hawk-eagle feathers is also present in the Paiwan community neighboring the Rukai Many

Paiwan and Rukai peoples are related by marriage which links the offspring of many

lower-class nobles and commoners in Rukai communities to aristocratic bloodlines and

thereby granting them the right to wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers Due to the

popularization of such class movement the use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers is no longer

restricted to chieftains and nobles

53 Market demand for mountain hawk-eagle feathers

In former times chieftains married only those who shared a similar status and there were

no issues related to the right to wear mountain hawk-eagle feathers With the recent

weakening of the social class system many chieftains marry commoners lower-class nobles

and Han Chinese who then purchase mountain hawk-eagle feathers in order to present them


101

as betrothal gifts As a result the market demand for mountain hawk-eagle feathers has

increased

Currently the most valuable primary mountain hawk-eagle feathers cost NT$40000

(approximately US$1300) and the cheapest secondary feathers cost NT$8000

(approximately US$260) while a male wild boar costs only NT$15000 (approximately

US$488) Hence mountain hawk-eagle feathers are more expensive than wild boars and are

more valuable on the market Faced with a business opportunity more and more hunters and

arts and crafts stores sell feathers of the captured mountain hawk-eagles Commoners with

better economic capability hope to improve their social status by wearing mountain

hawk-eagle feathers and chieftains and nobles try to distinguish their honorable status by

wearing more mountain hawk-eagle feathers These incentives have indirectly determined the

increase in mountain hawk-eagle hunting (Sun 2007 2010)

6 Results

The 52 interviewees who participated in this study owned mountain hawk-eagle feathers

18 participants received mountain hawk-eagle feathers as a present from other people 21

participants purchased their feathers 25 people inherited their feathers 11 people obtained

feathers from mountain hawk-eagles that they had hunted Among the 21 participants who

purchased their feathers 16 people bought theirs in art stores two from street vendors one

from a hunter one from a neighboring community and the last one from the relatives Clearly

the majority (762) of those who bought mountain hawk-eagle feathers purchased them

from arts and crafts stores

Regarding buyer motivations 10 people bought feathers for their spouses when they got

married 12 participants (324) used feathers when their children got married Four

participants used feathers in religious festivals Four participants bought new feathers to

replace old feathers Four participants used feathers in their rites of passage to adulthood

Three people bought new feathers to replace damaged ones Evidently mountain hawk-eagle

feathers were most likely to be purchased as a betrothal gift for their childrenrsquos marriage

(324) Furthermore according to 42 out of the 52 participants the way mountain


102

hawk-eagle feathers were utilized in recent years has changed comparing to past usage five

people suggested that the way feathers were used has not changed five participants did not

give a clear answer 29 out of the 42 people supported the traditional use of the mountain

hawk-eagle feathers accounting for 56 of all the interviewees Among them 22 people were

concerned that the overuse of the feathers may lead to the extinction of the mountain

hawk-eagles

Concerning the acceptance of imitation feathers 28 out of the 52 participants accounting

for 538 of all the interviewees were ready to accept imitation feathers 14 people were not

ready to wear artificial mountain hawk-eagle feathers six participants believed that imitation

feathers were not symbolic enough to replace the genuine feathers four did not offer an

opinion on this issue With regard to establishing a mountain hawk-eagle feather repository

administered by the government 32 participants (615) expressed their support and

willingness to stop purchasing feathers Five maintained that they would continue to purchase

feathers while 15 did not provide their opinion in this matter 40 participants (769) believed

that the government should allow tribal members to apply for mountain hawk-eagle feathers

during wedding preparation process and 29 (558) reasoned that such applications must be

honored for religious festivals In addition 22 (423) held that access to mountain

hawk-eagle feathers should be allowed when an old feather becomes damaged Based on the

study we can deduce that the need for the mountain hawk-eagle feathers for weddings (769)

is the primary concern among indigenous peoples as indicated in Table 1

Table 1 Results of the Interview

Variable N ()

1 Source (Multiple Responses Allowed)

Inheritance 25 (481)

Given by others 18 (346)

Own capture 11 (212)

Personal purchase 21 (404)

Arts and crafts stores 16 (762)


103

Street vendors 2 (95)

Hunter 1 (48)

Nearby tribal communities 1 (48)

Relatives purchase from 1 (48)

2 Purchase Motivation

Childrenrsquos marriage 12 (324)

Marriage 10 (270)

Religious festivals 4 (108)

Old-feather replacement 4 (108)

Childrenrsquos rites of passage 4 (108)

Damaged-feather replacement 3 (81)

3 Feather Usage

Different from past 42 (808)

Same as before 5 (96)

Unclear 5 (96)

4 Acceptance of Imitation Feather

Willing to accept 28 (538)

Will not wear 14 (269)

Not representative 6 (115)

No opinion 4 (77)

5 If set up Eagle Feather Repository

Will no longer buy feathers 32 (615)

Will continue to buy feathers 5 (156)

No comment 15 (469)

6 Occasion for Hawk-Eagle Feather Repository

Application

At the time of the wedding 40 (769)

Festival 29 (558)



104

61 Conflicts with current regulations

Despite increasing hunting pressure on mountain hawk-eagles numerous contradictions

lie within current government decree and efforts on conservation For instance in 1989 the

government implemented the Wildlife Conservation Act which stipulated measures in order

to promote wildlife conservation However taking traditional use of the wildlife in indigenous

communities into consideration Article 21-1 of the Act was added in 2004 The amendment

stipulated that with the approval from authorities specified quantities of certain wildlife

species ldquomay be hunted or killed by indigenous peoples based on traditional cultural or ritual

needsrdquo at designated times locations and using specific methods

The Council of Agriculture and Council of Indigenous Peoples also announced the

ldquoRegulations on Indigenous Peoplesrsquo Traditional Cultural and Ritual Hunting Killing and

Utilization Needs of Wildliferdquo in 2012 which contained a detailed table of time location

method and species The regulations also designated certain cities and counties as

administrative agencies responsible for reviewing and authorizing the species and quantities

to be hunted Although the government intends to regulate indigenous hunting activities the

law does not explicitly prohibit mountain hawk-eagles from being listed on the hunting permit

application Masalut (annual Millet Festival) and Maleveq (Quinquennial Festival) of the

Paiwan Kalalisiyan (annual Harvest Festival) among the Western Rukai Molapangolai

(annual ceremony commemorating ancestral spirits) of the Oponoho Tsatsapipianu (annual

Millet Harvest Festival) of the Kongadavange etc are on the list of occasions when

mountain hawk-eagles could be included in the hunting permit application Other wildlife

may include Reevesrsquo muntjac goat red deer wild boar bat macaques etc

A chieftain from Kucapungane remarked that indigenous peoples continue to believe that

mountain hawk-eagle hunting must not be encouraged and hunters who capture mountain

hawk-eagles must not be honored with the right to wear a lily Regulatory exemptions

illustrated here fully highlighted the contradiction and inconsistency of governmental

emphasis on wildlife conservation and the legislative sanctioning of indigenous cultural

rights


105

62 Acceptance of the imitation feathers among communities and mountain hawk-eagle feather repository suggestions

Although there is still a demand for the use of mountain hawk-eagle feathers in the

traditional customs and rituals of the Rukai communities it is an indisputable fact that the

number of mountain hawk-eagles has declined In this study we used the American National

Eagle Repository as an example to suggest the imitation feathers to understand their attitude

towards the establishment of the mountain hawk-eagle feather repository and the use of the

imitation feathers The hope for a balance between cultural practices and the mountain

hawk-eagle conservation remains

In the United States the image of the eagle feathers is immediately associated with

Native Americans They honor and respect eagles because eagles are considered to symbolize

certain characteristics such as honesty truth majesty courage wisdom strength and

freedom For all these reasons wearing or receiving eagle feathers in many Native American

cultures is considered the hallmark of great honor

Many Native American tribal members wear eagle feathers in rituals and ceremonial

dances just as the Rukai do in Taiwan The United States restricted the seizing transporting

selling or bartering of bald or golden eagles without a permit by passing the Bald and Golden

Eagle Protection Act in 1940 After the passage of the act tribal members had no access to

feathers or other parts of the raptors required for certain religious and cultural activities

which led to a serious impact on the Native American culture (Ross and Gould 2016) In the

1970s at the request of Native Americans the US Fish and Wildlife Service set up the

National Eagle Repository in recognition of the cultural significance of these feathers to

Native Americans After meeting with 300 tribal leaders at the White House President Bill

Clinton signed an executive memorandum in 1994 that reformed the repository and obliged

all federal agencies to send dead eagles to the repository The National Eagle Repository is

operated and managed under the Office of Law Enforcement of the United States Fish and

Wildlife Service severing as the central location for the receipt storage and distribution of

bald and golden eagles that have been found dead Eagles and eagle parts are available only to

Native Americans enrolled in federally recognized tribes for use in religious and cultural

ceremonies This approach is to ensure the survival of the eagles on the one hand and the


106

continuation of the Indian culture on the other and the balanced approach between

conservation of eagles and the protection of culture may be the model that the Taiwanese

government could consider

According to the study more than half of the participants accepted the suggestions of the

feather repository The Adiri chieftain maintained that the establishment of a mountain

hawk-eagle feather repository would relieve people from the need to purchase feathers and

was therefore considering Nevertheless the chieftain suggested that Rukai communities must

find a way to reinvigorate mountain hawk-eagle feather wearing protocols in order to avoid

the loss of their traditional culture The interviewee also accepted the idea of selling imitation

feathers in arts and crafts stores as the main objective is to pass on the mountain hawk-eagle

culture Moreover the Adiri chieftain hoped that Taiwanrsquos wildlife can be conserved with all

due consideration given to indigenous rituals and cultures and that there would be a channel

for applications to use mountain hawk-eagle feathers The chieftain also suggested that it

would be better if mountain hawk-eagle feathers were cut rather than plucked In the case of

short feathers substitutes can be searched for The Adiri chieftain also agreed that in the future

people could apply for feathers and submit their applications to a mountain hawk-eagle

feather repository established by the government

The Kucapungane chieftain suggested that the acceptance of the imitation feathers

among indigenous peoples would depend on the situation The authenticity of the betrothal

gifts for the weddings is very important and their value is often assessed by people who

specialize in this area Furthermore the use of the imitation feathers would constitute a breach

of tradition However wearing imitation feathers in public would not be a serious issue and

the establishment of a mountain hawk-eagle feather repository should be feasible In the

future indigenous peoples may use imitation feathers during festivals and submit applications

to the repository to obtain feathers for weddings

The chair of the Kongadavange Community Development Association suggested that in

the future mountain hawk-eagles captured alive should be sent to a mountain hawk-eagle

shelter feathers naturally shed by mountain hawk-eagles may be then registered and applied

for by communities Many participants believed that the application process must first be

piloted to establish proper regulations in order to avoid disputes A hunter from Vutai said that


107

the government must introduce a reward system in order to incentivize people to send

mountain hawk-eagles to the shelter Most interviewees accepted the idea of a mountain

hawk-eagle feather repository believing that the imitation feathers could be worn in public

while feathers for betrothal gifts could be obtained through the repository

Presently some communities are gradually reintroducing traditional practices regarding

lilies and mountain hawk-eagle feathers and are attempting to stipulate the quantity of feathers

to be worn Vutai has a ldquoTraditional Customs Improvement Committeerdquo that oversees the

commercial behavior of its tribal members The committee is supported by the people and is

gradually becoming the official channel through which community consensus is formed The

Terdreka people established a school for hunters and formed the ldquoPurple-spotted Butterfly

Conservation Committeerdquo in order to promote ecotourism environmental education and

natural habitat restoration Approximately 60 of the chieftains and elders interviewed in this

study suggested that young people should be introduced to traditional hunting culture through

education They also recommended that the government should assist in the promotion of

eagle-watching and birdwatching activities as a substitute for eagle hunting Forest schools

could be established to introduce traditional knowledge and taboos Participants also

suggested that an expansion of ecotourism for community economic development and the

promotion of natural resources and perpetuation of traditional culture to be established

7 Discussion

Sun (2007 2010) conducted surveys on illegal mountain hawk-eagle hunting in

Kaohsiung Pingtung and Taitung in order to investigate the hunting pressure exerted by

hunters on mountain hawk-eagles Sunrsquos research indicated that hunting culture had changed

with time food consumption is no longer the only purpose of hunting and it has thus become

increasingly commercialized The annual number of mountain hawk-eagles captured

increased substantially in 2000 Due to a growing unemployment rate that forced indigenous

peoples working outside their communities to return home the number of hunters in the

mountains increased These hunters were unfamiliar with traditional hunting knowledge and

culture which resulted in ignorance toward certain taboos and ethical norms The inability to


108

adhere to traditional hunting practices caused a reduction in the mountain hawk-eaglersquos

population However more research can be conducted to ascertain the direct effect of

indigenous hunting on the shrinking population of the mountain hawk-eagle

The culprit of the mountain hawk-eagle population decline cannot be attributed entirely

to the feather culture of the indigenous peoples The destruction of the natural habitat and the

existing low fertility rate of this species are also likely factors contributing to the sharp

decline in number For a long time Taiwanrsquos mountainous regions have been subjected to

continuous human development and agricultural reclamation resulting in serious damage to

the habitat of the mountain hawk-eagle and other wildlife In addition mother mountain

hawk-eagle produces an average of one egg per year and eaglets have only 40 survival rate

The low-breeding condition is another probable cause of the decline in the number of

mountain hawk-eagles (Sun 2007)

According to Linrsquos research on traditional crops of the Rukai (Lin 2017) millet is an

important food source for small predators About 80 of the mature millet in Rukai fields was

consumed by people but 20 also became a food source for small bird species and rodents

The most notable example is the mountain sparrow which appears most frequently during the

ripening period of the Rukai millet thereby forming a symbiotic relationship among millet

mountain sparrow and the Rukai in the mountainous areas In the past the area of millet

planted by the Rukai with an average of about 3 hectares and communities with a large

population such as Kucapungane and Vutai there would be a relatively high area of millet

cultivation in a single season forming a larger millet production area providing a source for

small bird brooding and small mammal food Therefore for large predators such as black

kites and mountain hawk-eagles seasonal millet production sites often become an important

hunting ground Over the past 40 years due to changes in the economy the migration of

indigenous populations and the aging of the agricultural labor force the area of millet

cultivation in indigenous townships reduced by nearly 6000 hectares Only Pingtung County

has been less than 20 hectares since the steep drop of nearly 2000 hectares that year with an

average planting area of less than 1 hectare per household As a result the ecosystem formed

by the symbiotic relationship between millet and mountain sparrows is difficult to sustain

resulting in a sharp decline in the number of the mountain hawk-eagle due to lack of food


109

sources

Currently the government is the only authority for indigenous peoples to submit their

hunting applications The key issue to explore here is how authorities determine which species

and the quantity may be hunted Are local authorities able to make such determination

According to Article VI of the Regulations on Traditional Cultural and Ritual Hunting Killing

and the Utilization Needs of Taiwan Indigenous Peoples promulgated in 2012 authorities

must refer to the current data on wildlife resources and the actual number of species and

quantity hunted in the previous year under their jurisdiction However are local governments

able to examine the conditions of wildlife resources within the area of their jurisdiction Is

there currently an institution or individual in Taiwan that has the capacity to monitor the

wildlife resources in the manner stipulated in the Regulations on an island-wide basis or

within a specific traditional indigenous territory

In order to determine the allowable quantity of a wild animal for hunting the spatial

distribution quantity time dynamics social structure and reproductive potential of that

particular species must be taken into consideration to predict the changes in its population

after the hunting season Particularly the inclusion of species in the wildlife conservation list

must indicate that it is in danger of extinction and its population must be precisely controlled

How can quantities be determined if resource status and dynamics cannot be assessed Why is

it that the distribution and the quantity of wildlife species as well as their population structure

and dynamics have not yet been regularly and systematically monitored in Taiwan How can

species and the quantity of such species be determined if this is the case These questions

reveal the missing links in the governmentrsquos promotion of conservation measures

In fact the destruction of habitats is the most important issue for preservation From the

long-term interaction between the indigenous peoples and the land whether in hunting

collecting fishing or farming indigenous peoples if only for basic needs do not pose a threat

to the environment But from the point of view of the supply and demand of the economic

market indigenous peoples are nothing more than scapegoats for the vast majority of

consumers When we talk about ecological conservation we should not regard indigenous

peoples as the sole subject of this problem that is to say the work of ecological conservation

should be the responsibility of the whole society If we can plan for the development of a


110

sound regional economic system and in line with the unique traditional culture and ecological

philosophy of the indigenous peoples it is the fundamental way for conservation and culture

to coexist

8 Conclusions

The mountain hawk-eagle has a profound symbolism in the Rukai culture It is the

incarnation of the hundred-pacer (Deinagkistrodon acutus or sharp-nosed pit viper) as told in

Rukai creation stories passed down through oral traditions Only chieftains or warriors who

have gone on a headhunting expedition and returned with heads of the enemies could enjoy

the privilege of wearing mountain-hawk eagle feathers In the migration history of the Rukai

hundred-pacer is venerated for having guided their ancestors to their modern-day territory

Moreover mountain hawk-eagle feathers serve as significant betrothal gifts between families

of chieftains and at the same time signify the special status of chieftains and warriors in

funeral rites The Rukai do not eat mountain hawk-eagles customarily and members believe

that the act of violating this long-standing taboo will invoke the wrath of the deities

In recent times due to the disintegration of the traditional social structure hereditary

chieftains lack the power and influence to rectify the condition of tribal members who wear

feathers without abiding by relevant protocols Moreover because of the increased frequency

of marriages between noble families and commoners a greater number of tribal members

have become sanctioned to wear feathers thereby creating higher hunting pressure toward this

raptor

Of the 52 respondents we interviewed 481 of them inherited feathers from their

ancestors However the fact that many of them still purchased feathers in art stores shows an

increasing demand in business transactions nowadays comparing to the past Sunrsquos research

points out that hunting pressure is the main reason for the sharp decline in the number of

mountain hawk-eagles Therefore protective measures must be strictly enforced to prevent the

extinction of mountain hawk-eagles This paper argues that serious threat to mountain

hawk-eagles posed by hunting should not be ignored and nor should the rapid disappearance

of indigenous culture In order to achieve a win-win outcome for mountain hawk-eagles and


111

the indigenous culture we offer the following points of consideration and recommendations

pertaining to mountain hawk-eagle conservation and indigenous cultural preservation

First based on our interview results and the Rukai peoplersquos expectation they strongly

expressed their desire to restore tribal sovereignty Therefore we propose to strengthen the

mechanisms of self-government within the tribes so that traditional authority over the leaders

can play an important role in self-management Although every indigenous community

operates its own tribal council nowadays and mostly chaired by traditional leaders the

operation of councils becomes a matter of formality without the real authority and power in

self-governance Thus if the tribal council could receive legal authorization from the

government it could establish tribal conventions on the protection of the mountain

hawk-eagles for the Rukai people to comply

Second to strike a balance between the conservation efforts of the mountain hawk-eagle

and the preservation of the Rukai lifeways the community may proactively invite tribal

community representatives scholars and experts from different disciplines to establish a

resource co-management committee with legitimate authority and negotiate the use and

conservation of mountain hawk-eagles Tribal chieftains elders and hunters are considered

key stakeholders in the co-management committee or task force and ought to be invited to

participate and contribute to the legislative process In addition relevant norms should be

established under the premise of cultural continuity the wisdom experience and skills of

local people should be relied on to support conservation efforts Indigenous peoplesrsquo

willingness to participate is an indispensable element for successful conservation measures of

mountain hawk-eagles as some scholars have indicated that the traditional ecological

knowledge of indigenous peoples could contribute to the conservation and the management of

natural resources (Berkes 1999 Gadgil et al 1993 Inglis 1993)

Third the issues of indigenous self-governance and conservation are currently important

topics The Wutai Township could be an ideal pilot site to identify the empirical basis for a

successful indigenous self-governance model and to launch a natural resource co-management

task force The reason is that the population in the Wutai Township is ethnically homogenous

with the Rukai people accounting for 98 of it Moreover the level of the overlapping land

use in the Wutai Township is low providing high management function to its lands in the


112

future In addition the Assembly of the Rukai was established in 2017 and covers 16 Rukai

communities while its membership includes traditional leaders elders political elites

community cadres youth representatives and so on There will be positive effects on building

local consensus promoting co-operation with the government and promoting conservation

Fourth many participants in our study believed that young people should be introduced

to traditional hunting culture and taboos through an education process We suggest that a joint

effort between the authorities and tribal communities be launched to promote an

eagle-watching program as an alternative to mountain hawk-eagle hunting The joint effort

should also consider the feasibility of establishing hunter schools in order to promote

traditional ecological knowledge Ecotourism should also be developed to pave the way for

more economic development opportunities and to promote mountain hawk-eagle

conservation and cultural continuity In fact it has been successful in the Wutai Township for

making young people an important force in conservation The Mountain Forest Patrol (MFP)

project in the Wutai Township began in 2010 after Typhoon Morakot and has been well

recognized after several years of implementation Its duties include not only ecological

monitoring but also the protection of traditional cultural sites and the maintenance of

ecological resources Through this project young people in the Wutai area can improve their

handling of illegal incidents and curb illegal entry to ensure the safety and integrity of

traditional territories At the same time the capacity of digital processing can be strengthened

to systematically and scientifically calibrate record and preserve information about old

settlements water sources archaeological sites animals plants and precious tree species in

territories (Taiban et al 2015) If the work of MFP could be extended to the protection of the

eagles it would certainly greatly improve the effectiveness of the preservation

Finally we further suggest that the government and the Assembly of Rukai could model

a joint-initiative towards the conservation of mountain hawk-eagles For example the

government could set up a mountain hawk-eagle feather repository in the Wutai Township

which would provide collected feathers for residents to apply for use Moreover the

government could work with tribal members to design and provide imitation feathers that

residents could wear at weddings or important celebrations Such initiatives may reduce

membersrsquo desire to hunt mountain hawk-eagles indirectly contributing to the conservation


113

efforts With the smaller population designating the Wutai Township as a pilot site might

achieve some tangible results within a short period of time while providing operational

models for natural resource co-management and effective conservation strategies in the future

The hunting pressure on the mountain hawk-eagles is beyond imagination but it involves

the traditional practice of wearing eagle feathers by the Rukai people so it is by no means that

the forest police should be asked to step up their law enforcement efforts to solve the problem

In fact we believe that the mountain hawk-eagle conservation and the traditional culture can

coexist by implementing strategies such as setting quotas applying for capture permits before

weddings or celebrations educating hunters to use minimum-injury-prone catch methods to

mitigate cases of injury acquiring feathers and transferring them to respective institutions

waiting for eagle feathers to mature and only harvest naturally-shed ones As for how feathers

are distributed who could wear them and who could not or how to rent feathers it is up to the

tribal councils to decide

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our deep gratitude to the informants for their ardent hospitality

and generous information on the mountain hawk-eagle during the fieldwork which is indeed

the key to the successful completion of this study At the same time we thank Tse-chi Yen for

providing English vocabulary amendments to make the meaning of this document clearer and

easier to understand In addition we would like to thank De-fang Yu Yu-cing Ke Yong-kun

Huang and Hsin-ju Wu for their efforts in collecting data during the research Finally we

thank the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Republic of China (Taiwan) for

financially supporting this work under Contract No MOST 104-2410-H-214 -001-MY2

Notes

1 The mountain hawk-eagle (Nisaetus nipalensis) is a large diurnal raptor that mainly

lives in the forest It currently is distributed throughout China Taiwan and other south

Asian countries such as Bhutan and India


114

2 ldquoMulnimulrithanerdquo is the most valuable glass bead in Rukai society and only the

highest chieftain can own it

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1987 You she hui jie ji kan yi shu hang wei yu yi shi zai jiao huan ti xi zhong de di wei

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地位以好茶村魯凱族為例〉) [The Position of Artistic Behaviors and Rituals in

the Exchange System from the Social Class Perspective A Case Study of the

Kucapungane] Zhong yang yan jiu yuan min zu xue yan jiu suo ji kan (《中央研究

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1991 Lu kai zu de wen hua yu yi shu (《魯凱族的文化與藝術》) [Rukai Culture and Arts]

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Hu Tai-li (胡台麗)

2011 Pai wan wen hua de quan shi (《排灣文化的詮釋》) [The Interpretation of Paiwan

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Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S

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of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed

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Kadresengan Auvini (奧威尼bull卡露斯盎)

1996 Yun bao de chuan ren（《雲豹的傳人》）[Successors of clouded leopard] Taipei

Chen Xing chu ban she (晨星出版社) [Morningstar Publishing]

Kojima Yoshimichi and Yasuyoshi Kobayashi (小島由道小林保祥)


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2004 [1922] Fan zu guan xi diao cha bao gao shu di wu juan pai wan zu di san ce (《番族

慣習調查報告書第五卷「排灣族」第三冊》) [An Investigation of the Customs of

the Aborigines in Taiwan Vol 5 ldquoPaiwanrdquo Part Ⅲ] Jiang Bin (蔣斌編) [Bien

Chiang ed)] Taipei Zhong yang yan jiu yuan min zu xue yan jiu suo (中央研究院

民族學研究所) [Institute of Ethnology Academia Sinica]

Lawrence Elizabeth Atwood

1990 Symbol of a Nation The Bald Eagle in American Culture Journal of American

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1969 The Raw and the Cooked J Weightman and D Weightman trans New York

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Lin Zhi-zhong（林志忠）

2017 Shi jie zhong yao nong ye wen hua yi chan Lu kai zu xiao mi wen hua sheng tai

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Lin Kun-hai (林昆海)

2000 Yuan zhu min shou lie wen hua yu xiong ying de ming yun (〈原住民狩獵文化與熊

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2011 Feathers Fasting and the Eagle Complex A Contemporary Analysis of the Eagle as

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1999 Ethnoecology Situated KnowledgeLocated Lives Tucson University of Arizona

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1990 Governing the Commons The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action

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Pan Li-fu (潘立夫)

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1971 Fa wan Yi ge pai wan zu bu luo de min zu xue tian ye diao cha bao gao (〈筏灣一

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Academia Sinica Special Issue] 21


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Sivaramakrishnan Kalyanakrishnan

1999 Modern Forests Statemaking and Environmental Change in Colonial Eastern India

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2001 On the Coevolution of Cultural Linguistic and Biological Diversity In On

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Maffi ed Pp 95-117 Washington DC Smithsonian Institution Press

Sun Yuan-hsun (孫元勳)

2007 Nan bei da wu shan di qu xiong ying zu qun jian ce yu lie bu ya li (〈南北大武山地

區熊鷹族群監測與獵捕壓力〉) [Mountain hawk-eagle population monitoring and

hunting pressure in the Tamu Mountain] Xing zheng yuan nong wei hui lin wu ju

bao yu yan jiu (《行政院農委會林務局保育研究》) [Executive Yuan Forestry

Bureau Conservation Research] No 94-02

2010 He shi jiao ying sheng tai diao cha Bei ping dong ji gao xiong xian di qu (〈赫氏角

鷹生態調查北屏東及高雄縣地區〉) [Mountain hawk eagle ecological survey of

North Pingtung and Kaohsiung counties] Pingtung Xing zheng yuan nong wei hui

lin wu ju ping dong lin qu guan li chu (《行政院農委會林務局屏東林區管理處》)

[Executive Yuan Forestry Bureau Forestry Administration]

Taiban Sasala

2006 The Lost Lily State Sociocultural Change and the Decline of Hunting Culture in

Kaochapogan Taiwan PhD dissertation Department of Anthropology University

of Washington

Taiban Sasala Kurtis Pei Dau-jye Lu and Hwa-sheng Gau

2015 Disaster and Cultural Revitalization The Practice of Community-based

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Wu Yan-he (吳燕和)

1993 Tai dong tai ma li xi liu yu de dong pai wan ren (〈台東太麻里溪流域的東排灣人〉)


121

[East Paiwan people in the river basin in TaimAdiri Taitung] Zhong yang yan jiu

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Ethnology Academia Sinica Assembly] Vol 7

Yang Zung-we (楊宗瑋)

2004 Yu mao de rong yao yu ai chou (〈羽毛的榮耀與哀愁〉) [Feather Honor and

Sorrow] Zhong hua fei yu (《中華飛羽》) [Chinese Wild Bird Association] 17 4-7


122

Appendix

Appendix 1 Community Name Comparison Table

Rukai Chinese Ethnic Group

Paridrayan Tashe Paiwan

Kuljaljau Gulou Paiwan

Tarumak Dongxing Rukai

Vutai Wutai Rukai

Kabalelradhane Shenshan Rukai

Labwane Tawu Rukai

Karamemedisane Jiamu Rukai

Adiri Ali Rukai

Kinulane Jilou Rukai

Kudrengere Guchuan Rukai

Auba Qingye Rukai

Kucapungane Haocha Rukai

Laladengane Meiyuan Rukai

Terdreka Maolin Rukai

Oponoho Wanshan Rukai

Kongadavange Duona Rukai

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HEB 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HRV (Za stvaranje Adobe PDF dokumenata najpogodnijih za visokokvalitetni ispis prije tiskanja koristite ove postavke Stvoreni PDF dokumenti mogu se otvoriti Acrobat i Adobe Reader 50 i kasnijim verzijama) HUN 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 ITA 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ltFEFF9ad854c18cea306a30d730ea30d730ec30b951fa529b7528002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020658766f8306e4f5c6210306b4f7f75283057307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a30674f5c62103055308c305f0020005000440046002030d530a130a430eb306f3001004100630072006f0062006100740020304a30883073002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e003000204ee5964d3067958b304f30533068304c3067304d307e305930023053306e8a2d5b9a306b306f30d530a930f330c8306e57cb30818fbc307f304c5fc59808306730593002gt KOR ltFEFFc7740020c124c815c7440020c0acc6a9d558c5ec0020ace0d488c9c80020c2dcd5d80020c778c1c4c5d00020ac00c7a50020c801d569d55c002000410064006f0062006500200050004400460020bb38c11cb97c0020c791c131d569b2c8b2e4002e0020c774b807ac8c0020c791c131b41c00200050004400460020bb38c11cb2940020004100630072006f0062006100740020bc0f002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e00300020c774c0c1c5d0c11c0020c5f40020c2180020c788c2b5b2c8b2e4002egt LTH 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maken die zijn geoptimaliseerd voor prepress-afdrukken van hoge kwaliteit De gemaakte PDF-documenten kunnen worden geopend met Acrobat en Adobe Reader 50 en hoger) NOR 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 POL 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 PTB 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 RUM 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 RUS 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 SKY ltFEFF0054006900650074006f0020006e006100730074006100760065006e0069006100200070006f0075017e0069007400650020006e00610020007600790074007600e100720061006e0069006500200064006f006b0075006d0065006e0074006f0076002000410064006f006200650020005000440046002c0020006b0074006f007200e90020007300610020006e0061006a006c0065007001610069006500200068006f0064006900610020006e00610020006b00760061006c00690074006e00fa00200074006c0061010d00200061002000700072006500700072006500730073002e00200056007900740076006f00720065006e00e900200064006f006b0075006d0065006e007400790020005000440046002000620075006400650020006d006f017e006e00e90020006f00740076006f00720069016500200076002000700072006f006700720061006d006f006300680020004100630072006f00620061007400200061002000410064006f00620065002000520065006100640065007200200035002e0030002000610020006e006f0076016100ed00630068002egt SLV 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 SUO 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 SVE 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 TUR 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 UKR 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PreserveEditing true UntaggedCMYKHandling LeaveUntagged UntaggedRGBHandling UseDocumentProfile UseDocumentBleed false gtgt ]gtgt setdistillerparamsltlt HWResolution [2400 2400] PageSize [612000 792000]gtgt setpagedevice


86

誰的羽毛魯凱族熊鷹羽毛利用的變遷與衝突

台邦bull撒沙勒陳俊霖孫元勳

摘要

在魯凱族文化中熊鷹是極具代表性的猛禽族人認為熊鷹羽毛具有象徵性

權利的意義是部落頭目或重要人物的表徵近幾年野生動物保育意識高漲有

些學者認為原住民狩獵文化不合時宜有關單位必須正視原住民利用熊鷹羽毛導

致熊鷹瀕臨滅絕的事實因此呼籲加強執法杜絕熊鷹的獵捕本研究以民族生

態學及政治生態學的角度欲瞭解魯凱族使用熊鷹羽毛的文化及與保育的衝突

當中訪談了 52 位族人包括頭目獵人及社區幹部等等本研究發現魯凱族仍

然保有獵捕熊鷹的禁忌和倫理希望有關當局能與族人合作例如設置熊鷹羽毛

庫制定部落公約成立資源共管委員會設立獵人學校以及推展生態旅遊等

措施找出熊鷹保育和文化保存雙贏的途徑

關鍵詞熊鷹民族生態學政治生態學熊鷹羽毛庫仿真羽毛

國立中山大學社會學系教授通訊作者taibansasalagmailcom 國立屏東科技大學野生動物保育研究所碩士

國立屏東科技大學野生動物保育研究所教授


87

1 Introduction































88
































89




















resources

2 Literature Review









90
































91

















(Kadresengan 1996)











(Taiban 2006)




92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








87

1 Introduction































88
































89




















resources

2 Literature Review









90
































91

















(Kadresengan 1996)











(Taiban 2006)




92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








88
































89




















resources

2 Literature Review









90
































91

















(Kadresengan 1996)











(Taiban 2006)




92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








89




















resources

2 Literature Review









90
































91

















(Kadresengan 1996)











(Taiban 2006)




92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








90
































91

















(Kadresengan 1996)











(Taiban 2006)




92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








91

















(Kadresengan 1996)











(Taiban 2006)




92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








92










3 Research Methods
















93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








93
















94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








94




















feathers











95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








95



and clay pots













96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








96

43 Use of feathers































97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








97









kalisekesane























98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








98




















common










99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








99

the achievement































100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








100































101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








101


increased











6 Results

















102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








102






hawk-eagles
















Variable N ()








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








103


Hunter 1 (48)





Marriage 10 (270)





3 Feather Usage



Unclear 5 (96)





No opinion 4 (77)




No comment 15 (469)


Application


Festival 29 (558)



104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








104




























rights


105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








105































106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








106
































107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








107



















7 Discussion











108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








108
































109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








109

sources































110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








110



to coexist

8 Conclusions
















raptor










111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








111
































112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








112
































113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








113














Acknowledgements









Notes





114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








114



References Cited

Altieri Miguel A


Armitage Derek R







105751ES-00582-080101

Berkes Fikret







Brodt Sonja B



101023A1007147806213

Bryant Raymond L



115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








115

(Publishers) Ltd

Castetter Edward F


101086281182






Observing Society]

Conklin Harold C







Escobar Arturo








California Press




116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








116

Geertz Clifford


Books







105751ES-06288-180472




271-279 doi 1023071311675













York Verso



117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








117



101023A1008862005556








62 179-203






Publishing]

Hunn Eugene S



of Arizona Press

Inglis Julian T ed








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








118








Culture 13(1) 63-69 doi 101111j1542-734X19901301_63x



Harper amp Row












McNeely Jeffrey A



Merchant Carolyn ed


Murray Wendi Field


119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








119



doi 101179pan2011013



Press

Ostrom Elinor












Routledge doi 1043249780203286784




Shi Lei (石磊)







120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








120




Smith Eric A















Taiban Sasala



of Washington




Review 4(6) 213-226




121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








121








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai








122

Appendix






Vutai Wutai Rukai


Labwane Tawu Rukai


Adiri Ali Rukai



Auba Qingye Rukai







Documents

Whose Feathers? Changes and Conflicts in the Use …homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~anthro/download/journal/91-3.pdfJournal of Archaeology and Anthropology ‧91：85-122‧2019 88 research in