Whose voice is speaking?Source use in academic writing

Diane Pecorari

"If I have seen more than others, it is because I was standing on the shoulders of giants."

(usually attributed to Isaac Newton).

Whose voice is speaking?Academic texts make frequent reference to sources, and 'it is a conventional expectation among readers of all but the most playfully postmodern of Anglophone academic texts that it will be clear at any given point whose "voice" is "speaking" ' (Groom, 2000: 15).

Occlusion in source use

The relationship between a text and its sources (the "other voices") is ordinarily hidden (or occluded); the writer has a responsibility to make that relationship clear to the reader.

Transparency in source use

Using sources transparently means reporting sources so that the reader gets an accurate picture of the relationship between the source and the new text.

What should be transparent?

• the source (which text does this "other voice" come from?)

• the content (what did the source author really say?)

• the language (whose language is being used to report this idea?)

Content transparency

• Reporting what your source says accurately.

• Information can be left out as long as the original meaning is not distorted or changed.

Successful report of content

The source (Cheddar, 1995) says: There can be little doubt that the moon is

made of cheese, and mounting evidence indicates that the same may be true for Mercury.

A successful report: According to Cheddar (1995), the moon is

likely to consist of cheese.

Unsuccessful report of contentThe source (Cheddar, 1995) says: There can be little doubt that the moon is

made of cheese, and mounting evidence indicates that the same may be true for Mercury.

An unsuccessful report: According to Cheddar (1995) it is now certain

that the moon consists only of cheese.

Graciela: Watkins (1985) says that the main

contribution of PC may be . . .

Watkins: . . . the more specific contribution of

pastoral care is. . .

Source transparency

You make your source transparent by giving a reference or citation to the source that you have used.

Example

Cultural differences have been implicated in problems in interpersonal communication (Levy et al., 1997).

Note these words: citation=a place in a text where a source is

named. quotation=words repeated from another text.

Language transparency

Letting the reader see the relationship between the language of your source and the language of your text.

Quoting

Example: Many researchers believe that 'there are

situationally, generically, or stylistically preferred compositional forms' (Scollon, 1997: 352).

quote, quotation

Elements of a quotation

“there are . . . preferred compositional forms [which differ] from language to language”(Scollon, 1997: 352).

• quotation marks: open and close quotation• reference, including page number• (an ellipsis showing omitted language)• (brackets to show minor changes)

When to use quotation

• Rarely!• When the exact form of expression is

important.• Don’t use quotation simply because you

think you can't express the idea clearly: give yourself the chance to grow as a writer!

Unsuccessful quotation

Source (Cheddar, 1992, p. 74) It was once widely believed that the moon was

made of green cheese. Now, however, it is known to resemble cream cheese.

Report: According to Cheddar, it is "widely believed

that the moon is made of green cheese" (1992, p. 74)

Paraphrase

• is the "default option" (unless the writer signals a quotation, the reader understands the language to be original to the writer)

• involves an independent rewriting of an idea, fact, etc. from another text.

• does NOT mean substituting synonyms for key words!

Unsuccessful paraphrase

Source (Cheddar, 1992, p. 74) It was once widely believed that the moon was

made of green cheese. Now, however, it is known to resemble cream cheese.

Report: Cheddar (1992) states that it was once widely

believed that the moon was made of green cheese, while now it is known to look like cream cheese.

Why does transparency matter?

• Opaque source use deprives the writer of important benefits (e.g., support for ideas).

• Opaque source use deprives the reader of benefits (e.g. access to further information).

• Opaque source use can appear to be plagiarism.

What not to do:

• Don't focus on the mechanics, at the expense of content.

• Don't focus on avoiding problems; focus on writing a strong essay from sources.

Points to think about:

• In what way does each source help your text?

• What is the relationship between your source and your text?

• Is that relationship clear to your reader?• How do other writers use sources?• What information can you find about how to

use sources?• What does your lecturer say?

Source use in brief

• Academic writing is multi-voiced• The multi-voiced nature requires

transparency in source reporting• Three types of transparency: content,

language and source• Opaque (=not transparent) source use

weakens a text• Writing effectively from sources is a skill; it

takes time, practice and thought to master.

References• Groom, Nicholas (2000). Attribution and averral revisited: three

perspectives on manifest intertextuality in academic writing. In Thompson, Paul (Ed.) Patterns and Perspectives: Insights into EAP writing practice. Reading: Center for Applied Language Studies: 14-25.