WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity

WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity

A Message from the Director

July 1, 2003

Dear Educator,

Colorado is a unique and special place. With its vast prairies, high

mountains, deep canyons and numerous river headwaters, Colorado is

truly a crossroad of biodiversity that provides a rich environment for

abundant and diverse species of wildlife. Our rich wildlife heritage is

a source of pride for our citizens and can be an incredibly powerful

teaching tool in the classroom. To help teachers and students learn

about Colorado’s ecosystems and its wildlife, the Division of Wildlife

has prepared a set of ecosystem posters and this education guide.

Together they will provide an overview of the biodiversity of our state

as it applies to the eight major ecosystems of Colorado. This project

was funded in part by a Wildlife Conservation and Restoration

Program grant.

Sincerely,

Russell George, Director Colorado Division of Wildlife

For Wildlife –For People

1TA B L E O F CO N T E N T S

Table of Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Activity: Which Niche? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Grasslands Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Grasslands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Sage Shrublands Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Sagebrush Shrublands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Montane Shrublands Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Montane Shrublands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

Piñon-Juniper Woodland Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Piñon-Juniper Woodland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Montane Forests Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Montane Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Subalpine Forests Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

Subalpine Forests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Alpine Tundra Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

Treeline and Alpine Tundra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Activity: The Edge of Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Riparian Poster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Aquatic Ecosystems, Riparian Areas, and Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Activity: Wetland Metaphors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

References and Field Identification Manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

This book was written by Wendy Hanophy and Harv Teitelbaum with illustrations by Marjorie Leggitt and paintings by Paul Gray. Book design and printing by the State of Colorado Integrated Document Factory.

Colorado Division of Wildlife, Education Section, 6060 Broadway, Denver, Colorado 80216

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Colorado Division of Wildlife, Education Section,

http://www.wildlife.state.co.us/education

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2 WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity

Introduction

What is Biodiversity?Biodiversity is short for biological diversity. It

includes the variety of species, the variety of geneticdifferences within species, and the variety of ecosys-tems within a recognizable area. It is the richness oflife.

Colorado—Crossroads of BiodiversityColorado’s location and natural features make it

home for a wide variety of species. From the prairieat elevations below 4,000 feet to the alpine tundraabove 14,000 feet, a diversity of landscapes providesopportunities for a rich mixture of wildlife. From drysemi-desert shrublands to cool and moist riparianareas, from treeless canyonlands to expansivemontane forests, Colorado has an enormous diversityof habitats—the places where organisms live and getthe food, water, shelter and living space they need tosurvive.

The Continental Divide provides a naturalbarrier between species from the eastern and westernUnited States. Northern and southern species meetand mix among the sagebrush and piñon-juniper inthe lower portion of the state. Colorado also lieswithin the migratory routes of many North Americanbird species. Some of these birds make their home inthe state part of the year and others are just passingthrough. Colorado truly is a crossroads of biodiversity.

Habitats and EcosystemsAll of the species that live and interact in an area

form a community. Each species within that commu-nity has its own distinct habitat needs, which may be

found within one or more ecosystems. The wordecosystem is used to describe the sum of the interac-tions between a community of species and the non-living components of the environment, such astemperature, soils, water, and elevation. Together,the non-living, or abiotic factors, and living, or bioticfactors, in an ecosystem help determine whichspecies of plants and animals can thrive there.

Living things effect other living things, directlyor through habitat alteration. The influence of twospecies on each other over time helps shape theappearance and behavior of both species. This sharedshaping of adaptations is known as coevolution, andoften benefits both species. In each of Colorado’smajor ecosystems, we find examples of species thatinfluence, and have been influenced by, otherspecies over time. Some have even evolved todepend on each other for their very survival.

The great diversity of habitats and abiotic factorsin Colorado’s ecosystems create numerous opportuni-ties for species. These opportunities, the “jobs” orfunctions available to living things in an ecosystem,are known as niches. More niches in an ecosystem inturn provide more options and choices for a greatnumber and variety of species, and make theecosystem better able to adapt to change.

Biodiversity and EcosystemsMany ecologists determine the vitality of an

ecosystem by considering its current biodiversityalong with the ecosystem’s ability to maintain its bio-diversity in the future. Colorado’s major ecosystemshave evolved over thousands, even millions of years.These ecosystems are dynamic, and disturbances arenormal. Change is natural, and organisms haveevolved over time to cope with all sorts of upsetssuch as storms, fire, floods and other disturbances.

Small-scale disturbances can promote biodiver-sity by increasing the variety of habitat and niches.For example, a fallen tree can allow more sunlight toreach plants on the forest floor, or provide food andshelter for animals and microorganisms. If there isenough biodiversity, even large-scale natural disasterssuch as fires and floods can eventually lead toincreased biodiversity as new species rush in to fillempty niches.

Problems occur when there is not enough biodi-versity available in an ecosystem to survive changesin environmental conditions. When too much habitatand genetic diversity has been lost, and the complexinteractions that make ecosystem recovery possibleare severely disrupted, human intervention can

3IN T R O D U C T I O N

sometimes aid in restarting natural processes, andreclamation can make a landscape inhabitable for aminimal range of species. However, in areas thatcontain endemic species, those found nowhere elsein the world, natural or man-made disturbances canprecipitate the extinction of a species and the loss ofits function in an ecosystem, an irrevocable disaster.

Colorado is notable for the presence of a largenumber (93) of endemic species. In addition, some10 percent of the total number of plant and animalspecies found in Colorado are considered rare or atrisk of extinction—11.2 percent of vascular plants, 4.1percent of reptiles, and 18.8 percent of freshwaterfish. When people know the relative status of biodi-versity in their area, they are better able to makedecisions that may impact sensitive species.

Biodiversity: You Can’t Judge a Bookby its Cover

Sometimes appearances can be deceiving whenit comes to biodiversity. We tend to view green land-scapes as desirable, lush, and rich with life. WhileColorado’s native grasslands may seem brown andlifeless in comparison to our rich green lawn, theysupport a far greater diversity of life in the samesized space. That’s because our lawn contains just asingle species of grass; it is a monoculture landscapethat provides habitat for only a limited number ofspecies

Similarly, a healthy ponderosa pine forest maylook somewhat dry and sparse. Nonetheless, it con-tains a variety of individual trees of differing ages andsizes, along with changing patterns of shade, light,open spaces, moisture, and soil types, providingmany niches.

A Place in the Food WebEcologists often group species in an ecosystem

according to their role in the food chain, or theirtrophic (feeding) level. Producers produce theirown food and serve mostly as food for others.Consumers mostly eat or consume others, anddecomposers help break down, or decompose, all

the others. Plants are producers. Consumers includelarge animals like deer and mountain lions, or smallerspecies such as lizards and mice. Decomposers aremostly small microorganisms. It is important torealize that, while one species might be a consumersome of the time, it may itself be food at anothertime. The biggest predator may someday be food forthe smallest decomposer. The relationships are notsimple and direct, but form a web of relationships.

Decomposers are the most numerous organismsin an ecosystem, followed by producers, and thenconsumers. Since energy is partly used and dissipatedas it passes from one living thing to the next, this pro-portional relationship helps ensure that there is suffi-cient food for species in the different trophic levels to survive. We can visually represent this general relationship in the form of a pyramid like this:

An organism’s place in the food web is an essen-tial component of its niche, and each species occu-pies one or more of these trophic levels. Species atone level provide life energy (food) for the species inthe next level. If biodiversity is severely reduced andthere is not enough food available at one trophiclevel to support the next level, the pyramid can “col-lapse,” and the ecosystem cannot function.

Interestingly, while there exist more species ofmicroorganisms than plants, and more plants thananimals, we’ve actually identified more animals thanplants, and more plants than microorganisms! Apyramid of known species would be labeled like theone above, but would have the point facing down!Perhaps this is because we’re drawn to study thosespecies to which we feel closest, or those that appearto affect us directly. As we discover more about foodwebs and the interrelationships between species,however, we are paying more attention to all theliving organisms in an ecosystem.

Measuring BiodiversityDiversity of life is difficult to measure precisely.

However, some methods have been developed thatgive a good indication of species biodiversity. Thesemethods usually involve two steps. First, the number

SUN

Decomposers

Consumers(Omnivores)

Consumers(Carnivores)

Consumers(Herbivores)

Producers(Plants)


of species in the area being studied, or species rich-ness, is counted. Then the number of individuals ineach species, or species abundance, is counted.Considering these two counts together gives an indi-cation of biodiversity.

In general, areas that contain many differentspecies, with an appropriate number of individuals ineach species, are more biodiverse. Areas with few ofthe possible species, or with most individualsbelonging to only one or two of the many speciespresent, are less biodiverse. However, a high numberof species in an ecosystem does not necessarily meanthat the ecosystem is healthier or more importantthan another ecosystem with few species. InColorado, alpine tundra ecosystems cannot supportthe same numbers or variety of species as the state’sgrasslands or forests.

Measuring biodiversity can be very helpful inseeing differences and changes between areas, or inone area over time. Remember that living thingsinclude more than just big, familiar animals. Plantsand insects are as important to biodiversity as theanimals that depend on them, as are the microorgan-isms that make up the majority of life forms on earth.

Each species is itself an ecosystem containingadditional species. For example, just as differentkinds of birds make use of ponderosa trees, insectsand microorganisms find homes on and in the birds.Opportunities for birds create opportunities for otherlife forms. Diversity breeds diversity. A wide varietyof species finds homes in Colorado’s ecosystems.

Why is Biodiversity Important toWildlife?

Loss of biodiversity directly affects wildlife byreducing opportunities for food, shelter, nesting,cover, and other necessities. This affects species’ability to survive. A loss of biodiversity can make anecosystem less able to withstand stress and changeand may lead to poor quality habitats and decliningwildlife populations.

Biodiversity is Important to People Too!Biodiversity generates goods and services for

the most basic human needs such as food, shelter,medicine, and fresh air and water. In addition,humans have used a wide variety of plant and animalspecies to produce forms of transportation, musicalinstruments, tools, weapons, food holders and manyother products.

All the food we grow comes from plants andanimals that originated from varieties found innature. We often must return to nature to find wildspecies with different genetic traits to improvedomestic varieties of crops so that they can grow

faster, or are more resistant to disease or insectattacks.

Our homes, the furnishings inside them, andoften the fuel to heat them come from materials inour environment. The woods, oils, resins, waxes, andgums of many tree species provide us with manyoptions for building and heating. Likewise, ourclothing is often made from natural plant fibers (suchas cotton or linen) or from animals (wool, silk, skins).

About 80 percent of the world’s population stilluse plants as their primary source of medicine. Closeto 30 percent of all pharmaceuticals sold in Coloradowere developed from plants and animals.

In addition to providing products, diverse ecosys-tems provide us with life-sustaining services. We canthank a pollinator for every third bite of food wetake. Many plants grown in our state depend onbees, butterflies, moths, wasps, beetles, birds, andbats for pollination. Feed crops such as alfalfa andhay, and the wonderful peaches produced onColorado’s western slope, all depend on pollinators!

Diverse ecosystems sustain processes that purifyboth air and water. Through photosynthesis, treesand other plants regulate water vapor, release oxygen,and cycle nutrients. Vegetation plays a crucial role inmaintaining the planet’s water cycle. Not only doplants give off moisture through their leaves andprovide shade to slow evaporation, but they oftenfilter water before it reaches lakes and rivers, pro-viding clean water for all. Plants hold moisture in thesoil and help reduce the effects of drought. Plantcommunities also play an important role in floodcontrol, holding soil in place and preventing erosion.

5IN T R O D U C T I O N

In a state with abundant natural resources and avariety of landscapes like Colorado, biodiversity isalso good for the economy. Many people come to ourstate to visit its grasslands, mountains, and canyons,spending millions of dollars each year on activitiessuch as hunting, fishing, camping, skiing, hiking, andwildlife watching. A sustainable supply of naturalmaterials for business also depends on biodiversity.

There are benefits from species diversity that areless tangible, but nevertheless priceless. For many ofus, nature is vital to our emotional, psychological, andspiritual well being, providing a source of relaxation,

rejuvenation, beauty, and peace. In some cultures,certain species are integral to spiritual beliefs, tradi-tional rituals, and the people’s heritage. What’s more,

learning from examples in nature improves thequality of our lives. For example,

watching different birds and how theyuse their wings helped humans achieveflight and continues to help us improveairplane design.

While all of the benefits mentionedare incentive for all of us to protect and

preserve biodiversity, many people feelthat each species should be respected and

protected simply because it exists. We don’talways know how a species or an ecosystem can orwill benefit us. Perhaps we’re encouraged by the

beauty we see in diverse landscapes, or by how wefeel after we’ve been in a diverse landscape, to

treasure biodiversity for its own sake.

Biodiversity is Important to the Planet!In prairies, ponds, deserts or forests, important

processes and interactions are taking place. Predatorsare consuming prey, decomposers are breaking downdead plants and animals and returning nutrients tothe soil, and myriad other exchanges are taking place.Each of these processes and ecosystems are intri-cately linked, supporting each other. Loss of biodi-versity anywhere on the planet greatly impactshuman society as well as ecosystems and their valu-able services.

Definitions and Classification:Something to Think About

Colorado scientists, teachers and public offi-cials have in recent years increasingly acceptedthe use of the term “ecosystem” to describe majorareas of our state. But a different word could havebeen used. Landscape is a general term for anarea that shares enough features to set it apartfrom another area. A biome is a large geographicarea with uniform climatic conditions and distinctvegetation such as the North American desert,prairie, or coniferous forest. A life zone is a bandor belt of plant and animal life, usually on the sideof a hill or mountain, which changes with eleva-tion or latitude. A bioregion is an area whosephysical, ecological, or cultural characteristics setit apart from surrounding areas. The meaning ofwords changes and evolves over time and place.

Even you can have an effect on their meanings inthe future by how you understand and use thesewords today.

Some of you may wonder…why eightColorado ecosystems, and not more or fewer? It is true that different scientists have looked atColorado and seen different numbers of majorecosystems. Professional differences, as well asdifferences in outlook and standards have resultedin different numbers. In addition, where oneecosystem ends and another begins is not alwaysclear. Changes within and between these ecosys-tems can be gradual. Features of one can often be found in others. Even so, each of these eightmajor ecosystems generally has a particular set ofplants, animals and other characteristics. Dividingthe state into these eight has become widelyaccepted and has led to a greater appreciation ofour Colorado environment.

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Table of Contents


Activity: Which Niche?

ObjectivesStudents will:

1.) define ecological niche; and

2.) give at least one example of an animal and itsecological niche.

MethodStudents compare ecological niches with careers

in their community.

MaterialsA guest speaker; chalkboard; reference materials.

BackgroundEach animal has a role in the ecosystem. This

role is called its ecological niche. The niche includessuch things as where and how it gathers food, its rolein the food chain, what it gives to and does for theecosystem, its habits,periods of activity and soforth. (Because a descrip-tion of the complete eco-logical niche wouldinclude an infinitenumber offactors, the

concept is most useful in terms of differences amongspecies. For instance, one could compare the nichesof four American warblers that all breed in the samehabitat, a spruce forest, but forage and nest in dif-ferent parts of the spruce tree.)

An animal’s niche can be described as what it doesfor a living. In a sense, this role can be compared towhat people do for a living—that is, what their jobs orprofessions are in the communities in which they live.

The major purpose of this activity is for studentsto understand the concept of ecological niche, simul-taneously learning more about potential careers intheir own community.

Procedure

1.) Explain to the students that in this activity theywill be comparing human professions to the rolesof animals in environments (animal professions).

2.) Select a few interesting jobs for discussion.Invite a doctor, dentist, social worker, truckdriver, cook, etc., to your class to talk about theirwork. Ask questions of the speaker. Work withthe students to develop the questions. Have thestudents take notes and record the answersduring or immediately after the presentation,asking additional questions for clarification asnecessary. Points to include:• what they do for the community (the service

provided);• how they provide the service;• what resources are used by them in providing

the service;• where they live and work;• the times during which they work;• what other professions they are dependent

upon for the functioning of their profession(janitor, delivery person, secretary, repairperson);

American Beaver

7AC T I V I T Y: WH I C H NI C H E?

• what special habits they exhibit;• what other professions they compete

with, if any; and• what other professions they cooperate

with, if any.Ask the students to produce a writtensummary of the information theyacquire concerning each of the jobsthey investigate.

3.) Have the students brainstorm avariety of animals living in a par-ticular ecosystem (forest, stream,desert, tundra). A photographcould serve as a stimulus. Listrepresentative members of thisecosystem on the blackboard.Make sure a variety of animals—including predator, prey, scav-engers, etc.—are included.

4.) Choose one of the animals listedand, as a group, begin discussing thesame questions for it asked of the visiting professional. In this way thestudents can see how the profession conceptapplies as a metaphor. Identify the animal’s pro-fession as its ecological niche.

OPTIONAL: As individual projects or in teams,students should select one animal, research theniche it fills and answer the same questions usedfor human jobs. As a culmination, each team canmake a visual and/or verbal presentation aboutits animal and its niche.

ExtensionHave the students identify niches that are over-

lapping and that compete or cooperate for resources.Connections may also be made between niches toillustrate interdependency webs in the ecosystem.

Evaluation

1.) Define ecological niche.

2.) Select any animal and describe its ecologicalniche. Include: what it does for the ecosystem,how it provides this service, the resources it uses,where it lives, when it does its work, what otherorganisms depend upon it, what other organismsit is dependent upon, what special adaptations it

uses or needs, what special habits it exhibits,what other organisms it competes with for thesame niche, and anything else you think is espe-cially interesting about this niche and how it isfilled.

3.) Create a poster that shows all the facets of ananimal’s niche.

Duration: one to four 45-minute sessionsGroup Size: anySetting: indoorsVocabulary: ecological niche, career, community

This activity was adapted with permission from, “Project WILD K-12 Curriculum and Activity Guide.”

“Which Niche?” is an example of the manyProject WILD educational activities that can beused in both classroom and non-formal settings to teach concepts found in WILD Colorado:Crossroads of Biodiversity.” For more informationabout Project WILD activities and workshops,please see the inside back cover of this book.

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Table of Contents


4

3

5

6

7

14

11

13

1512

8

10

16

2

1

9

17

18

6

9GR A S S L A N D S

Bir

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of

smal

ler

mam

mal

s.

The

se s

nake

s hi

bern

ate

in r

oden

t bu

rrow

s or

roc

k cr

evic

es, e

mer

ging

usu

ally

mid

-Apr

il to

mid

-May

.

11.

Orn

ate

Box

Turt

le(T

erra

pene

orn

ata)

—id

enti

fied

by

stre

aks

or d

ots

of y

ello

w o

nan

oth

erw

ise

dark

she

ll. T

hese

tur

tles

can

oft

en b

e fo

und

on r

oads

aft

er h

eavy

rain

s, r

esul

ting

in la

rge

num

bers

bei

ng k

illed

by

auto

mob

iles.

Sp

ider

12

.Ta

ran

tula

(Aph

onop

elm

a he

ntzi

)—so

met

imes

cal

led

the

Tex

as B

row

n, o

ne o

fth

ree

tara

ntul

a sp

ecie

s fo

und

in C

olor

ado.

Aft

er a

bout

ten

yea

rs o

f liv

ing

apar

tfr

om f

emal

es, t

he m

ales

mig

rate

, usu

ally

in S

epte

mbe

r or

Oct

ober

, in

sear

ch o

fm

ates

.

Inse

ct13

.P

ain

ted

Gra

ssh

op

per

(Dac

tylo

tum

bic

olor

)—br

ight

ly c

olor

ed w

ith

patt

erns

of

red-

oran

ge, b

lue-

blac

k, y

ello

w a

nd w

hite

, fou

nd in

dry

gra

ssla

nds

and

foot

hills

.T

hey

show

a d

ieta

ry p

refe

renc

e fo

r gr

asse

s, e

spec

ially

alf

alfa

.

Pla

nts

14.

Yu

cca

(Yuc

ca g

lauc

a)—

pref

ers

dry

slop

es a

nd h

illsi

des.

The

pod

-lik

e fr

uit

of t

heyu

cca

grow

s al

ong

a ta

ll st

alk,

whi

le t

he le

aves

, lon

g, t

hin

and

shar

p, r

adia

te f

rom

the

base

.

15.

Com

mon

Su

nfl

ow

er(H

elia

nthu

s an

nuus

)—a

com

mon

pla

nt w

ith

brig

ht y

ello

wpe

tals

sur

roun

ding

a m

aroo

n-co

lore

d ce

nter

on

a st

alk

that

can

gro

w 1

0 fe

et h

igh

or m

ore.

Bes

ides

the

bri

ght

colo

r of

its

peta

ls, t

he s

unfl

ower

was

so-

nam

edbe

caus

e th

e he

ads

follo

w t

he s

un f

rom

daw

n to

dus

k.

16.

Pri

ckly

-pea

r(O

punt

ia p

olya

cant

ha)—

cact

us c

hara

cter

ized

by

flat

, gre

en, o

val-

shap

ed p

ads

wit

h sp

ikes

arr

ange

d in

reg

ular

ly s

pace

d bu

ndle

s. T

he f

low

ers

that

appe

ar in

late

spr

ing

are

yello

w o

r re

ddis

h in

col

or a

nd u

p to

3 in

ches

acr

oss.

17.

Ch

oll

a(C

ylin

drop

untia

imbr

icat

a)—

som

etim

es c

alle

d th

e tr

ee c

holla

or

cand

e-la

bra

chol

la, a

leaf

less

bus

h or

sm

all t

ree

wit

h jo

inte

d br

anch

es o

ccur

ring

inC

olor

ado

prim

arily

in t

he s

outh

east

. In

late

spr

ing

and

earl

y su

mm

er, t

he c

holla

can

be c

over

ed w

ith

man

y re

ddis

h or

lave

nder

-col

ored

flo

wer

s.

Tre

e18

.O

nes

eed

Ju

nip

er(S

abin

a m

onos

perm

a)—

mor

e ty

pica

lly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith

piño

n-ju

nipe

r w

oodl

ands

, but

fou

nd in

hig

her

gras

slan

ds a

nd t

rans

itio

nal z

ones

. Con

esof

any

one

tre

e ar

e of

onl

y on

e se

x, w

ith

the

fem

ale

cone

s la

rger

and

ber

ry-l

ike.

Set

tin

g—P

icket

Wir

e C

an

yon

lan

ds

nea

r L

a J

un

ta


Grasslands

Near the town of Briggsdale in northeasternColorado, between Fort Collins and Sterling, is thePawnee National Grassland, one of the lastremaining native grasslands in our state. It is part ofa larger grassland ecosystem that covers most of theeastern third of the state. Grasslands like thePawnee, containing historical mixes of native grasses,are now rare in Colorado because of changes in landuse, fire cycles, and grazing patterns. Highaltitude grasslands, found in a few areassuch as South Park, support their own mixof animal and plant life.

Sod-forming grasses such as buffalo grass andour state grass, blue grama, provide the foundationfor grassland ecosystems. Deep vertical roots, alongwith a widespread network of fine lateral roots justbelow the surface help these grasses quickly absorbscarce rainwater. They reproduce by sending out

shoots and runners above andbelow the ground. The result

is a turf-like mat of vegeta-tion ideal for grazing.

Wildlife You Might Discover in the Grasslands

Look closely and you may spot the distinctiveblack and white markings of our state bird, the larkbunting. You may hear the beautiful song of themeadowlark. Since there are few trees in thisecosystem, birds have adapted by building their nestson the ground, and calling their songs from the grassor in flight.

You may see and hear prairie dogs, and the col-lection of dirt mounds that make up their colonies or“towns.” In the distance you may see a herd of ourstate’s fastest mammal, the pronghorn, often referredto as an antelope. Above you might be lucky enoughto spot a red-tailed hawk or golden eagle on thelookout for small mammals, reptiles, and other birdsto eat. But there’s also much activity in the grassbeneath your feet. Here you may find a crab spider,named for its crab-like appearance when holding upits two front legs, hunting for a meal. Unlike manyspiders found in forested ecosystems, the crab spiderdoes not build a web to catch its prey, relying insteadon its eyes to detect the slightest movements in thegrass.

What Shaped the Grasslands?Geography and climate helped shape the grass-

land ecosystem. About 65 million years ago, theRocky Mountains began reforming. Even as theywere building up, wind and water were working to

Blue Grama

Lark Bunting

11GR A S S L A N D S

wear them down by carrying away rocks, dirt andsediment to the east. Over many centuries thiseroded material became the soil that supports theplant and animal life of Colorado’s grasslands.

Colorado’s eastern climate is too dry to supporttrees, and the soil is not moist enough to support thetall grasses of the Midwest prairies to the east ofColorado. Our short-grass prairie lies in the “rainshadow” of the Rocky Mountains. Just as the suncasts a shadow when blocked by the mountains, themountains block much of the moisture until cloudsand storms can regroup about 200 miles to the east.As moisture in the atmosphere is forced upwards bythe Rockies, rain and snow fall over the mountainsand foothills, leaving little for the grasslands untilnear the Kansas border. Mostly, Colorado’s grasslandsget moisture from intermittent streams, and fromoccasional summer storms.

Colorado’s eastern grasslands are cold in thewinter and hot in the summer. It is often windy. Inthe winter, these winds can lead to blizzard condi-tions, blowing the snow into high drifts. In thesummer the winds dry the grasses, providing amplefuel for natural fires.

Historically, fire was a regular occurrence beforepeople settled the grasslands. Fire renewed andrestored the grassland. Many grassland species arenot only adapted to fire, but have evolved ways tobenefit from it. Most of the grass’s biomass (its livingmaterial) is underground. When fires swept the grass-lands during the dry season, the native grasses weredormant. Though they appeared brown and lifelesson the surface, their deep roots were alive andescaped permanent damage from the fires. Many

non-native grasses and other plants that could takeover the native grasses’ territory were not adapted tofire. They were pushed back by fire, allowing nativegrasses to thrive. Fire also helped clean out deadplant material while adding nutrients to the soil. Fire suppression efforts since the early 1900’s havechanged the makeup of many grassland communities,and it is now recognized that using controlled fires as a management tool can improve the quality ofgrasslands.

A Closer Look at One GrasslandSpecies

American bison, often called buffalo, benefitedfrom fire. They preferred to graze on the fresh nativegrasses in newly burned areas and, by doing so, initi-ated the return of other grass species. Moving fromone grazing location to another, bison thinned andopened the ground cover, allowing moisture and lightto penetrate. The nitrogen from bison urine acted asa fertilizer, encouraging plant growth. Their hooveshelped break up the hard crust on the grassland soil.The hair on their foreheads and front legs picked upseeds as they fed. The seeds were then carried torecently burned areas that lacked mature seed-pro-ducing grasses, helping revegetate the region. Bisondroppings (scat) also contain a large variety of seeds.

Other animals, such as kangaroo rats, foundabundant food by following the bison along theirmigratory wanderings. The bison’s feeding and tram-pling actions exposed the insects and seeds thatmade up the rat’s diet. Bison scat, known unceremo-niously as buffalo chips, was itself food, shelter, andnursery for a variety of invertebrate life. Some flyinginsects stuck close to herds, awaiting the appearanceof fresh dung, while others traced the scent from theground. The tumblebug beetle shaped a bit of dunginto a ball, deposited its egg into this protective envi-ronment, then rolled the ball back to its nest. Sincebison were grazers, meaning that they primarily eatgrass, they did not compete with pronghorn which, as browsers, fed on a variety of plant materials.

While, overall, bison grazing clipped the heightof grasses and contributed to the vitality of the grass-land, localized affects varied greatly. Areas favored bythe bison might have been grazed down to stubble,while other areas were left virtually untouched.Buffalo wallows, rounded depressions that resultfrom bison rolling on their backs to clean themselvesand relieve itching, remain as bare dirt a hundredyears after their creation. The range of bison grazingbehavior resulted in a greater diversity of habitatsavailable to many plains’ species. For example, the

Prairie Dogs


mountain plover depends on a sufficient supply ofopen and bare areas to successfully hunt for insectsand to more easily spot predators. On the other hand,land predators, such as coyote and fox, benefit fromthe increased cover provided by ungrazed grasses.

Until slain to near extinction, bison wanderedthe plains in great numbers. Bison still exist on pre-serves in Colorado but, since they are no longerfound in the wild, are called an extirpated species.With the absence of bison from this ecosystem, therehave been attempts to replicate some of the ecologi-cally important effects of bison on the grasslands.Ranchers, who need to ensure sustainable pas-turage for their cattle, seek to mimic the migratorygrazing patterns of bison by utilizing rotationalgrazing techniques. Pasture condition is carefullymonitored and cattle are moved from one site toanother so that plant root sufficiency is maintained.

However, it’s important to avoid a singleapproach to grassland management, which, if applieduniversally throughout the grassland ecosystem,might favor some species at the expense of others.Large expanses of ungrazed grasses can allow popula-tions of pest species such as grasshoppers to increaseto destructive levels, while vast areas of barrenground lead to erosion. Planners, farmers and conser-vation biologists now recognize that a diversity ofgrass height and cover is desirable because it

increases biodiversity. Withproper rangeland manage-ment, grazers such as cattlecan replace many of theecosystem functions of thebison, providing both clearedlandscapes for species suchas the mountain plovers, andsufficient grazing andbrowsing opportunities forother species. Enhanced bio-diversity tends to neithermaximize nor minimize pop-ulations, but rather optimizespopulation balance.

Crossroads ofBiodiversity—Colorado’sGrasslands

The outermost ranges ofthe thirteen-lined ground

squirrel and the white-tailedjackrabbit overlap in the short-grass

prairie of eastern Colorado. Primarily a species ofthe upper mid-western U.S., the thirteen-linedground squirrel is near the western end of its range inColorado, while the white-tailed jackrabbit is at thesouthern end of its range.

Both animals eat grasses and other vegetation.The ground squirrel will also eat insects and other

Thirteen-lined Ground Squirrel

American Bison

13GR A S S L A N D S

small animals. Both the ground squirrel andjackrabbit are themselves food for coyotes, foxes,hawks and eagles.

Although they have similar dietsand require similar homes on therange, they occupy different nichesand don’t usually compete witheach other. That’s because, whilethe white-tailed jackrabbit is noc-turnal (most active at night), the thir-teen-lined ground squirrel is diurnal(most active in the daytime). Theground squirrel lives in shallow burrowsand hibernates in winter, while thejackrabbit does not hibernate, oftenburrowing out hiding places in thesnow.

Were they ever to meet, however, and chal-lenge one another to a race, it would be nocontest. Cruising along at a leisurely eight milesper hour, the thirteen-lined ground squirrel is nomatch for the white-tailed jackrabbit, which hasbeen clocked at speeds of 45 miles per hour!

A Grassland by any Other Name…Other names for grassland ecosystems include

prairie, plain, steppe, pampa, savannah, and veld. Thesenames describe grasslands that may differ in mois-ture, elevation and vegetation from those foundin Colorado. Some describe grasslands found onlyin particular regions of the world.

White-tailedJackrabbit

crismant

Table of Contents


1

2

3

4

5

6

78

11

9

10

1213

14

18

17

16

15

15SA G E B R U S H SH R U B L A N D S

Bir

ds

1.

Sag

e G

rou

se(C

entr

ocer

cus

urop

hasi

anus

)—fo

und

in s

age

shru

blan

d ha

bita

ts in

nort

hwes

tern

Col

orad

o an

d th

e G

unni

son

Riv

er b

asin

. As

part

of

the

mat

ing

ritu

al, m

ales

infl

ate

air

sacs

on

thei

r ch

ests

, fan

the

ir s

harp

-poi

nted

tai

ls, a

nden

gage

in c

ompl

ex s

trut

s, s

teps

and

oth

er m

ovem

ents

.

2.

Horn

ed L

ark

(Ere

mop

hila

alp

estr

is)—

nam

ed f

or t

heir

bla

ck, “

horn

ed”

feat

hers

,m

ore

pron

ounc

ed o

n th

e m

ale;

pre

fers

ope

n, lo

w-v

eget

atio

n ha

bita

ts. A

eria

lco

urts

hip

disp

lays

by

the

mal

e be

gin

wit

h a

stee

p as

cent

, wit

h ci

rclin

g an

dsi

ngin

g at

the

hig

h po

int,

follo

wed

by

a st

eep

dive

.

3.

Mou

nta

in B

lueb

ird

(Sia

lia c

urru

coid

es)—

brill

iant

ly s

ky b

lue-

colo

red,

fou

nd p

ri-

mar

ily in

cen

tral

and

wes

tern

Col

orad

o. T

hese

blu

ebir

ds a

re s

econ

dary

cav

ity-

nest

ers,

oft

en u

sing

old

woo

dpec

ker

hole

s an

d cl

iff s

wal

low

nes

ts, i

n ad

diti

on t

obu

ildin

gs a

nd n

esti

ng b

oxes

.

4.

Gold

en E

agle

(Aqu

ila c

hrys

aeto

s)—

the

gold

en c

olor

is m

ost

noti

ceab

le o

n th

ecr

own

and

nape

of

adul

ts. I

n ad

diti

on t

o ra

bbit

s an

d sq

uirr

els,

roa

d-ki

ll de

er h

elp

sust

ain

thes

e ea

gles

thr

ough

the

win

ter.

5.

Wes

tern

Scr

ub

Jay

(Aph

eloc

oma

calif

orni

ca)—

inha

bits

ope

n sh

rubl

ands

and

woo

dlan

ds b

etw

een

5,00

0–7,

000

feet

. The

se s

ky b

lue-

colo

red

jays

are

usu

ally

foun

d in

pai

rs o

ccup

ying

fix

ed t

erri

tori

es.

Ma

mm

als

6.

Am

eric

an B

adge

r(T

axid

ea ta

xus)

—ra

nges

thr

ough

out

Col

orad

o, w

here

ver

prai

rie

dogs

, gop

hers

, gro

und

squi

rrel

s an

d ot

her

rode

nts

can

be h

unte

d. T

heba

dger

can

be

iden

tifi

ed b

y a

whi

te s

trip

e ru

nnin

g up

fro

m t

he n

ose

to t

he b

ack

of t

he h

ead.

7.

Bla

ck-t

aile

d J

ackra

bb

it(L

epus

cal

iforn

icus

)—so

-nam

ed f

or t

he b

lack

str

ipe

that

exte

nds

from

the

tai

l to

the

rum

p; a

lso

nick

nam

ed “

jack

ass

rabb

it”

for

its

huge

ears

. Fee

ding

mos

tly

on g

rass

es, s

hrub

s an

d fo

rbs,

the

y ar

e th

emse

lves

a p

rim

ary

food

for

coy

otes

and

gol

den

eagl

es.

8.

Mu

le D

eer

(Odo

coile

us h

emio

nus)

—in

habi

t al

l of

Col

orad

o’s

ecos

yste

ms

from

gras

slan

ds t

o tu

ndra

. Nam

ed f

or t

he la

rge

ears

, the

se d

eer

have

whi

te t

ails

tipp

ed w

ith

blac

k an

d sc

ent

glan

ds a

bove

the

bac

k ho

oves

.

9.

Am

eric

an E

lk/W

apit

i(C

ervu

s el

aphu

s)—

com

mon

thr

ough

out

cent

ral a

ndw

este

rn C

olor

ado

abov

e 5,

000

feet

. In

spri

ng, m

igra

ting

elk

fol

low

the

mel

ting

snow

pac

k to

hig

her

elev

atio

ns; i

n w

inte

r, sn

ow d

epth

tri

gger

s do

wnw

ard

mig

ra-

tion

.

10.

Coyo

te(C

anis

latr

ans)

—co

mm

on in

all

Col

orad

o ha

bita

ts a

t al

l ele

vati

ons,

gen

er-

ally

iden

tifi

ed b

y a

long

poi

nted

muz

zle,

poi

nted

ear

s, a

nd a

bus

hy t

ail h

eld

dow

nwar

d, e

ven

whe

n ru

nnin

g. T

he c

oyot

e’s

scie

ntif

ic n

ame

mea

ns “

bark

ing

dog”

whi

le it

s co

mm

on n

ame

com

es f

rom

the

Azt

ec N

ahua

tl w

ord

“coy

otl”

,m

eani

ng “

sing

ing

dog”

.

11.

Des

ert

Cott

on

tail

(Syl

vila

gus

audu

boni

i)—

pale

gra

y-br

own

wit

h ru

st-c

olor

edpa

tche

s on

the

thr

oat

and

ches

t. T

his

cott

onta

il re

quir

es a

n ad

equa

te d

ensi

ty o

fsh

rubs

and

sm

all t

rees

as

cove

r fr

om p

reda

tors

.

12.

Pro

ngh

orn

(Ant

iloca

pra

amer

ican

a)—

ofte

n m

ista

kenl

y ca

lled

an a

ntel

ope,

nam

edfo

r th

e sh

ort

pron

gs t

hat

exte

nd f

orw

ard

from

nea

r th

e m

idpo

int

of t

he h

orns

.A

mon

g th

e fa

stes

t an

imal

s on

Ear

th, p

rong

horn

can

sus

tain

spe

eds

of 3

0 m

phov

er lo

ng d

ista

nces

and

hav

e be

en t

imed

ach

ievi

ng 7

0 m

ph.

13.

Wh

ite-

tailed

Pra

irie

Dog

(Cyn

omys

leuc

urus

)—di

stin

guis

hed

from

the

bla

ck-

taile

d pr

airi

e do

g of

eas

tern

gra

ssla

nds,

and

the

Gun

niso

n’s

prai

rie

dog

of s

outh

cent

ral a

nd s

outh

wes

tern

Col

orad

o, b

y a

whi

te o

r w

hiti

sh t

ip o

n th

e ta

il an

d da

rkfa

cial

mar

king

s. W

hile

bla

ck-t

aile

d pr

airi

e do

gs c

an u

nder

go a

slo

wed

met

abo-

lism

cal

led

torp

or d

urin

g ex

trem

e co

ld a

nd s

now

stor

ms,

whi

te-t

aile

ds h

iber

nate

for

thre

e to

six

mon

ths.

Pla

nts

14.

Pai

ntb

rush

(Cas

tille

ja s

pp.)—

seve

ral s

peci

es, c

omm

only

cal

led

Indi

an p

aint

-br

ush,

oft

en f

ound

in c

onju

ncti

on w

ith

sage

brus

h. R

epre

sent

ativ

e is

des

ert

pain

tbru

sh(C

. chr

omos

a), w

hose

col

orfu

l tw

o-to

ne f

low

ers

are

pale

in t

he m

iddl

ean

d re

ddis

h-or

ange

at

the

edge

s.

15.

Rab

bit

bru

sh(C

hrys

otha

mnu

s sp

p.)—

seve

ral s

peci

es f

ound

in s

age

shru

blan

dsan

d pi

ñon-

juni

per

woo

dlan

ds, a

fav

ored

foo

d of

jack

rabb

its.

Nat

ive

Am

eric

ans

used

the

gol

den

yello

w f

low

ers

to m

ake

dyes

.

16.

Sag

ebru

sh(S

erip

hidi

um s

pp.)—

thre

e co

mm

on s

peci

es f

ound

in C

olor

ado’

s sa

gesh

rubl

and

habi

tats

. Big

sag

ebru

sh(S

. tri

dent

atum

), th

e ta

llest

, is

foun

d at

low

erel

evat

ions

in d

eepe

r so

ils, b

lack

sag

ebru

sh(S

. nov

um),

dens

e an

d da

rk in

app

ear-

ance

, at

mid

dle

elev

atio

ns, a

nd m

ount

ain

sage

brus

h(S

. vas

eyan

um)

at t

he h

ighe

rlim

its

of t

his

ecos

yste

m.

Tre

es1

7.

Uta

h J

un

iper

(Sab

ina

utah

ensi

s)—

pred

omin

ant

juni

per

of t

he lo

wer

-ele

vati

ons

ofw

este

rn C

olor

ado.

Unl

ike

Col

orad

o’s

othe

r ju

nipe

r tr

ees,

the

Uta

h Ju

nipe

rus

ually

has

bot

h m

ale

flow

ers

and

fem

ale

berr

ies

on t

he s

ame

tree

.

18

. P

iñon

Pin

e(P

inus

edu

lis)—

defi

ning

tre

e of

the

piñ

on-j

unip

er w

oodl

and,

con

esco

ntai

n la

rge

pine

nut

s w

hich

are

eat

en b

y a

vari

ety

of a

nim

als,

incl

udin

ghu

man

s. I

n ad

diti

on t

o fo

od, t

his

tree

pro

vide

d N

ativ

e A

mer

ican

s an

d se

ttle

rsw

ith

fire

woo

d an

d bu

ildin

g m

ater

ial n

eede

d fo

r fu

rnit

ure,

she

lter

, and

hou

seho

ldit

ems.

Set

tin

g—M

oose

hea

d M

oun

tain

, n

orth

of

Ra

nge

ly


Sagebrush Shrublands

About 27 miles southwest of Craig in north-western Colorado, nestled between the YampaRiver and Highway 13, lie the rolling sagebrush-covered ridges of the Axial Basin. The Axial Basinand much of the Yampa River region comprise anecosystem defined by dry, shrub-covered soils andfew trees - the sagebrush shrublands of Colorado.

Sagebrush shrublands are prevalent in centraland western Colorado, on the Colorado Plateau, andin the Gunnison River and Colorado River basins.Examples of this ecosystem can also be seen inMiddle and North Park, and in the San Luis Valleybetween Villa Grove and Saguache.

High and DryThe sagebrush shrubland ecosystem is some-

times referred to as Colorado’s cool, high desert.Occurring above grassland at approximately 5,000 to10,000 feet, sagebrush shrublands usually receive lessthan ten inches of precipitation annually, makingthem the driest of all Colorado’s major ecosystems.Most precipitation falls as winter snow, and the smallamount of summer rain that does fall evaporatesquickly. Temperatures are very high in the summerand sub-zero in the winter. The soils are poor, eithervery alkaline or very acidic, and drain waterrapidly.

Trees, with more demanding waterrequirements, are not suited for thisecosystem. Woody vegetation islargely in the form of shrubs andbrush, which can handle the widetemperature swings, alkaline soils,and the lack of moisture. Somecommon species include sagebrush,yellow-flowered rabbitbrush, ante-lope brush or bitterbrush, greasewood,shadscale, and four-winged saltbush.

Several beautiful flowers grow wellin the dry soils of sagebrush country.Scarlet or skyrocket gilia, with itstrumpet shaped scarlet flowers, is abiennial that adapts to the dry conditionsby spreading its growth over two years.During the first summer, the plantdevelops its rosette of leaves, then addsa flower stalk the following growingseason. Sulfur flower, another common plant,is also known as the umbrella plant because itssmall yellow flowers develop at the end of leaf-less stalks in a circular, spoke-like pattern.

Indian paintbrush, whose red-orange flowers brightenthe landscape, is a partial parasite. It survives byextending its roots into the roots of other plants and

drawing off moisture and nutrition.

Sagebrush, Designed for theWest

Sagebrush, with its silvery gray-greenleaves, dominates this ecosystem. The

most pervasive plant in westernColorado, sagebrush is not related to

the culinary species, but is a memberof the sunflower family. Still, thethree-lobed leaves emit a distinct

sage-like odor when crushed or damp-ened by rain. Several species of sagebrush

have adapted to the harsh conditions andpoor soils found in this region, including

big sagebrush, black sagebrush, andmountain sagebrush. Big sagebrush isthe most common. Standing two to

nearly ten feet tall, this shrub looks a bitlike a small, twisted tree with dark,

shredded bark. Tailor made for survival in a

windy, arid environment, allspecies of sagebrush have unique

root systems, with widespread,shallow roots that quickly trap rain-

water from a brief storm, and longer rootsthat search deeper down for water. Sagebrush

Indian Paintbrush

Sagebrush


retains water because its narrow leaves expose only aminimum evaporating surface to the sun. The fine,silky hairs that cover the leaves counter the dryingforce of the wind. As sagebrush leaves drop anddecay, they emit a toxic compound in the soil thatacts as a herbicide, preventing other vegetationfrom taking root, thereby reducing competitionfor water and soil nutrients.

Wildlife You Might Discover in theSagebrush Shrublands

For a seemingly harsh climate, sagebrushshrublands support a surprising variety of wildlife.The sagebrush provides shade, shelter, nest sites,and dens for a variety of small animals. Collaredlizards, side-blotched lizards, sagebrush lizards,western rattlesnakes and bullsnakes are some of thereptiles associated with sagebrush. On summerevenings, the California myotis, a small, pale-coloredbat, leaves its roost in the sagebrush to feed on flies,moths, and spiders. Mexican woodrats, deer mice,and sagebrush voles also forage at night. So doesOrd’s kangaroo rat, a small rat with a long tail thathops around on its two hind legs. Black-tailedjackrabbits are more active during the daylight hours,browsing on flowering plants and shrubs. Ferruginousand red-tailed hawks feed on white-tailed andGunnison prairie dogs and other rodents. Other pred-ators such as owls, coyotes, and gray fox activelyroam the sagebrush for prey. Large mammals such asmule deer, elk and pronghorn supplementtheir diet with a wide variety of plantsin this region.

Many bird species areclosely associated withsagebrush habitat.Among theseare the sage

grouse, sagesparrow and

sagethrasher.Male sagesparrowshave the

unique behavior of walking in line, side byside, to mark the shared boundary of theirterritories.

Other common birds are the scrub jay and thehorned lark, named for the small black tufts offeathers on the back of its head. The male hornedlark courts the female with impressive aerial displays,soaring high, then circling and diving.

A Closer Look at One Species:Gunnison Sage Grouse

In 1977, Dr. Clait Braun, formerly with theColorado Division of Wildlife, noticed that sagegrouse wings collected in the Gunnison Basin ofsouthwestern Colorado were smaller than sage grousewings collected in northern Colorado. He also notedthat these grouse were one-third smaller than thenorthern sage grouse, and the males had more dis-tinct, whiter tail feathers and more elaborate filo-

plume feathers on their necks. For over twodecades, Dr. Braun and other researchers, mostnotably Dr. Jessica Young of Western StateCollege, studied the morphological (physicalform and structure), behavioral, and genetic dif-

ferences between Colorado’s sage grouse andmade an exciting discovery. The sage grouse from

southwestern Colorado was a distinct species! Thiswas the first time in decades that a new species ofbird was described in the continental United States.

Unlike new species discoveries in remote partsof the globe, the Gunnison sage grouse, named forthe area of Colorado where it is found, has been inplain view all along. Traditionally hunted as a gamebird, viewed by bird-watchers, and heard at sunriseevery spring as part of one of the avian world’s oddestcourtship rituals, the Gunnison sage grouse had longbeen assumed to be the same species as the relatednorthern sage grouse. What was the conclusive evi-dence that the Gunnison sage grouse was not just asubspecies, but a species in its own right?

Taxonomists (scientists who classify organisms)acknowledge that the process of deciding when anorganism constitutes a separate species can some-

Collared Lizard

Ord’s Kangaroo Rat


times be a judgment call. In the past, physically dis-tinct but closely related animals have either been“lumped” into one species, with each form classifiedas a subspecies, or “split” into two species. But thescientists that have reviewed this case agree this birdis clearly a different species. The Gunnison sagegrouse does not interbreed with the northern sagegrouse; the two are strikingly different in both appear-ance and behavior; and detailed studies of the twogroups’ DNA showed that they were far too distantlyrelated to be considered the same species.

All species of male sage grouse are equippedwith air sacs on their breasts, which they use toattract females each spring. Males position them-selves in the center of their strutting grounds, calledleks, and commence with their mating rituals. Themating call that male sage grouse make with their airsacs is audible a mile or more away, and has been

compared to the sound of bubbles, or gulps, under-water. The superiority (as determined by othergrouse) of the male’s call and the vigor and quality ofthe rapid head shaking, strutting dance that accompa-nies it, determine its position in the lek. Dominantmales occupy the center of the lek and win theopportunity to breed with the majority of females.

When Dr. Young listened to and analyzed hun-dreds of tapes of northern sage grouse as part of abiology project, she noticed different vocal patternson tapes of sage grouse from the Gunnison Basin.While northern sage grouse consistently pop their airsacs twice in each of the many brief strut displaysthey perform, the Gunnison birds pop their air sacsnine times, and the sounds they produced arenotably deeper. She went to the leks to study theentire mating ritual. Male sage grouse in both theGunnison and northern areas had a highly elaboratestrut display that began with males taking a fewsteps, then raising their wings, brushing them twiceagainst the stiff feathers of the pouch to makeswishing noises to accompany the mating calls. Shenoted that sage grouse in Gunnison had fewer dis-plays per minute and would also throw their filo-plumes over their head and wag their tail at the endof their display.

Dr. Young’s research on the behavioral differ-ences of the sage grouse, along with Dr. Braun’s doc-umentation of morphological differences, led to

analysis of the birds’ genetics in 1999. The DNAstudies, by Dr. Tom Quinn and Dr. Sara Oyler-

McCance of Denver University, provideddefinitive evidence that the two groups were

separate species.

Crossroads of Biodiversity—Sagebrush Shrublands

The kit fox is one of manymammal species found in Colorado thatoriginated in the semi-arid highlands ofthe Chihuahua region of northernMexico. The sagebrush shrublands ofwestern Colorado represent the north-

eastern limit of its range. This small fox,weighing only three to six pounds, com-

petes for prey with larger predators andtwo other species of fox, the red fox andthe gray fox. The kit fox is classified as

state endangered, which means it is injeopardy of becoming extinct in Colorado.

Kit fox closely resemble a species found onthe eastern plains of Colorado, the swift fox, butthey do not interbreed and have distinctly dif-ferent habitat requirements. Kit fox have long,

Gunnison Sage Grouse


black-tipped, bushy tails and yellowish to gray, griz-zled coats. Researchers have only found 47 kit foxesin Colorado, in one small area near Delta, andbelieve their statewide population is less than 100.Once classified as a furbearer (animal with mar-ketable fur) that could be legally harvested, the kitfox has been protected in Colorado since 1994.

Kit fox prey mainly on cottontail rabbits, jackrab-bits, and kangaroo rats, but will also eat birds, rep-tiles, and insects. They spend most of the day intheir dens, and move from one den to the other while

pursuing prey at night.Kit fox must avoid theirmain predator, thecoyote, as they hunt.Other causes of kit foxmortality are habitat

loss and road kill.

In contrast to the kit fox, the red fox has thewidest distribution of any carnivore in NorthAmerica. This fox has three color phases—red, cross,and silver—and is found in every ecosystem inColorado. Its ears are pointed and erect, and its feet,nose and backs of the ears are typically black. All redfox, no matter the color phase, have a white tip ontheir tail. In general, red foxes are opportunistic andwill eat whatever is available, but are particularlyadept at taking ground-nesting birds and their eggs.

Gray foxes are found along the foothills and insoutheastern Colorado, as well as in the sagebrushshrublands. They are shorter and stockier than thered fox, with relatively short ears and muzzle. Theirbodies are grizzled gray on the top with whitishbellies. The ears, neck, and legs are reddish buff.Like the kit fox, they prefer rabbits as prey, but ingeneral are more omnivorous, including berries, nuts,and insects in their diet. While little is really knownabout the impacts of kit fox and gray fox populations

on each other, similar habitat preferencessuggest that the species may limit one

another’s distribution.

Kit Fox

crismant

Table of Contents


1

2

3

45

67

8

11

9

10

12

13

14

16

15

18

17

21MO N TA N E SH R U B L A N D S

Bir

ds

1.

Gre

at B

lue

Her

on(A

rdea

her

odia

s)—

adul

ts id

entif

ied

by s

ize

and

dist

inct

ive

shap

ein

the

air a

nd in

wat

er, h

ave

blac

k st

reak

ove

r the

eye

and

, in

bree

ding

adu

lts,

head

, nec

k, a

nd b

ack

plum

es. T

he la

rges

t her

on in

the

U.S

., an

d th

e m

ost w

ide-

spre

ad, t

his

four

-foo

t tal

l bird

can

oft

en b

e se

en w

adin

g or

slo

wly

wal

king

thro

ugh

shal

low

wat

er in

sea

rch

of fo

od.

2.

Bla

ck-b

illed

Mag

pie

(Pica

pica

)—id

entif

ied

by it

s bl

ack

and

whi

te c

olor

ing

and

long

tail,

pre

fers

ligh

tly tr

eed,

coo

l, dr

y ha

bita

ts. T

he m

agpi

e is

the

ultim

ate

gene

r-al

ist,

with

a d

iet t

hat i

nclu

des

frui

t, be

rrie

s, s

eeds

, ins

ects

, wor

ms,

gar

bage

, car

rion,

bird

s’ e

ggs

and

hatc

hlin

gs.

3.

Gre

en-w

inge

d T

eal(

Anas

crec

ca)—

smal

l duc

k pr

efer

ring

wet

land

s an

d rip

aria

nha

bita

ts a

long

the

Fro

nt R

ange

and

hig

her m

ount

ain

park

s. F

lock

s of

thes

e iri

des-

cent

-gre

en-w

inge

d bi

rds

can

ofte

n be

see

n in

low

, see

min

gly

erra

tic fl

ight

, tw

istin

gan

d tu

rnin

g as

a s

ingl

e un

it.

4.

Can

ada

Goo

se(B

rant

a ca

nade

nsis)

—id

entif

ied

by a

whi

te c

hins

trap

on

an o

ther

-w

ise

blac

k he

ad a

nd n

eck.

Thi

s on

ce u

ncom

mon

spe

cies

is n

ow n

umer

ous

in m

any

of th

e st

ate’

s rip

aria

n ar

eas

and

valle

ys, e

spec

ially

alo

ng th

e no

rthe

rn F

ront

Ran

ge.

5.

Com

mon

Rav

en(C

orvu

s cor

ax)—

sim

ilar i

n ap

pear

ance

to th

e A

mer

ican

Cro

w(C

. bra

chyr

hync

hos)

, but

is la

rger

and

has

a m

ore

mas

sive

bill

. Rav

ens

enga

ge in

ela

b-or

ate

aeria

l cou

rtsh

ip d

ispl

ays.

6.

Gre

at H

orned

Ow

l(B

ubo

virg

inia

nus)

—di

stin

guis

hed

by it

s la

rge

ear t

ufts

and

foun

d at

all

but t

he h

ighe

st e

leva

tions

, has

the

wid

est d

istr

ibut

ion

of a

ny N

orth

Am

eric

an o

wl.

The

dis

tinct

ive

hoot

ing

calls

of t

his

noct

urna

l ow

l are

hea

rdth

roug

hout

the

year

, esp

ecia

lly in

late

win

ter w

hen

they

beg

in to

nes

t.

7.

Ste

ller’

s Ja

y(C

yano

citta

stell

eri)—

iden

tifie

d by

its

prom

inen

t hea

d cr

est a

nd d

eep

blue

win

gs a

nd ta

il. T

his

jay

is o

ppor

tuni

stic

whe

n se

arch

ing

for f

ood,

oft

en ta

king

adva

ntag

e of

ung

uard

ed o

ffer

ings

at c

ampg

roun

ds a

nd p

icni

c ar

eas.

8.

Wild

Turk

ey(M

eleag

ris g

allo

pavo

)—of

the

two

Col

orad

o su

bspe

cies

, the

nat

ive

Mer

riam

’s tu

rkey

is fo

und

in th

e lo

wer

mon

tane

. Soc

iabl

e bi

rds

ofte

n se

en in

larg

eflo

cks,

the

fam

iliar

fann

ing

of th

e ta

il is

a c

ourt

ship

dis

play

don

e by

the

mal

e w

hile

stru

ttin

g an

d “g

obbl

ing”

.

Ma

mm

als

9.

Col

orad

o C

hip

munk

(Tam

ias q

uadr

ivitt

atus

)—co

mm

on c

hipm

unk

of s

outh

ern

Col

orad

o up

to 1

0,50

0 fe

et a

nd th

e F

ront

Ran

ge b

elow

7,0

00 fe

et. T

his

chip

mun

kfe

eds

on s

eeds

, ber

ries,

and

flow

ers

of a

wid

e va

riety

of p

lant

s, o

ften

asc

endi

ng to

the

tops

of t

rees

in s

earc

h of

food

.

10.

Red

Fox

(Vul

pes v

ulpe

s)—

the

mos

t wid

espr

ead

carn

ivor

e in

the

wor

ld, i

n C

olor

ado

may

rang

e in

col

or fr

om re

d to

bla

ck, b

ut a

lway

s w

ith a

whi

te-t

ippe

d ta

il. T

his

fox’

she

arin

g is

sen

sitiv

e to

low

-fre

quen

cy s

ound

s, e

nabl

ing

it to

hea

r the

und

ergr

ound

activ

ities

of i

ts b

urro

win

g pr

ey.

11.

Aber

t’s S

quir

rel(

Sciu

rus a

bert

i)—cl

osel

y as

soci

ated

with

pon

dero

sa p

ine

fore

sts

ofso

uthe

rn C

olor

ado

and

the

Fro

nt R

ange

whe

re th

ey a

re ty

pica

lly d

ark

gray

or

blac

k; id

entif

ied

by c

onsp

icuo

us ta

ssel

s, o

r tuf

ts o

f hai

r, on

the

ears

. The

se s

quir-

rels

bui

ld th

eir n

ests

in fa

vorit

e po

nder

osas

and

util

ize

the

inne

r bar

k, s

eeds

, tw

igs,

buds

and

con

es o

f the

tree

s as

thei

r prin

cipa

l foo

d so

urce

s.

12.

Mule

Dee

r(O

doco

ileus

hem

ionu

s)—

inha

bit a

ll of

Col

orad

o’s

ecos

yste

ms

from

gra

ss-

land

s to

tund

ra. N

amed

for t

he la

rge

ears

, the

se d

eer h

ave

whi

te ta

ils ti

pped

with

blac

k an

d sc

ent g

land

s ab

ove

the

back

hoo

ves.

13.

Mou

nta

in L

ion

(Feli

s con

colo

r)—

feed

s pr

inci

pally

on

deer

, but

als

o el

k an

d sm

alle

rga

me

over

a h

ome

rang

e of

up

to 5

00 s

quar

e m

iles.

The

se li

ons

are

dist

ribut

edfr

om C

anad

a to

Arg

entin

a, a

nd in

Col

orad

o ar

e fo

und

prim

arily

in fo

othi

lls,

cany

ons,

shr

ubla

nds,

and

piñ

on-ju

nipe

r woo

dlan

ds.

Rep

tile

14.

Bullsn

ake/

Gop

her

Snak

e(P

ituop

his c

aten

ifer)

—a

cruc

ial p

reda

tor o

f rod

ents

,fo

und

thro

ugho

ut C

olor

ado

in a

lmos

t all

habi

tats

bel

ow 8

,000

feet

. Whi

le th

ena

me

“gop

her”

sna

ke re

flect

s its

exc

elle

nt b

urro

win

g ab

ility

in s

earc

h of

gop

hers

and

othe

r sm

all m

amm

als,

it is

als

o ad

ept a

t clim

bing

tree

s in

sea

rch

of b

irds

and

bird

egg

s.

Sh

rub

15.

Mou

nta

in M

ahog

any

(Cer

coca

rpus

mon

tanu

s)—

wid

espr

ead,

tall

shru

b, w

hose

see

dsha

ve th

e ab

ility

to b

ore

them

selv

es in

to th

e gr

ound

. Nat

ive

Am

eric

ans

used

mou

n-ta

in m

ahog

any

to m

ake

arro

w s

haft

s, d

yes,

and

a m

edic

inal

laxa

tive.

Tre

es16

. P

onder

osa

Pin

e(P

inus

pon

dero

sa)—

the

defin

ing

tree

of t

he lo

wer

mon

tane

, esp

e-ci

ally

the

east

ern

foot

hills

. Thi

s pi

ne h

as th

e lo

nges

t nee

dles

of a

ny C

olor

ado

coni

fer a

nd p

refe

rs s

outh

-fac

ing

slop

es a

nd w

arm

uns

hade

d so

il fo

r re-

grow

th.

17.

Roc

ky M

ounta

in J

unip

er(S

abin

a sc

opul

orum

)—ab

unda

nt a

t hig

her,

cool

er, w

ette

rel

evat

ions

in C

olor

ado.

Som

etim

es c

alle

d re

d ce

dar f

or th

e re

ddis

h-br

own

colo

r of

its b

ark,

this

juni

per p

rodu

ces

smal

l blu

ish

berr

ies

that

are

a fa

vorit

e fo

od o

f roc

ksq

uirr

els,

Col

orad

o ch

ipm

unks

, and

oth

er m

onta

ne re

side

nts.

18.

Gam

bel

Oak

(Que

rcus

gam

belii

)—al

so c

alle

d Sc

rub

Oak

. In

addi

tion

to b

lack

bea

r,el

k an

d de

er, b

irds

such

as

blac

k-ca

pped

chi

ckad

ees,

spo

tted

tow

hees

, and

scr

ubja

ys fi

nd fo

od in

the

oak’

s fo

liage

and

aco

rns,

or i

n th

e in

sect

s th

at a

re a

ttra

cted

toth

e oa

k.

Set

tin

g—B

etw

een

Rox

boro

ugh

Sta

te P

ark

an

d D

eer

Cre

ek C

an

yon

O

pen

Spa

ce,

wes

t of

Lit

tlet

on


Montane Shrublands

Southwest of Denver and northwest of CastleRock, is Roxborough State Park, an excellentexample of the montane shrubland ecosystem.

Roxborough State Park is representative of thenarrow band of montane shrubland found on theeastern slope of the Rocky Mountains.Larger expanses of montane shrublandare found at similar elevations, from5,500 to 10,000 feet, on the westernslope. Montane shrublands representa transitional zone between grasslandsand montane forest.

A Veritable Smorgasbord ofNuts, Berries and Browse

Usually found on dry, rocky foothill sites,montane shrublands have a mix of vegetation, fromgrasses to scattered piñon or ponderosa pine trees.These areas get about the same yearly precipitationas the grasslands, but their coarse soils do not retainthe water for long. Typically, the plants that do bestin this ecosystem are shrubs that hold onto moistureduring long dry spells.

Mountain mahogany, a shrub that grows up toeight feet tall, is the dominant plant on the east slopefoothills. Mountain mahogany is highly tolerant ofheat and drought. It is very long-lived, averaging 85years, with some as old as 1,350 years! A raggedlooking plant with greenish-gray leaves covered withsoft fuzzy hairs on top and bottom to prevent waterloss, mountain mahogany has self-planting seeds.

Each seed is equipped with along, curved, hairy “tail” that

allows the sharp pointed seed tip to float to theground first. As the humidity changes, the “tail” curlsand uncurls, driving the seed into the ground like adrill. Mountain mahogany is one of the few browsespecies that meets or exceeds protein requirementsfor wintering deer and elk.

Gambel oak is another important plant in themontane shrubland. It is scattered among mountainmahogany on the southern Front Range foothills, butis dominant and widespread on western slope shrub-lands. Along with sumac and serviceberry, otherdeciduous shrubs whose leaves turn red and orangebefore being dropped, it adds to Colorado’s beautifulfall color display. Sometimes called scrub oak,Gambel oak is able to survive in this dry, rocky envi-ronment because many of these tall tree-like shrubssprout from a common root system. This extendedhorizontal root system efficiently captures the limitedrainfall of the lower mountainsides. Gambel oakacorns are rich in nutrients and soft enough to beeaten by almost any animal.

In addition to nutritious mountain mahogany andGambel oak, a variety of plants in this ecosystemproduce a bountiful supply of berries and fruits.Kinnikinnik, a low plant with dark green leaves, pro-duces bright red berries that are an important wildlifefood. Skunkbush, or three-leaved sumac, producestart orange and red berries that were once used tomake a lemon-tasting drink. The fruits, or rose hips,of the wild or Wood’s rose are an important wintercrop for many animals. Wild gooseberries, raspber-ries, currants, and other fruit-bearing shrubs add tothis ecosystem’s reputation as a cornucopia forwildlife.

Self-plantingseeds

Mountain Mahogany

GambelOak


Wildlife You Might Discover in theMontane Shrublands

In an ecosystem filled with seeds, acorns, andberries, its not surprising that mice, chipmunks,ground squirrels, and other rodents are abundant—onthe ground, in trees, and among rocks. Cottontailrabbits, which find shelter and cover from predatorsunderneath the shrubs, feed on green leafy vegeta-tion when it is available, and browse on buds, twigs,and bark in the wintertime. Deer, elk, raccoons, andblack bear spend a lot of time foraging in this region.

Eastern fence lizards and northern side-blotchedlizards might sun themselves on rocks or search forinsects under shrubs. An unusual lizard, the plateaustriped whiptail, can be found in the montane shrub-lands in western Colorado. This species is uni-sexual—all are egg-laying females!

An abundance of prey species attracts an abun-dance of predators. Golden eagles, and Swainson’s,red-tailed and sharp-shinned hawks cruise on ther-mals common along the foothills looking for theirnext meal. Western rattlesnakes and bullsnakesinvade rodent burrows and eat their fill. Gray and redfox, bobcats, skunks, weasels, and coyotes huntrodents and reptiles, while mountain lion pursuetheir preferred diet of deer.

The wealth of seeds, insects, and nest sitesattracts many birds to this ecosystem. Scrub jays, distinguished from other jays by their lack of acrest, their blue collar and the brownish patchon their back, are common in montane shrub-lands. One of the survival adaptations of thisspecies is cooperative breeding, in whichthe previous years’ offspring help theparents raise the new brood. These“helpers” assist in essential activitiessuch as defending the nesting site,repelling predators, and feeding the

young. Indigo and lazuli buntings, western tanagers,black-headed grosbeaks, spotted towhees, dusky fly-catchers and Virginia’s warblers are also common inthe montane shrublands.

A Closer Look at One Species—Merriam’s Turkey

The belt of shrubs and oak below the ponderosapines provides both food and cover for Merriam’sturkey, one of five subspecies of North Americanwild turkey. Merriam’s turkey is a Colorado native,and is distinguished from an introduced subspecies,the Rio Grande turkey, by both its habitat preferenceand by the nearly white feathers on the lower backand tail feather margins. Merriam’s turkeys forage inthe montane shrubland for leaves, seeds, nuts, andlots of insects. Wild turkeys are wary birds, with keeneyesight and hearing, and they move toward cover atthe slightest indication of danger. They rarely strayfar from the ponderosa pines that provide safety frompredators and nighttime roost sites.

Merriam’s turkeys stand about 37 to 46 inches inheight, with males larger than females. Males aremore colorful, with iridescent feathers, glittering invarying colors of red, green, copper, bronze and gold.Females’ feathers are a more drab brown, to blend inwith the surroundings. Both sexes have naked heads,but the males (toms) have deep blue and red coloredskin with loose red throat skin known as “wattles.”

Two other major characteristics that distinguishthe sexes are spurs and beards. When both male andfemale wild turkeys hatch, they have a small buttonspur on the back of their legs.The males’ spurs begin to grow and curve,

Cottontail Rabbit

Merriam’s Turkey


often reaching a length of two inches, while thefemales’ spurs seldom develop. Males also havebeards—tufts of modified feathers—that grow outfrom their chests. These beards average about nineinches in length, but can grow much longer. A smallpercentage of females (hens) also develop beards.

During the winter, turkeys flock together inmixed-sex groups. Sometime between February andApril, as the breeding season approaches, the flocksbreak up into smaller all-male or all-female groups.Later, the male flocks disperse, and males begin togobble and strut to attract hens. Hens respond with ayelping call. Males may breed with many females.Females are solely responsible for raising the young.Hens lay nine to twelve eggs in a shallow scrape andfrequently dump eggs in each other’s nests. Femalesincubate the eggs for about four weeks. Precocialyoung hatch with fully formed feathers, eyes open,and the ability to move about. They leave the nestwithin a day of hatching to feed, but roost close tothe hen for the first few days.

Merriam’s turkey is the state’s largest gamebird, a wildlife species that can be huntedaccording to legal seasons and limits. Currentpopulations of these birds exceed historic levels,but that was not always the case. During the1800’s, both in Colorado andnationwide, commercialslaughter for meat andfeathers, habitat destruc-tion, and disease decimatedwild turkey populations. Inthe 1920’s, only 250–500Merriam’s turkeys remained inthe state, and fewer than 30,000wild turkeys remained in the entirecountry. Public concern for the turkey,along with remarkable commitmentfrom the nation’s hunters, wildlifeagencies and wildlife conservationorganizations, brought this grand birdback from the brink of extinction.

The most important event in thisrecovery effort was the 1937 passage of theFederal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act. Alsoknown as the Pittman-Robertson Act, this leg-islation placed an excise tax on firearms,ammunition, and other hunting equipment.Lobbied for and supported by sportsmen, thistax has raised billions of dollars for wildliferestoration. With extensive transplant efforts, habitatimprovement projects, and protection through gamelaws, Colorado’s wild turkey population has grown toan estimated 20,000 to 24,000 birds.

Crossroads of Biodiversity—MontaneShrublands

The montane shrublands are a mid-elevationmelting pot where many species mingle. Three ofColorado’s four antlered mammals, elk, mule deer,and white-tailed deer,can commonly beseen here. Thedescriptions thatfollow can help aviewer identifyeach of the threeantlered speciesthat frequent this ecosystem.

In these species, the males have antlersthat they shed annually in late winter. Theantlers are bone and are re-grown each year,nourished by a blood-engorged, finelyhaired skin called velvet. When the antlers

are fully developed and hardened, the velvetis shed or scraped off. For deer, elk, and moose,

antlers reflect the social position of males in the pop-ulation and are important for

courtship displays. Antlers,more often than not,provide a deterrent frommale to male combat formating privileges.

Mule deer are foundstatewide in all ecosys-tems, but especiallyfavor shrublands,montane forests, andpiñon-juniper wood-lands in the winter.Named for their large

ears that seem constantly in motion, mule deer areprimarily browsers. Mule deer have a white tail thatis tipped in black. They run with a stiff-legged gait,with back legs, then front legs moving together. Thebucks’ (male deer) antlers branch equally, forking

American Elk

Mule Deer


into two tines, four tines, or more. Young males haveeither single spikes or a single fork near the tip of theantlers.

White-tailed deer historically have occupiedriparian lands, woods, and farmlands of the easternU.S. where they can get the highly nutritious foodsthat they prefer. With agricultural development onColorado’s eastern plains, white-tailed deer haveexpanded their range, and now can be found utilizingboth the montane shrublands and riparianareas all along the front range and inselect areas west of theContinental Divide. The white-tailed deer has a brown tail,edged with white, but com-pletely white on the underside.When alarmed, this deer raises,or “flags,” its tail to communi-cate danger to other deer. Like muledeer, white-tailed deer also snort andstamp their hooves to convey danger.These deer are graceful runners and strongswimmers, and can go across large bodies ofwater. Male white-tailed antlers haveseveral tines that come up from the mainshaft.

Often seen in herds on the montaneshrublands in winter, elk are much largerthan deer. They generally have a pale tan or brownbody color, with a darker mane of longer hairs on theneck and a paler yellowish tan rump patch. Thebulls (male elk) have large antlers, with a main beamextending backward over the neck and shoulders.Several tines or points arise from the main beam.

Living With Wildlife in Colorado’sFoothills

For people as well as wildlife, montane shrub-lands are a desirable place to live. Often, peoplemove to the foothills to experience a closer connec-tion to the wild places and wildlife found there. Ascommunities along the foothills grow, habitat ischanged and some wildlife is displaced. Some speciescontinue to live in open space areas, parks, riverbottoms, and undeveloped parcels of land. Othersadapt to urban living. As humans and wildlife adjustto the changes, their relationship is fraught with bothpromise and pitfalls. Finches and buntings at the birdfeeder are a delightful sight—bears at the samefeeder are not. By and large, people and wildlife cancoexist, if people are alert to the needs and habits oftheir wild neighbors.

For many species, particularly large grazers andbrowsers such as deer and elk, subdivisions and roadsmay block traditional migration routes between

summer and winter range. The number of placeswhere deer and elk can move from mountains to low-lands has been squeezed, like going through afunnel. Deer-crossing signs mark many of theseareas, and it is essential that drivers slow down andproceed cautiously, especially at night.

It is also common for deer and elk to browsegardens, trees and shrubs. Not only is

this costly and annoying, but deerand elk attract predators, such as

mountain lions and coyotes, whoalso eat pets and domestic

livestock. Property ownerscan plant species that aredistasteful to deer, usecommercial repellents anduse fencing to avoid theseproblems.

Pets can be exception-ally challenging for wildlife.Dogs, when left to roam,

may form packs and harass or killwildlife. A pack of dogs—well fed or

not—often kill or mutilate deer and domesticlivestock. Dogs and cats left unattended—even in a

fenced yard—serve as potential food for coyotes andmountain lions. Cats commonly prey on small,ground-dwelling wildlife and birds. They can beespecially damaging during the spring bird-nestingseason. It is vital that individuals are responsible petowners, obey leash laws, and keep dogs and catsunder control.

Litter and trash are also problematic. Litter caninjure or kill wildlife, particularly birds. Careless han-dling of trash and pet food can attract bears, raccoons,squirrels, skunks and other species that most peoplewould prefer to keep at a distance! Pet food shouldbe stored inside. Unless bear-proof trash cans areused, trash should not be put outside until rightbefore pick up.

Finally, people must respect the wildness ofwildlife. Many dangerous and potentially harmfulencounters occur because people fail to leave wildanimals alone. Wildlife should not be harassed, cap-tured, domesticated, or—in most cases—fed.Intentional or inadvertent feeding is a cause of anumber of wildlife problems. Wildlife habituated tofeeding may injure someone in their eagerness to getfood. Animals congregating unnaturally to feed maypass diseases to one another. People should notapproach sick, injured or even young animals thatappear to be abandoned. Such cases should bereported to the Colorado Division of Wildlife.

Acting responsibly, people can enjoy the wildlifethey see in the montane shrublands!

White-tailedDeer

crismant

Table of Contents


1

2

3

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5

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7

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119

10

12

1314

16

15

18

17

27PI Ñ O N-JU N I P E R WO O D L A N D

Bir

ds

1.

Red

-tai

led

Haw

k(B

uteo

jam

aice

nsis

)—m

ost

wid

espr

ead

haw

k in

Col

orad

o, e

spe-

cial

ly n

umer

ous

in p

iñon

-jun

iper

woo

dlan

ds a

nd w

inte

r gr

assl

ands

, but

occ

urri

ngye

ar-r

ound

fro

m g

rass

land

to

tund

ra. I

n ad

diti

on t

o ro

dent

s su

ch a

s pr

airi

e do

gs,

thes

e ha

wks

pre

y up

on r

epti

les

and

rabb

its.

2.

Wes

tern

Scr

ub

Jay

(Aph

eloc

oma

calif

orni

ca)—

inha

bits

ope

n sh

rubl

ands

and

woo

dlan

ds b

etw

een

5,00

0–7,

000

feet

. The

se s

ky b

lue-

colo

red

jays

are

usu

ally

foun

d in

pai

rs o

ccup

ying

fix

ed t

erri

tori

es.

3.

Nort

her

n P

igm

y-O

wl(

Gla

ucid

ium

gno

ma)

—an

agg

ress

ive

diur

nal h

unte

r, no

isie

rin

flig

ht t

han

mos

t no

ctur

nal o

wls

, pre

ys o

n ro

dent

s an

d bi

rds,

som

e la

rger

tha

nit

self

. On

the

back

of

the

head

, thi

s ow

l dis

play

s tw

o da

rk e

ye-l

ike

patc

hes

rim

med

in w

hite

.

4.

Com

mon

Rav

en(C

orvu

s co

rax)

—di

stin

guis

hed

from

the

all-

blac

k A

mer

ican

Cro

w(C

. bra

chyr

hync

hos)

by

its

larg

er s

ize

and

mor

e m

assi

ve b

ill. M

ale

rave

nsen

gage

in e

labo

rate

aer

onau

tica

l cou

rtsh

ip d

ispl

ays.

5.

Gre

at H

orn

ed O

wl(

Bub

o vi

rgin

ianu

s)—

dist

ingu

ishe

d by

its

larg

e ea

r tu

fts

and

foun

d at

all

but

the

high

est

elev

atio

ns, h

as t

he w

ides

t di

stri

buti

on o

f an

y N

orth

Am

eric

an o

wl.

The

dis

tinc

tive

hoo

ting

cal

ls o

f th

is n

octu

rnal

ow

l are

hea

rdth

roug

hout

the

yea

r, es

peci

ally

in la

te w

inte

r w

hen

they

beg

in t

o ne

st.

6.

Jun

iper

Tit

mou

se(B

aeol

ophu

s ri

dgew

ayi)

—fo

rmer

ly k

now

n as

the

pla

in t

it-

mou

se, g

rayi

sh b

ird

wit

h a

smal

l hea

d cr

est.

As

part

of

the

cour

tshi

p ri

tual

, mal

esof

fer

food

to

fem

ales

who

in t

urn

vibr

ate

thei

r w

ings

and

pro

duce

hig

h-pi

tche

dvo

caliz

atio

ns in

acc

epta

nce.

Ma

mm

als

7.

Mou

nta

in L

ion

(Fel

is c

onco

lor)

—fe

eds

prin

cipa

lly o

n de

er, b

ut a

lso

elk

and

smal

ler

gam

e ov

er a

hom

e ra

nge

of u

p to

500

squ

are

mile

s. T

hese

lion

s ar

e di

s-tr

ibut

ed f

rom

Can

ada

to A

rgen

tina

, and

in C

olor

ado

are

foun

d pr

imar

ily in

foot

hills

, can

yons

, shr

ubla

nds,

and

piñ

on-j

unip

er w

oodl

ands

.

8.

Gra

y F

ox

(Uro

cyon

cin

ereo

arge

nteu

s)—

iden

tifi

ed b

y a

blac

k “m

ane”

run

ning

alon

g it

s ta

il, e

ndin

g in

a b

lack

tip

. Om

nivo

rous

and

pri

mar

ily n

octu

rnal

, thi

s fo

xis

als

o an

exc

elle

nt t

ree

clim

ber.

9.

Rin

gtai

l(B

assa

risc

us a

stut

us)—

a no

ctur

nal m

embe

r of

the

rac

coon

fam

ily w

ith

abo

dy li

ke a

cat

, a f

ace

like

a fo

x, a

nd a

long

tai

l wit

h bl

ack

circ

les.

Rin

gtai

ls a

reex

celle

nt m

ouse

rs, a

nd w

ere

kept

by

earl

y se

ttle

rs f

or t

hat

very

pur

pose

, hen

ceth

eir

nick

nam

e, “

min

er’s

cat.”

10.

Mex

ican

Wood

rat

(Neo

tom

a m

exic

ana)

—ha

s a

noti

ceab

ly b

i-co

lore

d ta

il, d

ark

onto

p an

d lig

ht b

elow

, and

fee

ds la

rgel

y on

piñ

on n

uts

and

juni

per

berr

ies

in t

his

ecos

yste

m. I

n ad

diti

on t

o us

ing

vege

tati

on in

con

stru

ctin

g th

e ne

st, t

his

woo

drat

adds

deb

ris

such

as

bone

s an

d fe

athe

rs.

11.

Des

ert

Cott

on

tail

(Syl

vila

gus

audu

boni

i)—

pale

gra

y-br

own

wit

h ru

st-c

olor

edpa

tche

s on

the

thr

oat

and

ches

t. C

apab

le o

f lig

ht c

limbi

ng a

nd s

wim

min

g, t

his

cott

onta

il re

quir

es a

n ad

equa

te d

ensi

ty o

f sh

rubs

and

sm

all t

rees

as

cove

r fr

ompr

edat

ors.

12.

Mu

le D

eer

(Odo

coile

us h

emio

nus)

—in

habi

t al

l of

Col

orad

o’s

ecos

yste

ms

from

gras

slan

ds t

o tu

ndra

. Nam

ed f

or t

he la

rge

ears

, the

se d

eer

have

whi

te t

ails

tipp

ed w

ith

blac

k an

d sc

ent

glan

ds a

bove

the

bac

k ho

oves

.

Rep

tile

s13

. C

ollar

ed L

izar

d(C

rota

phyt

us c

olla

ris)

—ca

n be

iden

tifi

ed b

y a

yello

wis

h he

adan

d bl

ack

band

s ar

ound

the

nec

k. T

o es

cape

dan

ger,

the

colla

red

lizar

d ha

s th

ein

tere

stin

g ha

bit

of g

etti

ng u

p on

its

hind

legs

and

run

ning

aw

ay.

14.

Str

iped

Wh

ipsn

ake

(Mas

ticop

his

taen

iatu

s)—

iden

tifi

ed b

y a

whi

tish

str

ipe

runn

ing

alon

g ea

ch s

ide.

Fou

nd o

nly

in t

he w

este

rn C

olor

ado,

thi

s sn

ake

is a

spee

dy p

reda

tor

that

pre

ys u

pon

othe

r sn

akes

incl

udin

g sm

alle

r w

hips

nake

s, in

addi

tion

to

inse

cts,

liza

rds,

and

rod

ents

.

Pla

nts

15.

Morm

on

Tea

(Eph

edra

vir

idis

)—id

enti

fied

by

gree

nish

, lea

fles

s, jo

inte

d st

ems,

foun

d in

roc

ky a

reas

and

can

yons

. Als

o kn

own

as C

owbo

y T

ea, t

his

plan

t w

asus

ed b

y N

ativ

e A

mer

ican

s an

d se

ttle

rs t

o m

ake

a pa

lata

ble

drin

k.

16.

Yu

cca

(Yuc

ca g

lauc

a)—

pref

ers

dry

slop

es a

nd h

illsi

des.

The

pod

-lik

e fr

uit

of t

heyu

cca

grow

s al

ong

a ta

ll st

alk,

whi

le t

he le

aves

, lon

g, t

hin

and

shar

p, r

adia

te f

rom

the

base

.

Tre

es17

. P

iñon

Pin

e(P

inus

edu

lis)—

defi

ning

tre

e of

the

piñ

on-j

unip

er w

oodl

and,

con

esco

ntai

n la

rge

pine

nut

s w

hich

are

eat

en b

y a

vari

ety

of a

nim

als,

incl

udin

ghu

man

s. I

n ad

diti

on t

o fo

od, t

his

tree

pro

vide

d N

ativ

e A

mer

ican

s an

d se

ttle

rsw

ith

fire

woo

d an

d bu

ildin

g m

ater

ial n

eede

d fo

r fu

rnit

ure,

she

lter

, and

hou

seho

ldit

ems.

18

. U

tah

Ju

nip

er(S

abin

a ut

ahen

sis)

—di

stin

guis

hed

from

the

One

-see

d ju

nipe

r(S

. mon

ospe

rma)

of

sout

h ce

ntra

l Col

orad

o by

hav

ing

drie

r an

d gr

itti

erbe

rrie

s/co

nes

and

by h

avin

g a

less

tap

ered

, mor

e ir

regu

lar

crow

n. U

nlik

eO

nese

ed ju

nipe

r, w

hose

indi

vidu

als

are

of e

ithe

r se

x, t

he U

tah

Juni

per

usua

llyha

s bo

th m

ale

flow

ers

and

fem

ale

berr

ies

on t

he s

ame

tree

.

Set

tin

g—N

ear

Mes

a V

erde

Na

tion

al

Pa

rk,

nea

r M

an

cos


Piñon-Juniper Woodland

The Colorado National Monument is locatedwest of Grand Junction and south of Fruita. Thisscenic viewing area, overlooking the Grand Valley, isan excellent example of a piñon-juniper woodlandecosystem.

Piñon-juniper woodlands lie in the transitionzone between grasslands or shrublands and lowermontane forest, at elevations from 5,000–7,000 feet.They are primarily found in the western part of ourstate, and in central Colorado south of ColoradoSprings. Another piñon-juniper woodland is found inthe “Four Corners” area, where the borders ofUtah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico cometogether. Interestingly, there is one isolatedstand of piñon-juniper woodland in OwlCanyon, north of Fort Collins, over 100 milesfrom any other stands! This may be a relictstand from an earlier climate condition—no oneknows for sure.

The Pygmy ForestPiñon-juniper woodlands receive approximately

10–20 inches of precipitation each year. The watersinks quickly down through the gravelly soils, dis-couraging the growth of grasses, and favoring thedeeper roots of trees. The result is a landscape ofshort, evenly spaced trees separated by open areasrelatively free of vegetation; a landscape sometimesreferred to as the pygmy forest.

This ecosystem flaunts a variety of small treesincluding Gambel (scrub) oak, Douglas fir and moun-tain mahogany, but the predominant trees are thepiñon pine and either the Utah or one-seedjuniper. Piñon pine and juniper requireless water for survival than any

other Colorado trees. Piñon is more cold tolerant, andprevails at the higher, wetter elevations. The moredrought-tolerant juniper is favored at lower, drier sites.

The piñon pine has short one to two-inch-longneedles grouped in bundles of two (and rarely three),with small two-inch cones bearing large, edible seeds.While piñons can reach heights of fifty feet, periodic

droughts usually limit the trees’ growthto heights of thirty feet or less, giving them theirstunted, gnarly look.

The Utah juniper occurs in western slope piñon-juniper woodlands, while the one-seed prevails in thewoodlands of south central Colorado. Juniper leaveson both varieties appear as tiny, overlapping scalesalong the branches, giving the tree a unique and easilyidentifiable appearance. The bluish-gray or purplishberries are actually modified cones in which a fewfleshy scales enclose a seed. Foliage color and berriesdistinguish the two. The berries of the yellow-greenUtah juniper are dryer than the juicier berries of thegray-green one-seed. Utah junipers usually have bothmale and female cones, while one-seed juniper treesare single gender, with the females possessing thelarger, berry-like cones.

While groundcover between trees inthe piñon-juniper woodland issparse, there are smatteringsof grasses, shrubs andflowering plants. Mutedgreen grasses suchas blue grama,Junegrass andIndian ricegrassare interspersedwith succulentprickly-pear

Piñon Pine

Utah or One-seedJuniper

Prickly-pear Cacti


cacti and bright yellow sunflowers. Raggedy shrubssuch as the cliff rose, apache plume, and antelopebrush or bitterbrush, provide browse for game animalsthat visit the woodlands.

Wildlife You MightDiscover in thePiñon-JuniperWoodland

If you visit the piñon-juniper woodland, you maysee large numbers of blue-colored birds pecking atpinecones to get at the nuts.These are piñon jays, a year-round resident. In the fall,jays carry away pine nuts,which are actually piñonseeds, and stockpile them for winterfood. Some of the uneaten seeds eventu-ally grow into new trees. In this way, piñonjays assist in the reproduction of more piñontrees, which will again provide food for jays.

Elsewhere in the trees you can often spot thenests of bushtits. These small, gray birds make useof spiders’ silk to attach their nests to branches.There may also be ground-nesting birds such as thecanyon towhee and the lark sparrow, identified by its

red-browncheek patch,striped crown andsingular breast spot.You may be fortunateenough to witness the courtingdisplay of the male lark sparrow ashe circles and struts around thefemale. Overhead you may see

red-tailed hawks, golden eagles,American kestrels, and prairie falcons

on the lookout for rodents such as the ever-presentPiñon mouse and the bushy-tailed woodrat. Thewoodrat’s nickname of “packrat” is well deserved. Ifyou leave items lying around your campsite, thewoodrat may make off with them.

The climate of the piñon-juniper is still warmenough for reptiles. Two lizards you might spot are

the side-blotched lizard and the collared lizard.The collared lizard is longer and bulkier

than the side-blotched, and can be iden-tified by a yellowish head and the

black bands on the back of theneck. To escape danger, the

collared lizard has theinteresting habit of

getting up on itshind legs andrunning,giving theappearance of

a miniature, carnivorousdinosaur.

If you are in the piñon-juniperwoodland at night, you may see an

animal with a body like a cat, a facelike a fox, and a long tail with black

circles—a ringtail. This nocturnal member of theraccoon family walks on its toes, and dens in hollowtree stumps, logs, and rock crevices. Ringtails areexcellent mousers, and were kept by early settlers forthat very purpose; hence their nickname, “miner’scat.”

Large mammals found in the piñon-juniperwoodlands include pronghorn, mule deer, elk, moun-tain lion and black bear.

Piñon Nuts—The Heart of the EcosystemPiñon in Spanish means “nut” or “nut

tree.” Many of the species in thisecosystem depend on these nuts for sur-vival. The nuts provide an ample foodsupply for birds and rodents, which in turnbecome prey for other species. The highcalorie nuts are also a critical fall food for

black bears, and the presence of a goodcrop helps bears gain the necessary

weight they need to survive the winterand successfully reproduce.

The piñon pine nut was an importantresource for the people who settled here.

Native Americans and early European settlersdepended on the sweet, highly nutritious nuts forfood. The tree also provided firewood and buildingmaterial needed for furniture, shelter and householditems. Piñon pitch was used as glue and for water-proofing various domestic items, as well as for

PiñonJay

Ringtail


dressing wounds. Today, piñon pine nuts are still ahighly coveted food item and are even harvestedcommercially for sale in grocery and specialty shops.

A Closer Look at One Species: Four-Corners Hantavirus

In 1993, a severe illness appeared in a cluster ofpeople in the region where Colorado, New Mexico,Arizona and Utah meet. Studies revealed that thesepeople had been exposed to deer mouse droppingsand that their symptoms weresimilar to those caused by agroup of microorganismsknown collec-tively ashantaviruses,which arecarried by rodentsin other parts of theworld. The virus thoughtresponsible for the 1993illness was subsequently giventhe name Four-Corners han-tavirus, and the sometimes-fatalillness was called hantaviruspulmonary syndrome. Sincethen, other cases of hantaviruspulmonary syndrome haveappeared not only in the Four-Corners area, but as far away as Canada.

Genetic studies suggest that hantaviruses andtheir rodent hosts have an ancient, co-evolutionaryrelationship, and that Four-Corners hantavirus didnot emerge from a sudden evolutionary mutation.Why, then, did hantavirus pulmonary syndromeseemingly appear out of nowhere?

Scientists noted that during the period1992–1993, the weather was unusually warm and wet,with an earlier spring thaw, resulting in an abundanceof the vegetation that makes up the bulk of the deermouse’s diet. The result was a tenfold jump in thedeer mouse population. The increased populations ofboth mice and humans in this area, along with themouse’s attraction for human dwellings, broughtmore deer mice and their droppings into close prox-imity to people.

While research continues, scientists have sug-gested that the recent occurrences and spread of thisillness may coincide with changing climate and popu-lation patterns. Some are using El Niño cycles, whichoften bring warmer and wetter weather to the area, topredict possible outbreaks of hantavirus pulmonarysyndrome. The complex relationship betweenweather, microorganisms and their hosts, and humanwellness illustrate the intricate dynamics of biodiver-sity.

Crossroads of Biodiversity—Piñon-Juniper Woodlands

Skunks may not be the most popular of animals.They have perhaps the most widely known anddespised defense system of any mammal, and even apicture of the foul smelling scent-spraying omnivorecan trigger a powerful reaction in some people. Thenoxious vapor often causes nausea and burns theeyes and nasal cavities of the unfortunate target.Skunks are also known to be among the most preva-

lent carriers of rabies, another put-off to poten-tial fans. Still, skunks are highly

adaptable and resourceful. Besideseating a vast assortment of insects,

small mammals, fish and reptiles,they also consume fruits, nuts,

and berries. All of these foodsare abundant in the piñon-juniper woodlands, as are theold burrows abandoned by

other mammals thatskunks use to den.

Consequently,three of NorthAmerica’sskunk speciesreside in thisecosystem.

All threespecies exhibit

some variation of thebold black and white

markings that serve as a warning to potential preda-tors. The most common of the three is the stripedskunk. It has black fur with a white stripe that beginsas a triangular shape on the top of its head, forks intotwo wide stripes that travel down the sides of theback, and usually merges again near the base of thetail. Another white stripe runs from the base of thesnout between the eyes and ends on the forehead.Because the striped skunk is found throughout thecontinental U.S., in nearly every habitat and eleva-tion, this is the pattern that first comes to mind whenthe word “skunk” is mentioned.

The western spotted skunk prefers the middleelevations where piñon-juniper woodlands exist. Asits name implies, the western spotted skunk is foundin the western and southwestern U.S., withColorado’s eastern foothills marking the eastern edgeof its range. It is less common and much smaller thanthe striped skunk. Its pelt has many broken blackand white stripes of equal width on its upper backthat begin between the ears or just behind them. Alarge white patch covers more than half the areabetween the western spotted skunk’s eyes. Its tail iswhite on the underside for nearly half its length withan exclusively white tip.

DeerMouse


Colorado representsthe extreme northern range of the common hog-nosed skunk, which is not really common inColorado. This is a rather large skunk with a single,broad white stripe from the top of its head to thebase of its long, bushy tail. Its tail is white all over

except for a few scattered black hairs beneath. Itdoes not have a white stripe on its head, but doeshave a distinguished long, flexible snout.

All skunks utilize delayed implantation, inwhich the attachment of the fertilized egg to theuterine wall is delayed as a survival strategy for leantimes. If food resources are insufficient to raise afamily, the female skunk aborts before investingmuch energy in reproduction. Littleis known about hog-nosedskunk reproduction, but theother two species havebeen studied exten-sively. Striped skunksand western spottedskunks breed at

different times ofthe year and delay implanta-

tion for different lengths of time. Thismay be one way that the two species avoid competi-

tion at a critical time and ensure that each can suc-cessfully reproduce. This type of survival strategy,where species restrict their activities to a specifictime period or part of the environment, is called spe-cialization or niche differentiation.

Here’s how it works: male skunks use theirpungent defense odor to communicate with theopposite sex during mating season and to mark theirterritories. It might be troublesome to have two dif-ferent species spraying at the same time. So, stripedskunks breed in the spring, but implantation of theeggs is delayed about 19 days, with new littersarriving usually in late May or early June. Thewestern spotted skunks mate in early fall, but delayimplantation for nearly six months, giving birtharound the same time as the striped skunk, whenfood is plentiful for the young.

Striped Skunk

Hog-nosedSkunk

Spotted Skunk

crismant

Table of Contents


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15

16

18

33MO N TA N E FO R E S T S

Bir

ds

1.

Sp

ott

ed T

ow

hee

(Pip

ilo m

acul

atus

)—fo

rmer

ly c

alle

d th

e ru

fous

-sid

ed t

owhe

e,re

cogn

ized

by

a da

rk h

ead,

bro

wni

sh s

ides

, and

spo

tted

win

gs. I

n ad

diti

on t

oea

ting

inse

cts,

spi

ders

and

liza

rds,

thi

s to

whe

e ra

kes

up v

eget

able

mat

ter

byho

ppin

g ba

ckw

ards

on

the

grou

nd.

2.

Rock

Wre

n(S

alpi

ncte

s ob

sole

tus)

—fa

vors

roc

ky o

r br

oken

ter

rain

fro

m g

rass

land

to t

undr

a. T

he r

ock

wre

n pa

ves

its

nest

ent

ranc

e w

ith

pebb

les

and

rock

pie

ces,

addi

ng m

ore

mat

eria

l if

the

nest

is r

euse

d in

sub

sequ

ent

year

s.

3.

Dar

k-e

yed

Ju

nco

(Jun

co h

yem

alis

)—gr

ay-h

eade

d bi

rd f

ound

in t

he m

onta

nefo

rest

. Flo

cks

of t

hese

gro

und-

nest

ing

bird

s te

nd t

o re

turn

to

the

sam

e ar

ea e

ach

year

.

4.

Pra

irie

Fal

con

(Fal

co m

exic

anus

)—id

enti

fied

by

dark

win

g lin

ing

seen

fro

mbe

low

, and

thi

n, d

ark

chee

k ba

rs. T

agge

d C

anad

a ha

tchl

ings

hav

e be

en f

ound

inC

olor

ado

in w

inte

r.

5.

Bla

ck-b

ille

d M

agp

ie(P

ica

pica

)—ea

sily

iden

tifi

ed b

y it

s bl

ack

and

whi

te c

ol-

orin

g an

d lo

ng t

ail,

pref

ers

light

ly t

reed

hab

itat

s. T

he m

agpi

e is

the

ult

imat

ege

nera

list,

wit

h a

diet

tha

t in

clud

es f

ruit

, ber

ries

, see

ds, i

nsec

ts, w

orm

s, g

arba

ge,

carr

ion,

bir

ds’ e

ggs

and

hatc

hlin

gs.

6.

Wh

ite-

bre

aste

d N

uth

atch

(Sitt

a ca

rolin

ensi

s)—

com

mon

in C

olor

ado’

s po

nder

osa

fore

sts,

iden

tifi

ed b

y w

hite

und

ersi

de t

inge

d w

ith

redd

ish

brow

n an

d da

rk b

and

alon

g th

e cr

own

of t

he h

ead.

Thi

s nu

that

ch is

kno

wn

for

cach

ing

food

in t

ree

bark

and

for

pro

ceed

ing

head

firs

t do

wn

tree

s w

hile

hun

ting

for

inse

cts.

7.

Ste

ller

’s J

ay(C

yano

citta

ste

lleri

)—di

stin

guis

hed

by it

s pr

omin

ent

head

cre

st a

ndde

ep b

lue

win

gs a

nd t

ail.

Thi

s ja

y is

opp

ortu

nist

ic w

hen

sear

chin

g fo

r fo

od,

ofte

n ta

king

adv

anta

ge o

f un

guar

ded

offe

ring

s at

cam

pgro

unds

and

pic

nic

area

s.

Ma

mm

als

8

. A

mer

ican

Mar

ten

(Mar

tes

amer

ican

a)—

ofte

n ca

lled

the

pine

mar

ten,

an

exce

l-le

nt c

limbe

r w

ith

sem

i-re

trac

tile

cla

ws

and

the

abili

ty t

o ro

tate

the

bac

k le

gs f

ora

bett

er g

rip

duri

ng d

esce

nt. T

his

wea

sel-

like

carn

ivor

e pr

eys

prim

arily

on

vole

s,m

ice,

and

sm

all s

quir

rels

.

9.

Bla

ck B

ear

(Urs

us a

mer

ican

us)—

can

rang

e in

col

or f

rom

ligh

t br

own,

eve

n bl

ond,

to b

lack

. Bla

ck b

ears

are

om

nivo

res,

who

se d

iet

of g

rass

es, f

orbs

, ber

ries

, fru

its,

acor

ns, i

nsec

ts, m

amm

als,

and

car

rion

var

ies

wit

h th

e se

ason

s.

10.

Mu

le D

eer

(Odo

coile

us h

emio

nus)

—in

habi

t al

l of

Col

orad

o’s

ecos

yste

ms

from

gras

slan

ds t

o tu

ndra

. Nam

ed f

or t

he la

rge

ears

, the

se d

eer

have

whi

te t

ails

tipp

ed w

ith

blac

k an

d sc

ent

glan

ds a

bove

the

bac

k ho

oves

.

11.

Com

mon

Porc

up

ine

(Ere

thiz

on d

orsa

tum

)—kn

own

for

quill

s on

the

tai

l and

low

er b

ack

that

are

thr

ust,

not

thro

wn,

into

an

adve

rsar

y. L

ike

the

skun

k, w

hen

thre

aten

ed t

he p

orcu

pine

may

eng

age

in d

ispl

ays

such

as

toot

h ch

atte

ring

,w

avin

g th

e ta

il w

ith

quill

s er

ect,

and

even

on

occa

sion

issu

ing

a st

rong

sce

nt.

12.

Mex

ican

Wood

rat

(Neo

tom

a m

exic

ana)

—ha

s a

noti

ceab

ly b

i-co

lore

d ta

il, d

ark

onto

p an

d lig

ht b

elow

, and

fee

ds la

rgel

y on

pin

e co

nes,

aco

rns,

and

juni

per

berr

ies

in t

his

ecos

yste

m. I

n ad

diti

on t

o us

ing

vege

tati

on in

con

stru

ctin

g th

e ne

st, t

his

woo

drat

add

s de

bris

suc

h as

bon

es a

nd f

eath

ers.

13.

Big

horn

Sh

eep

(Ovi

s ca

nade

nsis

)—C

olor

ado’

s st

ate

anim

al, u

sed

on t

he lo

go o

fth

e C

olor

ado

Div

isio

n of

Wild

life.

The

she

ep’s

horn

s, m

assi

ve a

nd c

urle

d on

the

mal

e, s

hort

er o

n th

e fe

mal

e, h

ave

grow

th r

ings

tha

t ca

n be

use

d to

est

imat

e ag

e.

Rep

tile

s14

. M

ilk S

nak

e(L

ampr

opel

tis tr

iang

ulum

)—ba

nded

in r

ed o

r or

ange

, whi

te a

ndbl

ack,

occ

urs

from

Col

orad

o’s

gras

slan

ds t

o lo

wer

mon

tane

for

ests

. Thi

s co

n-st

rict

or w

as s

o-na

med

bec

ause

it w

as o

nce

thou

ght

to b

e ab

le t

o m

ilk c

ows.

15.

Sag

ebru

sh L

izar

d(S

celo

poru

s gr

acio

sus)

—a

com

mon

spe

cies

in w

este

rnC

olor

ado,

iden

tifi

ed b

y tw

o lig

ht-c

olor

ed s

trip

es r

unni

ng d

own

eith

er s

ide

of t

heba

ck. M

ales

eng

age

in t

erri

tori

al h

ead-

bobb

ing

disp

lays

.

Pla

nts

16.

Pri

ckly

-pea

r(O

punt

ia p

olya

cant

ha)—

cact

us c

hara

cter

ized

by

flat

, gre

en, o

val-

shap

ed p

ads

wit

h sp

ikes

arr

ange

d in

reg

ular

ly s

pace

d bu

ndle

s. T

he f

low

ers

that

appe

ar in

late

spr

ing

are

yello

w o

r re

ddis

h in

col

or a

nd u

p to

thr

ee in

ches

acr

oss.

17.

Sku

nkb

rush

(Rhu

s tr

iloba

ta)—

foun

d al

ong

rock

y sl

opes

of

the

mon

tane

shr

ub-

land

s. T

his

plan

t is

kno

wn

by a

var

iety

of

com

mon

nam

es, i

nclu

ding

lem

onad

e-bu

sh, t

hree

-lea

f su

mac

, and

pol

ecat

bus

h.

Tre

e18

. P

on

der

osa

Pin

e(P

inus

pon

dero

sa)—

the

defi

ning

tre

e of

the

low

er m

onta

ne,

espe

cial

ly t

he e

aste

rn f

ooth

ills.

Thi

s pi

ne h

as t

he lo

nges

t ne

edle

s of

any

Col

orad

o co

nife

r an

d pr

efer

s so

uth-

faci

ng s

lope

s an

d w

arm

uns

hade

d so

il fo

r re

-gr

owth

.

Set

tin

g—A

bove

th

e B

ig T

hom

pso

n R

iver

, ea

st o

f E

stes

Pa

rk


Montane Forests

Golden Gate Canyon State Park, easilyaccessible from Highway 93 between Goldenand Boulder, is an excellent example of themontane forest ecosystem.

The word “montane” means mountain.Montane forests are found on the slopes of theRocky Mountains at elevations between 5,500 and9,000 feet. Some popular sites include the BlackForest, east of Interstate 25 between Denver andColorado Springs, the forests at the very north-western corner of our state, and a forested area south-west of Grand Junction.

Not surprisingly, the major feature you’ll see inthe montane forest is trees! Ponderosa pines domi-nate south-facing slopes, while Douglas firs are morecommon on moister north-facing slopes and on thewestern slope of the Rockies. At lower montaneforest elevations, Rocky Mountain juniper may beinterspersed with ponderosa pine. At higher eleva-tions, lodgepole pine and spruce become morecommon. Other trees and shrubs in the montaneforest include aspen, kinnikinnik, and mountainmahogany.

Ponderosa pines have very long, thin needlesthat tend to grow in bundles of two or three towardthe ends of their branches. Douglas fir needles grow singly along the branches, are shorter than the ponderosa’s, and are flat. An easy way to rememberthe shape of the Douglas fir’s needles is to think,“flat fir.”

The Ponderosa Forest—A LandscapeForged by Wind and Fire

Warm, downslope winds blow across theContinental Divide from the west and descendthrough the foothills montane forests at speeds some-times approaching 100 miles per hour. These“Chinook” winds can warm local temperatures asmuch as 60 or 70 degrees Fahrenheit within an hour.Colorado’s ponderosa pines evolved with thesewinds, and have adapted to benefit from them. Whilestrong winds can break off branches and even blowdown stiffer species of trees, the flexible uppertrunks of the ponderosa sway back and forth in thewind. These trees have also developed an extensivelateral root structure that firmly anchors them in theground. Rarely will a healthy ponderosa blow downin normal wind conditions.

Unlike deciduous trees such as maple andaspen, which shed their leaves every autumn and go

through winter with bare branches, conif-erous trees like the ponderosa pine

keep green needles throughout theyear. Like the leaves of deciduous

trees, though, needles on ponderosado turn brown and fall

off. They don’t falloff, however, untilnew green needleshave already grown.As ponderosabranches grow longerevery year, newneedles appear alongthe new growth.Further back on thebranch, the oldestneedles turn brownand are shed in highwinds.

Ponderosa Pine

DouglasFir


Ponderosa pines have evolved to take advantageof the periodic fires that were a regular feature of themontane forest prior to modern human settlement.Ponderosa do not grow well in the shade, preferringdirect sunlight and warmer soils. Ponderosa in densestands do not receive the nutrients, light, or waterneeded for vigorous growth. Periodically, lightning-caused fires would clear out forest brush and litter, aswell as smaller ponderosa and other species of trees.The thicker bark of the larger ponderosa withstoodthe effects of low and moderate intensity fires andthe surviving trees thrived in the fire-opened areas.Due to our recent history of fire suppression, theforests of the lower montane have accumulated highdensities of small and medium diameter ponderosa,along with shade-tolerantspecies that have taken advan-tage of the ponderosa canopy.As a result of this accumulatedfuel, most recent wildfires havebeen of sufficient intensity tokill even the largest ponderosa,significantly altering the land-scape and threatening peopleand property. Elected officials,resource managers, and ecologistsare currently considering the bestmethods to tackle the issues of forestmanagement.

Wildlife You Might Discover inthe Montane Forest

The montane forest is the ecosystemwe often associate with some of our state’smost recognizable big mammals. Muledeer, named for their large ears, arecommon, as are elk. In late summer or early fall,you might hear the high-pitched “bugling” of a bullelk as he proclaims his presence to females and com-peting males. Raccoon, porcupine, deer mice, redfox, black bear and coyote also make their home inthe montane forest.

Bird species abound. Looking up in the sky, youmay see turkey vultures soaring in lazy circles,searching for food by smell as well as sight. Below,ground-dwelling birds such as dark-eyed juncos, graywith a bit of rust color on their backs, might bespotted searching for food or protecting their nests.Closer to eye level, you might glimpse the silentflight of a great horned owl as it glides below the treebranches. Black-chinned hummingbirds and moun-tain chickadees are frequent visitors to area birdfeeders.

The wolf spider is common in the montaneforest, and, like a wolf, hunts for food rather thanwaiting for some unsuspecting victim to fall into its

web. Female wolf spiders spin large whitish egg sacsat the end of their bodies and carry the eggs aroundwith them until they hatch. Hatchlings then climb ontheir mother’s back and ride around until they canfend for themselves.

The Montane Forest through theSeasons

Colorado’s seasons are on full display in themontane forest. The spectacular fall color ofchanging aspen leaves is just one golden example.

Look out over the forest on a breezy, sunny dayright after a snowfall. One after another, great clouds

of snow can be seen falling fromswaying branches. A snowfallprovides a good opportunity todiscover how the montaneforest helps maintain the

water cycle. Immediatelyafter a snowfall, branches

are covered in white. Butthe snow and moisturedon’t remain there. Someof the moisture returns

to the

atmosphere directly as water vapor, in a processcalled sublimation. Some is taken into the branchesand used by the trees. But, especially if the days fol-lowing a snowfall are sunny, warmer, and breezy,much of the snow in the lower montane falls to theground, where it is shaded and much of its moistureallowed to return to the soil. This soil moisture helpsirrigate the forest vegetation and recharge groundwater sources. Some of the snowmelt runs off intocreeks and rivers, helping sustain Colorado’s surfacewaters.

In late spring and summer, visitors to themontane landscape are treated to an abundance ofglorious wildflowers. You may spot the blue andwhite colors of our state flower, the Coloradocolumbine, in moist low-lying areas. On open slopes

American Elk


and meadows, tall, red orange-colored tips signal aclump of Indian paintbrush. The purple colors ofpenstemons and lupines contrast with the yellows ofthe many asters that grow from foothills to subalpineelevations.

A Closer Look at One Montane ForestSpecies

The Abert’s squirrel is associated almost solelywith the montane forest ecosystem. In Colorado, thissquirrel has a gray or black coat, bushy tail, and longtasseled ears. They make their home among the pon-derosa, often singling out an individual tree. Theyappear to use taste to select trees with the mostnutritional value.

Abert’s squirrels rely on the ponderosa pine forfood, nesting, and cover. They build their nests highup in the ponderosa, and eat the cones, buds, andinner bark of the tree. Although they can consume asizeable portion of the entire cone crop in an area,they do help to distribute ponderosa seeds. Abert’ssquirrels have also been known to eat mistletoe, a

small parasitic plant that can debilitate ponderosaby attaching to the branches and depriving the

tree of necessary nutrients. During the mating season of

February and March, you canoften spot several male

squirrels scampering

over theground andfallen logs,chasing after onefemale. Young areusually born in mid-spring and are on theirown by early summer.

Crossroads of Biodiversity—Colorado’sMontane Forests

All of Colorado’s eighteen known bat species areinsectivores that consume enormous quantities of

harmful forest and agricultural pests. A single batoften consumes half its own weight in flying insectsevery night! Over and above their contributions topest control, bats are a boon to science and medicine.Their longevity, disease resistance, ease in ability tobecome torpid (lower their metabolic rate), andsonar capabilities make bats useful in scientificresearch. Bats have been used in studies rangingfrom the effects of smoking and alcohol consump-tion, blood cell mechanics, tissue regeneration, aging,contraception, low-temperature surgical techniques,to speech pathology and vaccine development.Montane forests are home to several species of theseimportant animals. Among the bats that share thisecosystem are the little brown bat, long-leggedmyotis, and the silver-haired bat.

One of the most common species of bat found inthe United States, the little brown bat is quite small,measuring only a few inches in length and weighingperhaps no more than half an ounce! The long-legged myotis (“myotis” identifies the “mouse-eared” bats) is considerably larger and found only inthe western half of the United States, with Coloradoat the eastern end of its range. The silver-haired bat,named for the frosted back hairs on its otherwiseblack body, is near the southern end of its range inColorado.

These montane bat species prefer differentsites in the forest. Little brown bats favormoist woodlands near streams and ponds fortheir habitat, while long-leggeds and silver-

haireds choose drier forests. Long-legged batsroost in caves. Mining has actually increased

habitat for this and other cave-dwelling species,since Colorado lacks a sufficient amount ofnatural caves. The silver-haired is one of thefew bats that prefer to roost in trees ratherthan caves. Little brown bats are not too

picky about where they roost, and have beennoted roosting in tree hollows, underneath tree bark,in or under buildings, bridges or rocks, and in caves.

Bat numbers nationwide have been severelyreduced, due to a variety of factors such as deliberatekilling, vandalism of hibernacula (places where batshibernate), disturbance by cave explorers duringhibernation, habitat loss, and agricultural pesticides.As their value to ecosystems and to humans becomesbetter understood, concerted steps are being taken toconserve bat populations and their habitats. Effortsare being made to enhance remaining habitat andprotect usable human-made environments. Minesand natural caves are being closed with entrancegrates that allow access for bats while discouraginghuman intrusion and disturbance.

In other areas, residents are being urged to putup bat boxes to increase roosting opportunities. Thedesign and placement of bat boxes has changed as

Abert’s Squirrel


we have learned more about bats. Theold, square, modified bird boxeshammered to a tree have been dis-carded as ineffective. Newer batboxes are tall, wide and only a fewinches deep. They have baffled

sections inside, are open at thebottom, and provide a groovedwood or mesh-covered landingarea. Bat box exteriors arecolored matched to the localclimate (black for coolest to

light brown for hottest),positioned to receive

a substantialamount of direct

sunlight, andplaced highup on polesor on

buildings. A great resource for bat information is BatConservation International.

Bats: Myth and RealityNot so long ago, bats were seen only as some-

thing to be feared and eliminated. Being nocturnalpredators, they were associated with darkness. Theywere thought to drink human blood, because onespecies does feed on blood from mammals. Therewas also the justified fear that bats spread rabies, ascan many other mammals. (As with all animals, indi-viduals found lying on the ground or acting strangelyshould not be handled.) Among the myths about batsis that they are blind and can get caught up inpeople’s hair. In reality, bats have good eyesight andare only attracted to the bugs that are attracted topeople. Fortunately, the negative myths about thesewondrous creatures are being dispelled as theirspecial qualities and beneficial behaviors are morefully appreciated.

Cultural diversityCultural diversity describes the richness of

knowledge, beliefs, and traditions within our ownspecies. Cultures use and value natural resourcesin a variety of ways. The Cheyenne who fre-quented the foothills and mountain parks ofColorado prior to Euro-American settlement madegood use of many plants and flowers. They usedcurly dock, a rust-colored spiral-flowered plant, asa dye and to treat internal hemorrhaging andexternal wounds. Green gentian, also known asthe monument plant or “deers ears,” was used totreat diarrhea. The tansy yarrow was taken as acough and cold remedy. Richardson’s geraniumwas a good treatment for nosebleed.

In addition to using plants for medic-inal purposes, the Cheyenne obtainedfood from such plants as wild strawberry,gooseberry currant, wild onion, prickly-pear cactus, wild licorice, choke cherry,raspberry, and Indian turnip (scurf pea). Allthese plants are still to be found in the montaneforest ecosystem, connecting us with history, andreminding us of our interconnectedness withnature and other cultures. Don’t go out and starteating these or any other plants. Many had to be spe-cially prepared before they could be used safely.

Some human activities that were once consid-ered harmless or even valuable for an appreciationof nature are now the subject of much debate.Collecting samples of small animals or shed

snakeskin and antlers can further wildlife educa-tion and perhaps inspire students to pursuecareers in environmental fields. On the otherhand, animals, plants, and organic material areimportant components of an ecosystem. In recentyears, large numbers of visitors to montanemeadows have been observed completelydenuding an area of its wildflowers. This can beharmful because sufficient populations of plantsare necessary to ensure their future viability. Thecomplex and important debate over the practice ofcollecting continues.

crismant

Table of Contents


1

11

2

3

4

5

6

7

9

8

10 12

17

13

1415

16

1819

20

2122

39SU B A L P I N E FO R E S T S

Bir

ds

1.

Am

eric

an D

ipper

(Cin

clus m

exica

nus)

—re

late

d to

the

robi

n; fo

und

whe

reve

r fas

t-m

ovin

gst

ream

s ar

e pr

esen

t. In

ord

er to

div

e, s

wim

, and

wad

e un

derw

ater

in p

ursu

it of

aqu

atic

inse

cts,

the

dipp

er is

abl

e to

wat

erpr

oof i

ts d

ense

plu

mag

e an

d se

al it

s no

stril

s.

2.

Wes

tern

Tan

ager

(Pir

anga

ludo

vicia

na)—

sum

mer

resi

dent

of C

olor

ado’

s op

en c

onife

r for

ests

.W

hile

thei

r bre

edin

g ra

nge

exte

nds

from

Tex

as to

Ala

ska,

thes

e ta

nage

rs w

inte

r in

Mex

ico,

Cos

ta R

ica,

and

alo

ng th

e so

uthe

rn C

alifo

rnia

coa

st.

3.

San

dhill

Cra

ne

(Gru

s can

aden

sis)—

cour

ts in

Mar

ch in

the

San

Lui

s Va

lley

befo

re m

igra

ting

tono

rthw

este

rn C

olor

ado

and

poin

ts b

eyon

d. T

his

tall

gray

bird

, mar

ked

with

a d

ark

red

patc

hon

the

fore

head

, has

ben

efite

d fr

om in

crea

sed

prot

ectio

n of

the

beav

er, w

hose

dam

s m

ake

exce

llent

site

s fo

r cra

ne n

ests

.

4.

Cla

rke’

s N

utc

rack

er(N

ucifr

aga

colu

mbi

ana)

—re

side

nt o

f con

ifero

us fo

rest

s, id

entif

ied

byw

hite

pat

ches

alo

ng th

e in

ner t

raili

ng e

dges

of t

he w

ings

and

out

er e

dges

of t

he ta

il. T

hese

bird

s co

llect

and

cac

he th

ousa

nds

of p

ine

nuts

eac

h ye

ar, c

rack

ing

them

ope

n w

ith th

eir b

ills

or b

y w

edgi

ng th

em in

to ro

ck c

revi

ces.

5.

Blu

e G

rouse

(Den

drag

apus

obs

curu

s)—

reve

rse

mig

rate

s fr

om lo

wer

to h

ighe

r ele

vatio

ns in

win

ter t

o fe

ed o

n co

nife

r nee

dles

and

bud

s, s

pend

ing

the

wor

st w

eath

er u

p in

spr

uce

and

firtr

ees.

Mal

es, i

dent

ified

by

yello

w-o

rang

e ey

e co

mbs

, inf

late

redd

ish

neck

air

sacs

to c

ourt

fem

ales

and

to a

mpl

ify th

eir m

atin

g “h

oots

”.

6.

Gre

en-w

inge

d T

eal(

Anas

crec

ca)—

smal

l duc

k pr

efer

ring

wet

land

s an

d rip

aria

n ha

bita

ts a

long

the

Fro

nt R

ange

and

hig

her m

ount

ain

park

s. F

lock

s of

thes

e iri

desc

ent-

gree

n-w

inge

d bi

rds

can

ofte

n be

see

n in

low

, see

min

gly

erra

tic fl

ight

, tw

istin

g an

d tu

rnin

g as

a s

ingl

e un

it.

7.

Bro

ad-t

aile

d H

um

min

gbir

d(S

elasp

horu

s pla

tyce

rcus

)—m

ost n

umer

ous

in m

onta

ne s

hrub

land

san

d fo

rest

s, b

ut fo

und

up to

tim

berli

ne. F

emal

es, w

ith g

reen

ish

back

s bu

t lac

king

the

mal

es’

dark

red

or b

lack

ish

thro

at p

atch

, rai

se th

e yo

ung

alon

e, re

mai

ning

in th

e co

lder

val

leys

whi

lem

ales

roos

t at w

arm

er e

leva

tions

.

Ma

mm

als

8.

Yello

w-b

ellie

d M

arm

ot(M

arm

ota

flavi

vent

ris)

—us

ually

bro

wn

in c

olor

with

yel

low

ish

unde

r-si

des

and

whi

te fa

cial

and

nec

k m

arki

ngs.

The

se m

arm

ots

ofte

n cr

awl o

n th

eir b

ellie

s w

hen

mak

ing

thei

r way

thro

ugh

dens

e ve

geta

tion,

leav

ing

a di

stin

ctiv

e pa

th in

thei

r wak

e.

9.

Am

eric

an E

lk/W

apit

i(Ce

rvus

elap

hus)

—co

mm

on a

bove

5,0

00 fe

et. I

n sp

ring

mig

ratin

g el

kfo

llow

the

mel

ting

snow

pac

k to

hig

her e

leva

tions

; in

win

ter,

snow

dep

th tr

igge

rs d

ownw

ard

mig

ratio

n.

10.

Big

hor

n S

hee

p(O

vis c

anad

ensis

)—C

olor

ado’

s st

ate

anim

al, u

sed

on th

e lo

go o

f the

Col

orad

oD

ivis

ion

of W

ildlif

e. T

he s

heep

’s ho

rns,

mas

sive

and

cur

led

on th

e m

ale,

sho

rter

on

the

fem

ale,

hav

e gr

owth

ring

s th

at c

an b

e us

ed to

est

imat

e ag

e.

11.

Lea

st C

hip

munk

(Tam

ias m

inim

us)—

leas

t in

size

, but

gre

ates

t in

rang

e of

any

Col

orad

o ch

ip-

mun

k, fo

und

from

sag

e sh

rubl

ands

to a

lpin

e tu

ndra

. Thi

s ch

ipm

unk,

dis

tingu

ishe

d fr

omot

hers

by

its s

mal

l siz

e an

d da

rt-li

ke m

ovem

ents

, hib

erna

tes

over

the

win

ter,

but w

akes

per

i-od

ical

ly to

feed

on

stor

ed fo

od.

12.

Moo

se(A

lces a

lces)

—la

rges

t of t

he d

eer f

amily

, int

rodu

ced

into

Col

orad

o by

the

DO

W in

1978

, fav

ors

the

suba

lpin

e fo

rest

. Ide

ntifi

ed b

y its

larg

e si

ze, m

assi

ve m

uzzl

e, a

nd h

angi

ngde

wla

p, th

e m

oose

’s an

tlers

spr

ead

out a

nd b

ack

from

the

head

like

ope

ned

palm

s w

ithex

tend

ed ti

nes

or p

oint

s.

13.

Bla

ck B

ear

(Urs

us a

mer

icanu

s)—

can

rang

e in

col

or fr

om li

ght b

row

n, e

ven

blon

d, to

bla

ck.

Bla

ck b

ears

are

om

nivo

res,

who

se d

iet o

f gra

sses

, for

bs, b

errie

s, fr

uits

, aco

rns,

inse

cts,

mam

mal

s, a

nd c

arrio

n va

ries

with

the

seas

ons.

14.

Gol

den

-man

tled

Gro

und S

quir

rel(

Sper

mop

hilu

s lat

eral

is)—

nam

ed fo

r the

cop

per-

colo

red

head

and

sho

ulde

rs, w

ith tw

o w

hite

str

ipes

bor

dere

d by

bla

ck ru

nnin

g do

wn

the

back

. Thi

sgr

ound

squ

irrel

, fou

nd in

the

wes

tern

two-

third

s of

Col

orad

o, h

iber

nate

s fo

r abo

ut fi

ve to

seve

n m

onth

s, w

akin

g pe

riodi

cally

.

Am

ph

ibia

n a

nd

Rep

tile

15.

Tige

r Sal

aman

der

(Am

bysto

ma

tigri

num

)—fo

und

thro

ugho

ut C

olor

ado

whe

re a

quat

ic b

reed

ing

area

s ar

e ac

cess

ible

. Col

orat

ion,

influ

ence

d by

the

envi

ronm

ent,

can

rang

e fr

om li

ght b

ars

ona

dark

bac

kgro

und

to d

ark

spot

s on

a li

ght b

ackg

roun

d.

16.

Wes

tern

Ter

rest

rial

Gar

ter

Snak

e(T

ham

noph

is ele

gans

)—id

entif

ied

by li

ght-

colo

red

strip

eson

the

side

s an

d on

e do

wn

the

cent

er o

f the

bac

k. F

ound

in o

r nea

r aqu

atic

are

as th

roug

hout

all o

f Col

orad

o ex

cept

the

nort

heas

t gra

ssla

nds,

this

sna

ke fe

eds

on a

var

iety

of i

nver

tebr

ates

and

vert

ebra

tes

incl

udin

g fr

ogs,

toad

s, li

zard

s an

d sm

all b

irds.

Fis

h17

. C

utt

hro

at T

rout

(Onc

orhy

nchu

s cla

rki)—

nam

ed fo

r the

blo

od-r

ed m

arki

ngs

runn

ing

dow

n th

eja

w a

nd u

nder

the

thro

at, h

isto

rical

ly ra

nged

from

Mon

tana

to N

ew M

exic

o. R

educ

ed to

abou

t 5%

if it

s hi

stor

ic ra

nge,

the

gree

nbac

k cu

tthr

oat t

rout

(O. c

. sto

mia

s), C

olor

ado’

s st

ate

fish,

is c

urre

ntly

bei

ng re

stor

ed to

man

y hi

gher

-ele

vatio

n st

ream

s an

d la

kes

thro

ugh

a co

oper

-at

ive

effo

rt o

f pub

lic a

nd p

rivat

e ag

enci

es.

Pla

nts

18.

Col

um

bin

e(A

quile

gia

coer

ulea

)—ea

sily

iden

tifia

ble

flow

er w

ith la

rge,

blu

e se

pals

and

whi

tepe

tals

. Col

orad

o’s

stat

e flo

wer

can

be

foun

d fr

om fo

othi

lls to

alp

ine.

19.

Pai

ntb

rush

(Cas

tillej

a rh

exifo

lia)—

com

mon

ly k

now

n as

the

suba

lpin

e pa

intb

rush

or r

osy

pain

tbru

sh fo

r its

rose

-col

ored

flow

ers.

Clu

ster

s of

thes

e ta

ll pl

ants

can

oft

en b

e fo

und

inop

en m

eado

ws

of th

e su

balp

ine

fore

st.

20.

Sca

rlet

Gili

a(I

pom

opsis

agg

rega

ta)—

also

kno

wn

as th

e sk

yroc

ket o

r fai

ry tr

umpe

t for

its

trum

pet-

shap

ed re

d flo

wer

s, b

ienn

ial f

ound

in o

pen

woo

ds a

nd fi

elds

. Poi

sono

us to

hum

ans,

and

polli

nate

d in

Col

orad

o by

hum

min

gbird

s an

d bu

mbl

ebee

s, s

ome

popu

latio

ns o

f thi

s gi

liaha

ve d

evel

oped

the

abili

ty to

cha

nge

colo

rs to

att

ract

suc

cess

ive

spec

ies

of p

ollin

ator

s.

Tre

es21

. Q

uak

ing

Asp

en(P

opul

us tr

emul

oide

s)—

nam

ed fo

r the

trem

blin

g of

the

leav

es in

the

win

d,th

e m

ost w

idel

y di

strib

uted

tree

in N

orth

Am

eric

a. I

n th

e su

balp

ine

aspe

n in

habi

t sou

th-

faci

ng, s

helte

red

slop

es, b

ut th

roug

hout

thei

r ran

ge th

ey a

lso

colo

nize

dis

turb

ed s

ites

such

as

burn

and

ava

lanc

he a

reas

, sen

ding

out

spr

outs

, or s

ucke

rs, f

rom

an

exte

nsiv

e un

derg

roun

dro

ot s

yste

m.

22.

Enge

lman

n S

pru

ce(P

icea

enge

lman

nii)—

pred

omin

ant t

ree

of th

e su

balp

ine

fore

st, c

apab

le o

fhe

ight

s of

100

feet

. Eng

elm

ann

spru

ce n

eedl

es a

re s

hort

, thi

ck, c

urve

d, a

nd s

harp

-poi

nted

.

Set

tin

g—D

all

as

Div

ide,

sou

th o

f T

ellu

ride

Subalpine Forests

Between Walden and Fort Collins, along StateHighway 14, is a high-altitude forest that has beenofficially preserved for the people of Colorado. TheColorado State Forest State Park, ranging between8,500 to 12,500 feet, encompasses severalecosystems, from upper montane and high-ele-vation riparian to alpine tundra. But for most ofits elevation range, the Colorado State Forest isa landscape of subalpine fir and Engelmannspruce, the subalpine forest ecosystem.

Cold, Dark and DampSubalpine forests begin at about 9,000 feet and

spread upward to about 11,400 feet, where fierce, icywinds and shallow soils make tree survival impos-sible. These are the highest, snowiest, and windiestof Colorado’s forests. The average annual tempera-ture is barely above freezing, 36 degrees Fahrenheit,with a short growing season of less than two months.Most precipitation falls as heavy winter snow.Additional snow is blown down by high winds fromthe peaks, and trapped by the narrow, denselypacked trees. Shaded under the tree canopy, thesnow melts slowly, often lasting into summer.

The Climax Forest Engelmann spruce and sub-

alpine fir dominate the subalpineforest. Always found together,

Engelmann spruce and subalpine firare “late successional” trees.

Succession is the natural process by which distinctplant communities replace previous ones over time.

The climax community is the plant communityat the end point of the successional sequence and itmaintains itself if the environmental conditions staythe same. In the absence of some major change, theclimax forest of Engelmann spruce and subapline firwill continually regenerate as a dense, uniform green

blanket covering mostof Colorado’s higherslopes. If an aspengrove or stand of lodge-pole pines breaks theuniform pattern of green, this means there has beensome disturbance in the area. Fire, forest thinning,avalanche, and other events open the forest and allowsunlight to sprout “early successional” pioneerplants such as aspen, grasses, and wildflowers. Afterthe aspen and lodgepole have established a canopy,shade-loving spruce and fir re-emerge and eventuallycrowd them out.

The floor of the subalpine forest is littered withfallen trees in various stages of decay. The wintersnow lingers into the summer, shaded by the densecanopy. The flowering plants (forbs) found here arespecies that thrive in a rich, moist environment. Oneof these is the beautiful fairy slipper, an orchid thattakes its name from a hanging pink petal shaped likea ballet slipper. Another is Jacob’s Ladder, identifiedby the vertically ascending leaves on its feather-likestalk and aromatic, pale pink or bluish flowers. Thetiny woodnymph, whose fragrant, waxy white flowerdroops atop a four-inch stem, can also be found in theclimax forest.

In forest openings and disturbed areas, enoughsunlight penetrates to sustain a variety of plants thatare seen in many other ecosystems. One is our stateflower, the columbine. Some of the plants that growin these openings provide good forage for wildlife.Heartleaf arnica, with its showy, bright yellow flowersand heart-shaped leaves, and wild parsley are eatenin spring and early summer. The fruits of wild rose,golden currant and mountain blueberry are favoritesof birds, rodents, and black bears in the fall.

Square Sharp Spruce and Flat FriendlyFir

The Englemann spruce is a long-lived, slowgrowing evergreen. In the limited growing season athigh altitude, it takes hundreds of years for this tree


EngelmannSpruce

Subalpine Fir


to reach a mature height of more than one hundredfeet. The Englemann spruce has a rich, reddishbrown trunk and a ragged, narrow crown. Sprucecones hang down from the branches and are lightbrown with papery, toothed scales. Short, sharpspruce needles are square in cross-section and singlyjoined to the branch.

Subalpine firs are not as long-lived as spruce, butthey reproduce more readily. A mature fir hasgrooved, grayish-white bark and may reach a heightof 75 feet. The crowns of subalpine fir tend to bevery narrow and pointed, resembling church spires.Subalpine fir cones grow upright on the upperbranches. The needles of the subalpine fir are one totwo inches long, with whitish lines on both sides.They are flat and soft and grow individually from thebranch. When fir needles fall or are pulled off, theyleave a depressed round scar on the twig.

Wildlife You Might Discover in theSubalpine Forest

Subalpine forests are a tangle of robust trees, oldsnags and downed logs. This particular mix of habitatin these old forests provides food and shelter for awide variety of animals—animals with behavioral orphysical adaptations that shelter them from the coldand wind.

Except during the coldest months, a variety ofpuffy little birds nest, raise young, and roost in thesubalpine forest. The small roundish body type, sur-rounded by a fluff of dense feathers, insulates thebirds from the cold. Ruby-crowned kinglets, withwhite-ringed eyes, and their cousins the golden-crowned kinglets, glean insects from the bark andleaves and drink tree sap. Mountain chickadees and dark-eyed juncos, pine grosbeaks and Cassin’sfinches pry seeds from pine, fir and spruce cones.

Red-breasted nuthatches creep headfirst downtree trunks searching for insects. The omnivorousgray jay, or “Camp Robber,” snatches sandwiches andpeanuts from hikers and campers to supplement itsdiet of seeds and insects. A closely related species,Clark’s nutcracker, shares both the jay’s nicknameand its habits. Unlike the gray jay, Clark’s nutcrackerdoes not move to lower elevations during the coldwinter months. Instead, these birds gather seeds thatthey keep in a communal storage area to get themthrough the winter and feed their young in spring.This allows Clark’s nutcracker the opportunity to geta head start on the breeding season, a definite advan-tage over other competing species in the forest.

Insect infested snags are great habitat for cavitynesting and wood boring birds. Three-toed wood-peckers, and hairy and downy woodpeckers nest andfeed in the subalpine. The northern saw-whet owland the boreal owl also nest in tree cavities, as well asold woodpecker holes. They feed on mice, voles, andother small mammals found in the forest. Both ofthese tiny owls are strictly nocturnal and are rarelyseen.

Blue grouse, sometimes called “fool hens,” stayin the subalpine during the long winter, and roost inthe treetops. In summer, they head downhill formating rituals and breeding. This “reverse” migra-tion is not what makes blue grouse “foolish,” butrather their strategy of freezing and relying on pro-tective coloration, camouflage, to protect them fromdanger. The dusky blue coloration of the male andthe mottled brown feathers of the female help themblend with their surroundings, keeping most preda-tors from spotting them. However, these birds rarelymove even when it is apparent that the predator iscoming right at them. Rather than insuring survival,standing firm in the face of insurmountable oddsmakes the blue grouse a “sitting duck.”

Northern goshawks speed through the trees,feeding on other birds, snatching them in mid-air.Ravens are fairly common during the summermonths, feeding on nestlings and eggs, as well asrodents, seeds, and fruit.

Mule deer and elk feed in the meadows and usethe trees for cover during the spring, fall, andsummer months. Moose move along the streams,

Columbine


feasting on willows. Rodents—chipmunks, golden-mantled ground squirrels, mice, and especially thesouthern red-backed vole and the pine squirrels—feed on pine nuts and spruce seeds, and fresh succu-lent grasses.

A mammal closely associated with the subalpineforest is the snowshoe or “varying” hare. Both of itsnames stem from its ability to navigate and survive inthis forest in winter. In summer, the snowshoe harehas dark brown fur that conceals its presence as itnibbles on flowering plants and grasses. In thewinter, the fur changes to white, again blending withthe scenery as the hare feeds on bark, twigs, andbuds. The oversized hind feet also come in handyduring this season, keeping the snowshoe hare fromsinking into the snow and allowing it to move unen-cumbered.

Some of the predators in the subalpine forest arealso seasonal change artists. The ermine, or shorttailed weasel, also turns white in the winter, exceptfor the tip of the tail. The weasel can stalk preyunseen, then subdue the animal by wrapping its longbody around the victim, killing it with a well placedbite at the base of the skull.

Another member of the weasel family, theAmerican marten, or pine marten, is anotherimportant predator in the spruce-fir forest. Theyare as adept hunting in the trees as they are onthe ground. Pine martens are about five timeslarger than the ermine, but have the same long,flexible body design. Their preferred diet ispine squirrels, but they also eat nestingbirds, voles, and various other rodents.Feline predators such as mountain lion,bobcat, and lynx hunt here, althoughonly the lynx is suitably equippedto pursue prey on deep snow. Likethe snowshoe hare, its preferredfood, the lynx has very large feet,which allow it to move freely overthe snow.

A Closer Look at One Species—Moose Historically, Native Americans, trappers, miners,

and ranchers spotted the occasional moose that wan-dered into northern Colorado. Yet even thoughColorado had prime moose habitat, moose were notpresent in numbers sufficient to breed and repro-

duce. In 1978, the Colorado Division of Wildlifebegan a moose introduction program, using

private donations. Over several years,moose from Utah and Wyoming weretransplanted into suitable locations innorthern Colorado. They have thrivedin their new home, and today more

than 1,100 moose are in the state.The moose is the largest member of the

deer family. Bulls (male moose) can stand aformidable six feet tall at the shoulder and

weigh up to 1,200 pounds! Cows(females) are smaller, about 700 pounds.Moose produce the largest antlers

known—some sets in excess of six feet have beenrecorded! Shaped like the palm of the hand with out-stretched fingers, the size and pattern of the antlersreflect the social position and reproductive status ofthe male. The only time that antlers have anypurpose is during the annual rut, or mating season,that begins in late September. Antlers are used tointimidate a rival bull in order to gain mating rightsto a cow. Usually, the antler display of a prime bull isenough to frighten away a younger or weaker male.However, when males of equal status come together,there is often head-on fighting and antler wrestling.

Moose inhabit the subalpine forest edge andopenings in the forestadjacent to water.

Snowshoe Hare

AmericanMarten


Their preferred habitat is found in early successionalsubalpine forest areas that have been recentlyburned, logged, or manipulated by beavers. Typically,moose prefer a mixture of willow, spruce, fir, andaspen, that provides both food and shelter.

Moose are browsers. They mainly eat twigs andleaves of woody or brushy plants. In the summer,aquatic plants, willow, and grasses are their mainfoods. Unlike deer and elk that cannot tolerate deepsnow, the moose stays put during winter rather thanmoving to lower elevations. Moose are able to moveeasily in as much as five feet of snow and can scrapethrough it to get to forage. They survive the coldermonths eating willow and the lower branches ofother trees, sometimes creating a “browse line.”

Crossroads of Biodiversity—SubalpineForests

A diversity of habitats provides a diversity ofopportunities for wildlife. In the subalpine forest,some species profit from climax or “old-growth”stands, while others benefit from the early or inter-mediate successional stages of the forest. Forexample, snowshoe hares, a vital prey species in thisecosystem, needs a mix of low-growing broad-leafedshrubs for food and mature conifers for cover. Theyprefer patches of trees with plenty of edge.Woodpeckers and insect-eating birds like dead snagsand dying trees. The American marten, the greatarboreal hunter, also succeeds best in a climax forest.The moose prefers the succulent browse of theyoung forest. To maintain a diversity of wildlifespecies in the subalpine forest, it is essential tomanage for sufficient acreage of all habitat types atvarious stages of succession.

Moose

crismant

Table of Contents


1

2

3

4

56

7

9

8

45TR E E L I N E A N D AL P I N E TU N D R A

Bir

ds

1.

Wh

ite-

tailed

Pta

rmig

an(L

agop

us le

ucur

us)—

year

-rou

nd t

undr

a re

side

nt, f

eeds

prim

arily

on

will

ows,

som

etim

es f

orag

ing

belo

w t

imbe

rlin

e in

win

ter.

Thi

spt

arm

igan

tur

ns f

rom

mot

tled

and

bar

red

brow

n an

d bl

ack

in s

umm

er t

o al

mos

tal

l whi

te in

win

ter.

2.

Red

-tai

led

Haw

k(B

uteo

jam

aice

nsis

)—m

ost

wid

espr

ead

haw

k in

Col

orad

o, e

spe-

cial

ly n

umer

ous

in p

iñon

-jun

iper

woo

dlan

ds a

nd w

inte

r gr

assl

ands

, but

occ

urri

ngye

ar-r

ound

fro

m g

rass

land

to

tund

ra. I

n ad

diti

on t

o ro

dent

s su

ch a

s pr

airi

e do

gs,

thes

e ha

wks

pre

y up

on r

epti

les

and

rabb

its.

Ma

mm

als

3.

Big

horn

Sh

eep

(Ovi

s ca

nade

nsis

)—C

olor

ado’

s st

ate

anim

al, u

sed

on t

he lo

go o

fth

e C

olor

ado

Div

isio

n of

Wild

life.

The

hor

ns, m

assi

ve a

nd c

urle

d on

the

mal

es,

shor

ter

on t

he f

emal

es, h

ave

grow

th r

ings

tha

t ca

n be

use

d to

est

imat

e ag

e.

4.

Am

eric

an E

lk/W

apit

i(C

ervu

s el

aphu

s)—

com

mon

thr

ough

out

cent

ral a

ndw

este

rn C

olor

ado

abov

e 5,

000

feet

. In

spri

ng, m

igra

ting

elk

fol

low

the

mel

ting

snow

pac

k to

hig

her

elev

atio

ns; i

n w

inte

r, sn

ow d

epth

tri

gger

s do

wnw

ard

mig

ra-

tion

.

5.

Am

eric

an P

ika

(Och

oton

a pr

ince

ps)—

som

etim

es c

alle

d a

cony

, roc

k ra

bbit

, or

whi

stlin

g ha

re f

or it

s m

any

voca

lizat

ions

, fou

nd in

sub

alpi

ne f

ores

ts a

nd t

undr

a.T

he p

ika

colle

cts,

dri

es, a

nd s

tore

s a

vari

ety

of v

eget

atio

n in

“ha

ypile

s” a

s a

food

rese

rve

for

the

win

ter.

Pla

nts

6.

Colu

mb

ine

(Aqu

ilegi

a co

erul

ea)—

easi

ly id

enti

fiab

le f

low

er w

ith

larg

e, b

lue

sepa

lsan

d w

hite

pet

als.

Col

orad

o’s

stat

e fl

ower

can

be

foun

d fr

om f

ooth

ills

to a

lpin

e.

7.

Alp

ine

Ave

ns

(Aco

mas

tylis

ros

sii)

—co

mm

on p

lant

fou

nd g

row

ing

in d

ense

mat

sin

dry

tun

dra

area

s. Y

ello

w in

sum

mer

, thi

s m

embe

r of

the

ros

e fa

mily

tur

nsde

ep r

ed in

the

fal

l.

Fu

ngi

8.

Lic

hen

s—re

pres

ente

d by

Ple

opsi

dium

flav

um (

yello

w),

Cal

opla

ca e

pith

allin

a (r

ed-

oran

ge),

and

Xan

thop

arm

elia

wyo

min

gica

(bl

ue-g

reen

). L

iche

ns a

re c

ompo

site

orga

nism

s, c

ompo

sed

prim

arily

of

fung

i in

part

ners

hip

wit

h ei

ther

or

both

alg

aean

d cy

anob

acte

ria.

Tre

e9

. E

nge

lman

n S

pru

ce(P

icea

eng

elm

anni

i)—

pred

omin

ant

tree

of

the

suba

lpin

efo

rest

, cap

able

of

heig

hts

of 1

00 f

eet,

but

usua

lly f

ound

stu

nted

at

tree

line.

Eng

elm

ann

spru

ce n

eedl

es a

re s

hort

, thi

ck, c

urve

d, a

nd s

harp

-poi

nted

.

Set

tin

g—R

ocky

Mou

nta

in N

ati

ona

l P

ark


Treeline and AlpineTundra

Every summer, thousands of motorists travelfrom Twin Lakes to Aspen over IndependencePass. Many marvel at the beautiful vistas ofconifer forests, aspen groves, waterfalls andrushing waters encountered on the east andwest sides of the pass. But for those who stopat the summit parking lot near the headwatersof the Roaring Fork River, and stroll the pathsat an elevation of over 12,000 feet, a stark andbeautiful world awaits; the alpine tundraecosystem of Colorado.

The Upper Limit for TreesAt the upper reaches of the subalpine forest,

fierce winds, extreme temperatures, shallow rockysoils, lack of moisture, and a short growing seasonmake living conditions too severe for trees. Here,stunted versions of subalpine fir and Engelmannspruce, growing to only a fraction of their normalheight, start to grow together in dense clusters orislands, using each other for support and protectionfrom the wind. Those that grow above shrub heighttend to have branches and limbs only on the sidethat is sheltered from the wind, a phenomenonknown as “flagging.”

Other hardy conifers such as bristle-cone pine and limber pine stand

alone on exposed ridges

and peaks, their roots forced into narrow cracksbetween rocks. Limber pines, named for their flex-ible branches that bend in the high winds, havethick, stubby pine needles arranged in bunches offive that grow only at the end of the branches. Boththe needles and cones are tightly attached and holdfast as the extra long limber pine branches twist andtangle in the wind.

Contorted by wind and snow, bristlecone pinesare the oldest living trees in Colorado, with lifes-pans measured in thousands of years. Bristleconebranches are brush like and densely covered

with needles, and these trees are alternativelycalled “foxtail pines.” Bristlecone needles

are also arranged in fives, but are shortand marked with small resin spots.

Bristlecone pines hold their needles tentimes longer than any other pine, shedding

only every 25 to 30 years. The cones have sharp,bristly spikes at their edges—hence the name of

the tree.There are many terms for these twisted trees

that border the highest edge of the subalpine forest.Whether collectively called krummholz (German for“crooked wood”), elfin forests, banner trees, flagtrees, or wind-timber, this area is an ecotone, an edgebetween two distinct ecosystems. This specificecotone is known as treeline, or timberline.

Land Above the TreesJust beyond this ecotone of twisted, wind-

beaten, and ground-hugging trees is the alpinetundra. This mountaintop zone has climatic condi-tions similar to the Arctic tundra at far northern lati-tudes. In addition to the snow, the wind, and the

BristleconePine

Limber Pine


briefsummer, thetopography itselfpresents challenges to plantgrowth. Since slopes are steep and soils are porous,moisture from melting snows or summer stormsquickly drains, leaving little water for plant growth.Rockslides and avalanches can destroy plants thathave been tenaciously surviving for decades. Plentyof snow falls on these peaks, but high winds drivethe snow from exposed areas down into forests belowor into protected depressions. In the exposed areas,the wind scrapes off new plant growth. Conversely,the snowdrifts are so high in other areas that theburied vegetation is not exposed to sunlight duringthe growing season. Everywhere, the air is thin andthe solar radiation is intense, and even plants in rela-tively sheltered nooks and crannies contend withdehydration.

In this harsh climate, few plants can go through acomplete life cycle of germination, growth, flowering,and seed production in one short growing season.Annual plants are a rarity. Most tundra plants areperennial, going through different stages of growthover many years, and may only put out one or twoleaves in a growing season. It may take a decade ormore for a plant to mature, and a plant only sixinches in diameter may be more than a hundredyears old!

Alpine tundra plants depend on an arsenalof special adaptations for their survival. Toavoid losing moisture, many alpine plantsemploy strategies similar to desert species.Some have leaves with a smooth, waxy finishthat resists evaporation. Others have woollyleaves, with dense fuzz that lessens thechilling and drying effect of the wind. Stillother alpine species have fleshy succulentleaves that store water.

Many plants have brilliantly coloredblossoms and dark green leaves. Not onlydo some of the deeper shades absorb moresunlight for warmth—some pigments actu-ally produce heat! Many alpine plantshave the distinctive red tinge of antho-cyanin pigments in their stems andleaves, and often in their blossoms. If

the plant’s sap is more acidic, theanthocyanin pigments in the

flower will appear red, ifmore alkaline, the

flowers will be blue.In either case, the

anthocyaninpigment will

convert anylight wavesinto heat towarm the

plant, a marked advantage on a cloudy, cold day. Cushion plants, such a moss campion, alpine

forget-me-nots, and alpine phlox have a rounded,low-growing form which allows wind to flow overthem. Their shape exposesthe maximum leaf surfacefor photosynthesis whileprotecting the plant fromthe elements. Thestubby branches catchand hold blown-in dirtalong with olddecaying leaves thatabsorb moisture.Cushion plants put mostof their energy into pro-ducing a large taproot thatanchors them to the slope andabsorbs water two feet or morebelow the surface. Above ground,plants may reach the diameter of apenny in five years and require abouttwenty-five years to reach seven inches. They maytake ten years to flower.

Flag Trees

Cushion Plant


Mat plants such as dwarf clover and alpine sand-wort survive by spreading—they are able to root inany spot where a branch touches the ground. Theycling to the rocks by a tight network of small rootsthat catch water trickling by.

Many of the plant species found on the alpinetundra are circumpolar, occurring in the same habi-tats across the Northern Hemisphere, in both arcticand alpine tundra regions. These plants slowlymigrated into what is now Colorado during the lastIce Age. As the ice sheets retreated, some of theplants remained behind, but ascended the slopes ofthe mountains, where conditions are still comparableto those in the arctic.

Wildlife You Might Discover on theAlpine Tundra

The harsh conditions that make life difficult forplants on the tundra place limits on animals as well.Wildlife is more abundant during the warm summer

months, and most species leave to lower ele-vations or southern destinations in the

winter. Even in summer,there are fewer wildlifespecies in this ecosystem

than in others, and each has adapta-tions to contend with the intensewind and cold, the precarious terrain,

and the scarcity of food and water. Mosquitos, caddisflies,

beetles, grasshoppers, lady-bugs, and other insects are allpresent during the warmermonths, but in lesser

numbers than otherregions. Flies are by farthe most prevalent inver-tebrate on the alpinetundra and have an

important role as pollinators. They are able to with-stand lower temperatures than bees and have lowerenergy requirements. Arctic blue butterflies, namedfor the rich gray-blue wings of the males, and Mead’ssulfur butterflies, also assist in pollination as they sipon tundra flower nectar.

Birds are scarce. During the summer months,prairie falcons and red-tailed hawks hunt for smallrodents. White-crowned sparrows and horned larksare common and some may nest here. Just threespecies—ptarmigans, water pipits, and rosy finches—nest exclusively on the alpine tundra. Ptarmigans and

“Fourteeners”The centerpieces of the Colorado Rockies are

the 54 peaks over 14,000 feet, or “Fourteeners,”as they are affectionately known by climbers.According to the Colorado Fourteeners Initiative,a non-profit coalition with the mission of pro-tecting and preserving the natural integrity ofthese peaks and the quality of the recreationalopportunities they provide, Colorado’sFourteeners are now visited by over 300,000people each year—and visitor numbers continueto rise 10% each year. The lower alpine peakshave even more visitors. This increased recre-

ational use has had serious impacts on theseecosystems. Polluted waters, displaced wildlife,eroded soils, braided trails, and trampled vegeta-tion are some of the problems threatening thetundra. The slow growing alpine plants are veryvulnerable, and recovery from even small distur-bances such as trampling by hikers may takemany decades. Larger disturbances can disruptthe alpine ecosystem for hundreds of years. Whenvisiting these high peaks, it is important to stay ontrails, dispose of waste properly, respect wildlife,and not collect plants, rocks, or any animal or cul-tural artifacts.

Ptarmigan

pipits lay eggs in depressions on the open ground,while the finches build nests among the crags.The rosy finches and water pipits search the snow-fields for insects and seeds. When the weathergets colder in the fall, both species migrate towarmer climates.

Only the ptarmigan lives on the tundra yearround. This bird, the size of a small chicken,feeds on willow buds during winter. In anopen land with little cover, the ptarmiganprotects itself by turning from mottledbrown and black in summer to white in

winter and simply blendsin with the groundcover. Ptarmigan legsand feet are heavilyfeathered to preventheat loss and toprovide a

snowshoe like surface tocross the snow. Males and

females winter in separate flocks.Females huddle together in the snowy willow

thickets near treeline, while males remain at higherlocations.

Some burrowing mammals such asvoles, mice, northern pocket gophers, andweasels also stay on the tundra year round.Two distinctive alpine mammals are thepika and the marmot. Pikas are small membersof the rabbit family. Instead of sporting long earslike their relatives, they have small round ears thatare not as likely to freeze. Their other extremities arealso reduced in size to prevent heat loss. They havefur on the soles of their feet, for warmth and as atype of nonskid surface for running on the slickrocks. Pikas do not hibernate and are active all year.They collect and prepare stacks of “hay,” that theystore by their dens to make it through the winter.Like their rabbit relatives, pikas also re-ingest theirown fecal matter, which is high in protein contentand energy value. Pikas preserve body moistureby excreting dry, crystalline uric acid, leavingnoticeable white deposits on the rocks.

Yellow-belliedmarmots are comparatively

larger animals, related to wood-chucks. The marmot has light brownish to yel-lowish fur, usually with a whitish band around

the nose. When marmots are not in theirburrows or sunning on rocks, they oftencrawl on their bellies through dense vege-

tation, leaving a distinctive path intheir wake. Marmots eat them-

selves fat in summer andhibernate all winter.Curled up in a tight ballduring hibernation, themarmot’s temperature

and heartbeat lower consid-erably and energy from stored fat reserves sustains itslife functions.

Many hoofed mammals can be seen on thealpine tundra in summer, but they move to lower ele-

vations when snow covers theirforage. Mule deer and elk feed

in the alpine meadows.Bighorn sheep forage on the

steeper slopes. Both genders

Pika

Marmot

Bighorn Sheep

TR E E L I N E A N D AL P I N E TU N D R A 49

have true horns; they are not shed every yearlike the antlers on deer and elk. The majestic curlinghorns of the male are striking, and likely influencedthe selection of the bighorn sheep as Colorado’s stateanimal.

In some areas of the state, reintroduced moun-tain goats pick their way up the slope in search offresh grasses and wildflowers. Both sexes have awhite shaggy coat, beards, and short, smooth blackhorns that tilt backward. The male is larger.Mountain goats are among the most sure-footed of allanimals. Their hooves have concave rubbery padsthat spread to create a non-skid grip on rocks.

A Closer Look—LichensOn some alpine rocks and ridges, the only

growing things are crusts of bright-colored lichens.Lichens are pioneer species that are often first tocolonize habitats not yet suitable for other livingthings. Lichens require no soil, and have enormousresistance to cold and dryness. As lichens grow anddie on bare rock, they form small amounts of soil,which mosses, ferns, and flowering plants colonize.Many kinds of lichens can also fix nitrogen, anelement essential for plant growth. They are able toextract nitrogen from the atmosphere and store it insoil for use by other plants. Likewise, lichens act asdecomposers, breaking down wood and bones intomaterials needed by other species.

Lichen is not a single organism. It is a com-posite organism, composed of two or three speciesfunctioning as one. This type of living arrangement isknown as symbiosis (literally “living together”). Insymbiotic relationships, two organisms live closelyassociated for extended periods of time, with at least

one species benefiting. The otherspecies may either be benefited,harmed, or relatively unaffected bythe symbiotic relationship. Thesesubcategories of symbiosis areknown respectively as mutualism,

parasitism, andcommensalism

(literally “at tabletogether”). Lichens are examples of mutualism, amutually beneficial relationship.

Lichen, composed of green algae cells (and some-times cyanobacteria) surrounded by threadlike fungaltissues, is self-sufficient, requiring only minerals andwater absorbed from rocks and the atmosphere. Thealgae cells absorb water to photosynthesize food forboth algae and fungus. The fungi protect the algaeand/or cyanobacteria cells from dryness and cold.

Lichens have several adaptations to safeguardtheir stronghold in their rocky habitat. They are ableto manufacture over 500 biochemical compounds thatregulate light penetration, ward off predators, killharmful microbes, and deter competing plant species.

There are over 3,600 lichen species in NorthAmerica. Birds and mammals use many kinds oflichens for food and nesting material. Some lichenspecies benefit humans as well, providing dyes,antibiotics, and medicines. Most lichens areextremely vulnerable to air pollution and theirsudden disappearance can be an indicator ofchanging air quality.

Crossroads of Biodiversity—AlpineTundra

The Continental Divide, which runs through thealpine tundra, acts as an obstacle to east-west speciesmigration in Colorado. Few songbirds, reptiles,amphibians, or small mammals can surmount theharsh conditions and cross the divide. It seems thatonly the larger birds and mammals, which canquickly move across the tundra during fair weather,and small burrowing mammals break this naturalbarrier.


Mountain Goats


Some of the small burrowing species, especiallythe northern pocket gopher, have an enormousimpact on the plant diversity of the alpine tundra.Next to wind and snow cover, a gopher’s presence inalpine meadows is most influential in determiningthe plants that can survive. Although pocket gopherscan only disturb a small portion of the total tundraarea, a few acres at a time, they can change thosesmall spaces for decades.

You are more likely to see the piles of subsurfacesoil that the northern pocket gopher has excavated tothe surface than you are the gopher itself. In springand summer, the gophers feed on the roots of thecushion plants and weaken their fragile hold. Inwinter, pocket gophers dig through the protectiveblanket of snow. This allows them, along with miceand voles that use gopher tunnels, to feed throughoutthe cold season, eating above ground plant portions.Basically, they eat the vegetation away.

The followingsummer, meanderingpocket gopher ribbons

appear from beneath melting snowbanks, rangingfrom humps a few inches high to shallow depressionsmarking caved-in tunnels. Sometimes these ribbonsdissect the meadows and make them look a bit like amoth-eaten quilt. At other times, these patches havethe appearance of a cultivated garden. Seeds of tallplants with bright flowers, such as sky pilot, alpineavens, and bistort take root in these mounds of dirt.These plants have less defense from the high winds,and as they are clipped off by blowing rock and ice,most of the soil blows away as well. The meadow isfurther eroded when the gopher tunnels channelrunoff from melting snow. Usually, a pocket gopherwill re-work an area over and over, maintaining itsgopher garden for several years. At some point, thesoil from tundra meadow is gone and only bare rockremains. Since succession is such a slow process on

the tundra, recovery fromexposed rock to lichen

colony to cushion plantmeadow may take cen-

turies.

NorthernPocket Gopher

crismant

Table of Contents

Ecotone

Ecotone

ForestHabitat

MarshlandHabitat

LakeHabitat


Activity: The Edge of Home

ObjectivesStudents will: Identify the characteristics of ecotones, or transi-

tional zones, between two wildlife habitats.

MethodStudents explore the concept of ecotones by vis-

iting places where habitats overlap.

MaterialsPencils; paper; long rope or string for marking

intervals in one-foot segments; clipboards.

BackgroundEcology is the study of the interactions between

living things and their environments. Ecology comesfrom the Greek word oikos, which means home. Theword ecosystem refers to the system of interactionsbetween living and nonliving things.

An ecotone is a unique environment created bythe overlap of two or more surrounding habitats. Thearea of overlap between two ecosystems creates ahabitat edge where parts of each surrounding habitatare present. Those places where the edges of ecosys-tems come together and overlap are the places wherethe action occurs and change takes place. (SeeDiagram A.)

In local communities there are abundant edgesand overlaps of edges that may be accessible to thestudents. Playgrounds, school grounds, parking lots,stream banks, lake shores and marsh edges can befound within walking distance for many students.

In ecotones, overlapping ecosystems are morecomplex than any ecosystem by itself. For example,in an overlap of forest and marsh it is common to findforest plants growing within the marsh. Often thegrowth of the forest plants is stunted due to thewater in the marsh.

The overlapping ecosystems also offer a widerdiversity of wildlife because animals common to bothecosystems are brought together. Even though theymay not be seen, there is indirect evidence of theanimal populations—for example: footprints, drop-pings and feathers are all common.

Although ecotones play an important role in theoverall landscape, it is also important to keep theseareas from becoming too fragmented. This fragmen-tation can adversely affect wildlife that dependsentirely on one ecosystem. The concept of main-taining ecotones and all of their components in adynamic natural balance is defined as preserving thebiodiversity of that area. The absence of diversity inecotones is often a clue that problems may exist inthe ecosystems that overlap.

ProcedureBefore the Activity:Locate an outside study site for this activity.

Choose a place where plants are invading a parkinglot or playing field, or the edge of a forest where itmeets a meadow.

1.) On the chalkboard, draw two large overlappingcircles. Put a large number of small squares andtriangles in one circle. Avoid the area of overlap.In the second circle draw many tiny circles andstars. Again, avoid the overlap area. Ask the stu-dents to predict what kinds of things they wouldexpect to find in the overlapping circles. Drawcircles, squares, triangles and stars in the area ofoverlap. Ask the students where the greatestdiversity exists. Label the whole area of the

overlap the ecotone (this is the area ofgreatest diversity). Label the originaltwo circles as Ecosystem 1 and

Ecosystem 2. Ask the studentsto point out the edges of theoverlap. These are the places

DIAGRAM A

53AC T I V I T Y: TH E ED G E O F HO M E

where the two ecosystems come together andinteract. The process and results of this interac-tion are called the edge effect.

2.) Inform the students that they are going to inves-tigate a natural setting where there are habitatsthat overlap similar to the illustration. Ask themto take paper, pencils and clipboards on which torecord their observations.

3.) Take the students to the selected site. Ask themto work in teams of two or three to list the thingsfound on either side of the edge. Each teamshould examine two different ecosystems, notexamining the interactions and area where thetwo ecosystems meet and overlap. Have the stu-dents list the different species of plants andanimals they observe, and tally what they find.Include direct and indirect evidence of life. Askthem to discuss the similarities and differences,and to keep notes.

4.) Next, ask the students to carefully examine theedge. Determine how wide the ecotone or zoneof shared characteristics is. Point out that this is aminiature ecotone. The students might try toestimate the size of the ecotone as well as thediversity of species within the ecotone. Comparethe diversity of plants and animals found withinthe ecotone with the diversity of the plants andanimals found in the two separate ecosystemsthey originally examined.

NOTE: It may help the students organize more sys-tematic observations if they stretch a length of rope orstring from one ecosystem to another. Have the studentsmake and record observations every foot (or other unitof measure) along the line. It helps to mark the stringor rope at these intervals.

5.) After the trip, compare and interpret the stu-dents’ findings. Ask them for evidence theyfound to support the idea that populations ofplants and animals tend to be more diversewithin ecotones than in separate ecosystems.

OPTIONAL: Take the class to a site in the com-munity that has aquatic edges. Educators may beable to find a beach, highway edges, the edge oftown, a place where a stream enters or exits alake or others that might be available in the com-munity. Once there, ask the students to use thesame investigating techniques, working again inteams of two or three. They should identify atleast two ecosystems; list and describe the char-acteristic organisms in each; identify the ecotone;and list, observe and describe the organisms inthe ecotone.

Extensions

1.) Create an ecosystem map or model of your com-munity. Indicate the location of the principalecotones.

2.) Take a simple piece of paper and measure theedges. Cut the paper into four equal pieces—andmeasure the edges again. Repeat this twiceagain, measuring the edges each time. Supportthe idea that each new rectangle is a suitablehabitat for some aquatic organism and discusshow diversity is related to edges.

3.) Assess the overall health of any ecotones thatseem particularly important to the quality of lifefor aquatic species in your community. Whatcould be done to protect the area from beingdamaged, degraded or lost?

Evaluation

1.) Write a paragraph about the characteristics ofecotones. Write two additional paragraphs todescribe two ecosystems and an associatedecotone.

2.) Choose a species of wildlife and write a storyabout its life as it roams through several differentecosystems and ecotones. Explain how theanimal’s experiences are different at each of thevarious locations.

Duration: one or two 45-minute sessionsGroup Size: anySetting: outdoors and indoorsVocabulary: ecosystem, ecotone, edge effect

This activity was reprinted with permission from,“Project WILD Aquatic K-12 Curriculum and Activity Guide”

Ecotone

Ecosystem 1 Ecosystem 2

crismant

Table of Contents


1

2

3

4

5

6

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69

10

11

12

1314

15

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

55AQ U AT I C EC O S Y S T E M S, RI PA R I A N AR E A S, A N D WE T L A N D S

Bir

ds

1.

Com

mon

Yel

low

thro

at(G

eoth

lypi

s tri

chas

)—fa

vors

ripa

rian

habi

tats

, prim

arily

cat

tail

mar

shes

and

sw

amps

, bel

ow 8

,000

feet

. Kno

wn

as th

e “w

itche

ty”

bird

from

the

soun

dof

its

song

, the

yel

low

thro

at g

lean

s in

sect

s fr

om th

e gr

ound

or f

rom

low

shr

ubs.

2.

Gre

at H

orned

Ow

l(B

ubo

virg

inia

nus)

—di

stin

guis

hed

by it

s la

rge

ear t

ufts

and

foun

d at

all b

ut th

e hi

ghes

t ele

vatio

ns, h

as th

e w

ides

t dis

trib

utio

n of

any

Nor

th A

mer

ican

ow

l.T

he d

istin

ctiv

e ho

otin

g ca

lls o

f thi

s no

ctur

nal o

wl a

re h

eard

thro

ugho

ut th

e ye

ar, e

spe-

cial

ly in

late

win

ter w

hen

they

beg

in to

nes

t.

3.

Woo

d D

uck

(Aix

spon

sa)—

usua

lly fo

und

in lo

wer

-ele

vatio

n, w

oode

d rip

aria

n ar

eas,

and

iden

tifie

d by

a d

istin

ctiv

e he

ad c

rest

, lar

ger o

n th

e m

ale.

Fem

ales

cal

l a lo

ud “

oo-e

ek”

durin

g fli

ght.

4.

Kill

dee

r(C

hara

driu

s voc

iferu

s)—

nam

ed fo

r the

sou

nd o

f its

cal

l and

iden

tifie

d by

two

dark

nec

k rin

gs, w

ides

prea

d up

to a

bout

10,

000

feet

. Thi

s gr

ound

-nes

ting

plov

er h

as th

ein

tere

stin

g ha

bit o

f dra

ggin

g a

win

g al

ong

the

grou

nd a

s if

inju

red

to d

raw

pre

dato

rsaw

ay fr

om it

s ne

st.

5.

Yello

w W

arble

r(D

endr

oica

pete

chia

)—pr

efer

s co

tton

woo

d-w

illow

ripa

rian

habi

tats

up

toab

out 1

0,00

0 fe

et. M

ales

, ide

ntifi

ed b

y re

ddis

h st

reak

s on

thei

r yel

low

bre

asts

, arr

ive

inC

olor

ado

in M

ay a

nd in

crea

se th

eir s

ingi

ng u

pon

the

arriv

al o

f the

fem

ales

.

6.

Mal

lard

(Ana

s pla

tyrh

ynch

os)—

the

mal

e, o

r dra

ke, d

istin

guis

hed

by ir

ides

cent

gre

enhe

ad a

nd y

ello

w b

ill. P

erha

ps th

e m

ost n

umer

ous

and

wid

espr

ead

of a

ny w

ild d

uck,

only

the

fem

ale

of th

e sp

ecie

s “q

uack

s”.

7.

Nor

ther

n P

inta

il(A

nas a

cuta

)—du

ck n

amed

for i

ts lo

ng p

oint

ed ta

il. A

t birt

h, p

inta

ildu

cklin

gs a

re w

ell d

evel

oped

and

imm

edia

tely

wal

k to

wat

er, s

omet

imes

cov

erin

g di

s-ta

nces

up

to a

mile

on

thei

r firs

t day

of l

ife.

8.

Wild

Turk

ey(M

eleag

ris g

allo

pavo

)—in

trod

uced

Rio

Gra

nde

subs

peci

es fo

und

in ri

paria

nco

tton

woo

d ha

bita

ts. S

ocia

ble

bird

s of

ten

seen

in la

rge

flock

s, th

e fa

mili

ar fa

nnin

g of

the

tail

is a

cou

rtsh

ip d

ispl

ay d

one

by th

e m

ale

whi

le s

trut

ting

and

“gob

blin

g”.

9.

Shar

p-s

hin

ned

Haw

k(A

ccip

iter

stria

tus)

—fo

und

in ri

paria

n ar

eas

at a

ll el

evat

ions

. The

rela

tivel

y sh

ort w

ings

and

long

tails

that

typi

fy a

ccip

iters

like

thes

e “S

harp

ies”

are

usef

ul in

cat

chin

g sm

alle

r bird

s in

mid

-air.

10.

Can

ada

Goo

se(B

rant

a ca

nade

nsis)

—id

entif

ied

by a

whi

te c

hins

trap

on

an o

ther

wis

ebl

ack

head

and

nec

k. T

his

once

unc

omm

on s

peci

es is

now

num

erou

s in

man

y of

the

stat

e’s

ripar

ian

area

s an

d va

lleys

, esp

ecia

lly a

long

the

nort

hern

Fro

nt R

ange

.

11.

Bullo

ck’s

Ori

ole

(Icte

rus b

ullo

ckii)

—fo

rmer

ly th

e N

orth

ern

Orio

le, h

as b

lack

eye

-line

and

mar

king

s on

oth

erw

ise

oran

ge fa

ce c

ompa

red

to a

ll-bl

ack

hood

of t

he B

altim

ore

orio

le(I

. gal

bula

). G

reat

Pla

ins

sett

lers

pla

nted

dec

iduo

us tr

ees

like

cott

onw

oods

, pro

-vi

ding

a b

ridge

bet

wee

n th

e tw

o sp

ecie

s an

d al

low

ing

for i

nter

bree

ding

.

12.

Gre

at B

lue

Her

on(A

rdea

her

odia

s)—

adul

ts id

entif

ied

by b

lack

str

eak

over

the

eye

and,

in b

reed

ing

adul

ts, h

ead,

nec

k, a

nd b

ack

plum

es. T

he la

rges

t her

on in

the

U.S

., an

d th

em

ost w

ides

prea

d, th

is fo

ur-f

oot t

all b

ird c

an o

ften

be

seen

wad

ing

or s

low

ly w

alki

ngth

roug

h sh

allo

w w

ater

in s

earc

h of

food

.

Ma

mm

als

13.

Am

eric

an B

eave

r(C

asto

r ca

nade

nsis)

—la

rges

t rod

ent i

n N

orth

Am

eric

a, fo

und

inrip

aria

n ar

eas

from

gra

ssla

nd to

alp

ine

tund

ra. T

he b

eave

r’s e

yes,

ear

s, n

ose

and

mou

thca

n be

cov

ered

for s

wim

min

g, it

s hi

nd fe

et a

re w

ebbe

d, a

nd it

s pa

ddle

-like

tail

can

beus

ed a

s a

rudd

er, o

r a w

ater

-fla

ppin

g al

arm

cal

l.

14.

Com

mon

Musk

rat

(Ond

atra

zib

ethicu

s)—

smal

ler t

han

the

beav

er w

ith a

thin

ner,

side

-fla

tten

ed ta

il. M

ore

clos

ely

rela

ted

to v

oles

than

to tr

ue ra

ts, m

uskr

ats

can

stay

und

er-

wat

er fo

r per

iods

of f

iftee

n m

inut

es o

r mor

e, n

eedi

ng o

nly

seco

nds

abov

e w

ater

betw

een

subm

ersi

ons.

15.

Mule

Dee

r(O

doco

ileus

hem

ionu

s)—

inha

bit a

ll of

Col

orad

o’s

ecos

yste

ms

from

gra

ssla

nds

to tu

ndra

. Nam

ed fo

r the

larg

e ea

rs th

at c

an m

ove

inde

pend

ently

, the

se d

eer a

lso

have

scen

t gla

nds

abov

e th

e ba

ck h

oove

s.

16.

Red

Fox

(Vul

pes v

ulpe

s)—

the

mos

t wid

espr

ead

carn

ivor

e in

the

wor

ld, i

n C

olor

ado

may

rang

e in

col

or fr

om re

d to

bla

ck, b

ut a

lway

s w

ith a

whi

te-t

ippe

d ta

il. T

his

fox’

s he

arin

gis

sen

sitiv

e to

low

-fre

quen

cy s

ound

s, e

nabl

ing

it to

hea

r the

und

ergr

ound

act

iviti

es o

f its

burr

owin

g pr

ey.

17.

Rac

coon

(Pro

cyon

loto

r)—

iden

tifie

d by

a b

lack

mas

k an

d a

bush

y ta

il w

ith a

ltern

atin

gbl

ack

and

light

er-c

olor

ed ri

ngs.

The

se ri

ngta

il re

lativ

es a

re o

mni

voro

us a

nd p

rimar

ilyno

ctur

nal.

Rep

tile

an

d A

mp

hib

ian

s18

. Sm

ooth

Gre

en S

nak

e(L

ioch

loro

phis

vern

alis)

—gr

ass

gree

n w

ith w

hite

und

ersi

des,

foun

d in

mid

-ele

vatio

n rip

aria

n ar

eas

of C

olor

ado.

Act

ive

from

abo

ut M

ay to

Sep

tem

ber,

larg

e nu

mbe

rs o

f the

se s

ocia

ble

snak

es o

ften

hib

erna

te to

geth

er.

19.

Tige

r Sal

aman

der

(Am

bysto

ma

tigri

num

)—fo

und

thro

ugho

ut C

olor

ado

whe

re a

quat

icbr

eedi

ng a

reas

are

acc

essi

ble.

Col

orat

ion,

influ

ence

d by

the

envi

ronm

ent,

can

rang

efr

om li

ght b

ars

on a

dar

k ba

ckgr

ound

to d

ark

bars

or s

pots

on

a lig

ht b

ackg

roun

d.

20.

Wes

tern

Chor

us

Fro

g(P

seud

acri

s tri

seri

ata)

—oc

curs

at a

ll el

evat

ions

, usu

ally

in o

r nea

rst

andi

ng w

ater

. The

mal

e’s

mat

ing

call

is a

n as

cend

ing

“pre

-ee-

eep”

.

Tre

es21

. C

otto

nw

ood

(Pop

ulus

delt

oide

s)—

the

wat

er tr

ee o

f rip

aria

n C

olor

ado,

occ

urs

on th

eea

ster

n pr

airie

as

the

Plai

ns C

otto

nwoo

d, a

nd in

low

land

are

as o

f the

wes

t slo

pe a

s th

e R

io G

rand

or V

alle

y C

otto

nwoo

d. T

he m

ore

abun

dant

Nar

row

leaf

Cot

tonw

ood

(P. a

ugus

tifol

ia) i

s fo

und

at h

ighe

r ele

vatio

ns w

ith th

e L

ance

leaf

hyb

rid in

bet

wee

n.

22.

San

dbar

Will

ow(S

alix

exig

ua)—

som

etim

es c

alle

d C

oyot

e W

illow

, com

mon

alo

ng lo

wer

-el

evat

ion

stre

am b

anks

in ta

ndem

with

cot

tonw

ood.

A c

hara

cter

istic

ripa

rian

spec

ies,

this

will

ow c

olon

izes

and

hel

ps s

tabi

lize

new

ly c

reat

ed s

andb

ars.

Set

tin

g—T

he

Rio

Gra

nde

betw

een

Mon

te V

ista

an

d A

lam

osa


Aquatic Ecosystems,Riparian Areas, andWetlands

Water: Essential for LifePoet Thomas Hornsby Ferril

described Colorado as a statewhere “life is written inwater.” With an averageannual precipitation of justless than 16 inches,Colorado is considered asemi-arid state. Yet, thewater that collects in therivers, creeks, lakes, ponds,spring seeps and surroundingwetlands is vital to sustainthe biodiversity of thestate. Together, freshwaterecosystems, riparian lands,and wetlands constitute anestimated one to three percent ofthe state’s land, but support most ofColorado’s plant and animal species!

Water WorldsColorado’s streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, irrigation

ditches and reservoirs are all aquatic ecosystems. Thekind of habitat that each provides and the variety oflife that each can support is determined by manyfactors—water temperature, water clarity, current,amount and kind of dissolved minerals, and thematerials that line the bottom. Dissolved minerals inthe water influence the variety and abundance ofaquatic plants. For insects, fish, and other animals,oxygen levels are the decisive factor governing whatspecies can thrive in a particular body of water. Themix of plants and animals that live in the cold, fastmoving waters of high mountain streams and rivers isvery different than the mix of species inhabiting rela-tively warm, tranquil low elevation lakes and ponds.

Riparian LandsA riparian land scene was chosen to represent

water-associated ecosystems for this poster series.The word “riparian” is an adjective used to describelands bordering bodies of fresh water, usually thebanks of rivers, streams, and ponds. Riparian areasare found at all elevations and within all ecosystemsof the state from grassland to alpine tundra. Riparianlands represent an ecotone, an area of transitionbetween distinct ecosystems. They are strongly influ-enced by the nearby presence of water, and generally,

have microclimates that are cooler and wetter thanthe bordering land ecosystem. Species diversity inriparian areas is two to three times higher than in thesurrounding ecosystems.

Wet Meadows,Marshes, andPeatlands

Wetlands, as varied asthe topography of the state,

support more life acre foracre than any other habitat.But what are they? How canyou know a wetland whenyou see one?

Wetlands are placeswhere the soils are flooded orsaturated long enough each yearthat most plants would drown.The presence of uniquehydric soils, which are

oxygen poor, and the special“water-loving” plants, hydrophytes, that have adap-tations to thrive in them, indicate a wetland.Common hydrophytes such as cattails, bulrushes,sedges, saltgrass, willows and cottonwoods drawoxygen out of the air down theirstems to their roots.

Two types of common wetlandplants are rushes and sedges.Grass-like in appearance, rusheshave round stems and sedges havetriangular stems with three edges.Just remember: Rushes are Round,Sedges have Edges!

Colorado has three main typesof wetlands: wet meadows,marshes, and peatlands. Wetmeadows are often located nearriparian areas. Wet meadows havesaturated soils during a portion ofthe year, usually spring and earlysummer, just after snowmelt.These lush meadows often lookgreener or darker than the sur-rounding land. Wet meadows arethe most prevalent wetland type inColorado.

Marshes are similar to wetmeadows, but they flood in thespring. Usually, there is an imper-vious layer of rock somewhere

Rush

Riparian Area


below the surface of the soils,which holds the water like abucket. In the spring, somemarshes may have standingwater as deep as three to fourfeet. The water slowly evapo-

rates throughout the summer.On Colorado’s eastern grass-

lands, clay soils beneath themarshes hold the water, forming

shallow temporary lakes calledplayas.

Peatlands or “fens” are highelevation wetlands that form whengroundwater seeps to the surfacefrom enormous underground springs.Since the soils are low in oxygen,and the bacteria that decompose thedead plants do not work very effi-ciently, the dead leaves and rootsslowly accumulate over thousands ofyears, packing down into layers ofpeat.

Cottonwoods—the Water MarkersCottonwood trees are common in riparian areas

across our state. Cottonwoods serve as evidence thatsurface water or groundwater is nearby, or was in thepast.

Cottonwoods depend on a cycle of flooding anderosion to reproduce. Cottonwood seeds canonly germinate on bare, wet soil. Oncesprouted, they grow very quickly, sendingroots down three feet or more during theirfirst year. These deep roots help sustain the treeduring periods of low water and anchor the treeduring flood events.

Each year, as spring snowmelt overflows thebanks of stream channels, Colorado’s creeks andrivers wander and reshape themselves. The waterwashes away existing vegetation, leaving bare groundfor more cottonwood seeds to germinate. Atthe same time, old cottonwoods areuprooted and washed into thestream. The fallen trees decomposewhile acting as a dam to preventsand in the flowing waters frompassing through. The sandbars thatform are first colonized by willowsand eventually by new cottonwoods.

At other times, streams meanderfar away from remaining cottonwoods,leaving them as silent markers of bygonestreambeds. Over time, this persistentflooding and meandering creates a mosaicof older, middle-aged and young trees,

benefiting biodiversity by creating a variety of dif-ferent niches.

Colorado boasts several varieties of cotton-wood—the Plains cottonwood is found east of thedivide, while the Rio Grand, or Valley cottonwood, isfound in the west. The Narrowleaf cottonwood isfound at higher elevations, but hybridizes when itintermingles with the other varieties at intermediateelevations to produce the Lanceleaf cottonwood.

Wildlife You May Discover in AquaticEcosystems and Wetlands

The most numerous organisms in aquatic ecosys-tems are impossible to see with the naked eye.These microscopic plants (phytoplankton) andanimals (zooplankton) form the base of the aquaticfood chain and are vital to the healthy functioning ofaquatic ecosystems and wetlands. They provide foodfor macroinvertebrates, animals lacking backbonesbut visible to the naked eye. Macroinvertebrates, inturn, play a significant role in the food chain of fresh-water ecosystems by providing food for fish, birds,reptiles and amphibians.

Some macroinvertebrates are solely aquatic,living their entire lives in the water. A commonaquatic species one might see is the water boatman,which uses its paddle-like hind legs as tiny oars tomove through the water. Like a scuba diver, thewater boatman carries its own air bubble to supplyoxygen. Water striders, backswimmers, diving waspsand beetles also provide entertaining watery antics.

Most macroinvertebrates are adapted foraquatic life only in their immature stages. For

example, caddisfly larvae enclose them-selves in a long case made

from particles of finesand or plant mate-

rial, and attach

Sedge

Cottonwood


this case to thestream bottom. Inside,the caddisfly larvae grow and mature through theirpupal stage. Mature individuals then cut themselvesfree, crawl or swim to the surface of the water, andtake wing. Mayflies, damselflies, dragonflies andstoneflies are other familiar flying insects, as are mos-quitoes, gnats, and flies.

The diversity of macroinvertebrate species inaquatic ecosystems is a measure of the health of the

ecosystem.Certainmacroinverte-brates are

indicatorspecies, whose

presence or absencereveals much about

the quality of the water.While some species like

sludgeworms and rat-tailedmaggots can live in highly pol-

luted waters where oxygen supplyis low, others like mayflies, caddis-

flies, and riffle beetles are very sensi-tive to pollution and can only survive in cleanerenvironments.

In high mountain streams, brown, rainbow,brook, and native cutthroat trout feed on emerginginsects and smaller fish such as fathead minnows,johnny darters, and sculpins. Some of the largermountain lakes and reservoirs are stocked withkokanee salmon and North American’s largest trout,the mackinaw, or lake trout. At lower elevations,channel catfish and various sucker species are plen-tiful in streams and lakes. In the 1980’s, TigerMuskie, a hybrid of northern pike and muskie, wereoften introduced to control catfish and sucker popu-lations. These large, sterile fish have become afavorite with many Colorado anglers, providingtrophy-fishing opportunities. Largemouth and small-mouth bass, yellow perch, bullhead, green sunfish,crappie, wiper, and bluegill also provide great fishingrecreation in Colorado’s warmer waters.

Colorado’s wetlands and aquatic ecosystemsprovide ideal habitat for reptiles as well as amphib-ians. Most amphibians and reptiles live at elevationsbelow 6,000 feet, with few species above 8,000 feet.Lowland riparian areas, floodplains, ponds, andmarshes, host an abundance of these animals,including Woodhouse’s toad, plains and northernleopard frogs, northern cricket frogs, northern watersnakes and the common garter snake. The GreatPlains toad is found only in lowland riparian areas ineastern Colorado. When danger threatens, this toadinflates itself, closes its eyes, and gets close to theground. On the western side of the state, red-spottedtoads and canyon treefrogs occupy riparian zones inrocky canyon bottoms.

At the higher elevations, wet meadows, marshes,bogs, beaver ponds and other wetlands, especiallythose near areas riddled with rodent burrows thatamphibians can use for hibernation and shelter, arehome to tiger salamanders, western chorus frogs,wood frogs, and boreal toads. Colorado’s boreal toadonce thrived in wetlands above 7,000 feet. Since1985, these toads have disappeared from more than80 percent of their historic range. A likely cause ofthe decline is a chytrid fungus. Scientists don’t knowhow this fungus is transmitted from one area toanother, or if this is the sole factor in the decline ofthis toad, and research continues.

Wetlands and riparian lands contain the greatestdiversity of bird species of any Colorado ecosystem.

Within the cottonwood riparian forests,you can spot insect and seed-

eating birds such as vireos,

Water Boatman

Mayfly

Trout


warblers, orioles, blackbirds, grosbeaks, finches andflycatchers, as well as cavity-nesting birds such aswoodpeckers and merganser ducks. Look to thestream banks and you may see an entrance hole for akingfisher’s nesting tunnel. On the shore or in thewater, you may see an American dipper. In its searchfor food, the dipper can dive underwater and canactually walk along river bottoms! It has specialscales that seal its nostrils and oil glandsthat waterproof its plumage. Great blueherons can often be seen wading orslowly walking through shallow waterin search of food.

Raptors, like golden eaglesand prairie falcons, Cooper’shawks, American kestrels,and great horned owlscommonly roost and huntamong the cottonwoods.Bald eagles, whose mainprey is fish, perch on mature cotton-woods alongside open water. Onthe high, rocky cliffs overlookingthese riparian areas in WesternColorado, a visitor may be luckyenough to spot a peregrinefalcon, which preys uponsmaller wetland birds such asred-winged blackbirds andswallows.

Colorado’s marshes are our most important wet-lands for migratory water birds. Ducks, geese, shore-

birds, andwading birds alluse marshes asstopovers during migra-tion, as resting andfeeding sites and/or asbreeding and moltinggrounds. Ducks, killdeerand spotted sandpipersarrive in the earlyspring to feed on fairyshrimp and midgelarvae, a richprotein sourcethat theyrequire for egglaying andmigration. Wetmeadows alsoprovide browse andshelter for shorebirds andwaterfowl. Mallards and pintail ducks commonly nestin these areas in the early spring.

Wetlands are important to mammals also.Cottontail rabbits, mice, voles, and raccoons arecommon. Elk and deer graze in wet meadows along-side domestic livestock. Nearly all mammal speciesin the state visit riparian areas at one time or another,but beaver, mink, muskrat and river otter call themhome.

River otters are carnivores that feed on fish,frogs, and crayfish. River otters are classified as anendangered species by the state. This means thatotters are in jeopardy of becoming extinct inColorado. Historically present in riparian habitats

statewide, the otter was extirpated by 1907. Areintroduction effort, using otters trapped in

other states, began in 1976. More than 100river otters were released at

Cheesman Reservoirand on the Piedra,

Gunnison, UpperColorado andDolores Rivers.Currently, thereare three healthypopulations of

river otters on theGunnison, Piedra

and Green rivers andbiologists are consid-

ering reclassifying theriver otters’ status to

state threatened.

Boreal Toad

Great BlueHeron

Kingfisher


A Closer Look at One Species:American Beaver

The American beaver is an extraordinarycreature, possessing all the right tools foraquatic life. The largest rodent in NorthAmerica, the beaver has clear membranes tocover its eyes when submerged, built-in earand nose plugs, a thick waterproof pelt tokeep it warm in wintry waters, and huge lungswhich allow it to remain under water as longas fifteen minutes. The beaver even has lipsthat close behind its front incisors, so it canswim carrying food or building materialswithout taking in water!

Awkward on land, the beaver hasappendages that make it a swimming super-star. Its hind feet are webbed, and the paddle-shaped tail provides a rudder to controlswimming direction. The multi-purposetail can be slapped loudly against thesurface of the water to communicatepotential danger and also serves as animportant fat-storage area.

This animal is capable of alteringthe environment to perhaps agreater extent than any otherexcept humans. Natural engi-neers, beavers build dams, lodges,bank burrows, and canals to regulatewater levels to create a perfect habitat forthemselves. Most dam construction occurs afterspring runoff and in the fall in preparation for thewinter. With sharp teeth and strong jaw muscles,beavers can cut through a four inch diameter willow

in about three minutes. Beavers then use their sur-prisingly dexterous forepaws to embed buildingmaterials in the streambed and anchor them by pilingand interlacing other materials. Behind the dams,waters slow and pool, often producing good fishhabitat and increasing forage.

Beavers mate for life and usually live in familygroups of up to eight related individuals calledcolonies. The entire colony shares a lodge made ofsticks, mud and rocks, which may have multipleunderwater entrances. Although they are welldesigned, with air vents and moisture absorbing

floors, lodges, as well as dams, need constantmaintenance and repair.

In Colorado, beavers use willow,aspen and cottonwood for food as well as

for building material. They eat the leaves, buds, andcambium (a thin layer of living, dividing cells justunder the bark of trees). Since they do not hibernate,beavers store food in underwater caches where it isavailable for use throughout the winter. The averagebeaver colony needs about eight to ten acres of suit-able trees to survive. Once their supply of preferredwood is depleted, beavers will abandon the area,

allowing it to return to its pre-damconditions. This sets the stage forundisturbed re-growth of theaspen, cottonwood and willowsthat will someday again entice abeaver family to settle there.

River Otter

AmericanBeaver


Wetlands and Aquatic Ecosystems—Biodiversity at a Crossroads

Wetlands, riparian lands, and aquatic ecosystems,as home to our greatest diversity of species, also hostthe most species listed as threatened and endan-gered. Sixty-nine percent of the mammal, bird,amphibian, and fish species listed in “Wildlife inDanger”, published by the ColoradoDivision of Wildlife, inhabit riparianand aquatic areas.

Among themammals listed asthreatened, both bythe state and federalgovernment, is thePreble’s meadowjumping mouse. Thismeans this mouse, whilenot being in immediate jeop-ardy of extinction, is vulnerablebecause it exists in small numbers andis extremely restricted throughout most ofits range. The Preble’s meadow jumping mouseis brownish in color with a dark stripe runningdown its back. It has large hind feet (for jumping), athree to four-inch body and a five-inch tail.

This little mouse can jump a foot and a halfinto the air and cover a distance of three feet alongthe ground in a single leap. What’s more, it has theuncanny ability to abruptly change directions inmid-jump! It apparently uses its tail as a rudder bothin the air and in the water. Yes, the Preble’s meadowjumping mouse is also an accomplished swimmer.

Like the Preble’s meadow jumping mouse, eachthreatened and endangered species in Colorado isunique and is worth our respect, admiration, andwonder. Through concerted recovery efforts under-taken by dedicated public and private partnerships,there have been many success stories of restoringthreatened and endangered populations. People inColorado continue to make a difference.

Management Issues and ChallengesAcre for acre, Colorado’s aquatic ecosystems and

wetlands are the state’s most valuable lands forwildlife habitat, agricultural production, waterquality, tourism, outdoor recreation and ecosystemservices (refer to the activity “Wetland Metaphors”for details). These regions face natural and humanpressures that must be addressed by government,landowners, and private citizens to conserve theircapacity to meet future wildlife and human needs.

Aquatic ecosystems, riparian lands, and wetlandsare constantly changing. Lakes and ponds fill in with

vegetation and gradually become dry land. Riversmeander across valleys, leaving oxbow lakes, marshesor wet meadows behind. Climate shifts enlarge orshrink existing wetlands. Droughts, like the one thatColorado currently faces, dry streams and withermarshes and riparian areas.

Human activity has dramatically increased therate and magnitude of change in these areas. The netresult is a reduction of these habitats, not only in

Colorado, but worldwide. Thisdecline hasn’t been the

result of negligence orthoughtlessness, but

rather decisions oftenmade with the bestintentions andlimited knowledgeto solve a pressinglocal problem.

Understandabledecisions, made indi-

vidually and in

a local context, toreduce insect-bornedisease, create jobs, feed people, and build roads and cities, have had cumulative unintended conse-quences.

There are a host of human activities that haveimpacted aquatic ecosystems and wetlands:

Draining of Wetlands—Historically, it was commonpractice to drain or fill in wetlands to provide agri-cultural land, build cities and transportationsystems, and to reduce the possibility of insect-borne diseases such as malaria and yellow fever.

Introduction of Invasive Plant Species—Quickgrowing, ornamental exotics such as tamarisk andRussian olive trees were intentionally cultivated bypeople in riparian areas to stabilize stream banks.Unfortunately, these exotics sucked up tremendousquantities of moisture and displaced native plantspecies. While they provided habitat for a few birdspecies, overall they reduced wildlife habitat.Many exotics are very resistant to control efforts.

Preble’s MeadowJumping Mouse


Channelization—Before humans understood theecologically beneficial functions of stream mean-dering, it was common practice to straighten anddeepen watercourses. This was done to makestream dynamics more predictable and to aid intransporting water from one location to another.With flow rates, shores, stream banks andstreambeds altered, and with islands and sandbarsreduced or eliminated, channelization of Colorado’swaterways has also contributed to reduced cotton-wood tree regeneration and the precarious status ofseveral of our state’s species.

Heavy Metal Pollution from Acid Mine Drainage—Mining practices of the 1800’s left a negativelegacy of tailing piles and acid seepage. It is esti-mated that one-third to one-half of the state’s totalstream mileage has heavy metal loads whichexceed current water quality standards.

Other activities that have degraded Colorado’s wetlandand aquatic areas include: contamination from poorlysited or constructed landfills, overgrazing by live-stock, gravel mining, runoff of oils, pesticides,chemicals, and other pollutants, overuse by recre-ationists and changes related to water storage anddiversion (which can positively affect some areaswhile harming others).

When the full value of wetland, riparian landsand aquatic ecosystems was recognized, both publicand private groups began to manage these areas in amanner to ensure that their beneficial functions—

from fishing opportunities to water purification—would continue. Some management tools are mitiga-tion, restoration, enhancement, and acquisition.Mitigation is the strategy by which a wetlanddestroyed by one activity is replaced with a compa-rable human-made wetland in the same region.Restoration is the process of reestablishing the orig-inal condition of a degraded environment. It mayinvolve “undoing” what was previously done, such asde-channelizing a waterway and allowing it tomeander in its historic course. Enhancement makesan existing environment even better, by plantings, byproviding nesting boxes for birds, or improving thewater quality. Acquisition is buying critical habitatsor water rights outright, or negotiating conservationeasements. Colorado has a rich history of protectingcritical habitats, both by private groups such as theNature Conservancy and Ducks Unlimited, and pub-licly through lottery proceeds from the GreatOutdoors Colorado Trust Fund.

Good stewardship of these lands is an ongoingchallenge, often complicated by a fragmented arrayof laws and separate sets of rules managed by dif-ferent local, state, and federal agencies. Much of thisland is privately owned, and wetland and riparianland conservation is often not economically beneficialto the landowner that might otherwise develop theproperty. The challenge of the government role isnot to try to control or usurp private rights, but toencourage landowners to manage these lands in sucha way as to maintain and enhance their value tosociety as a whole.

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63AC T I V I T Y: WE T L A N D ME TA P H O R S

Activity: Wetland Metaphors

ObjectivesStudents will:

1.) describe the characteristics of wetlands; and

2.) evaluate the importance of wetlands to wildlifeand humans.

MethodStudents are presented with a selection of

objects for investigation as metaphors for the naturalfunctions of wetlands.

MaterialsA large pillowcase, bag or box; sponge; small

pillow; soap; eggbeater or mixer; small doll cradle;sieve or strainer; paper coffee filter; antacid tablets;small box of cereal; 3-inch x 5-inch cards with pic-tures that could be used to show other wetlandmetaphors. (A zoo could represent the idea ofwildlife diversity in a wetland, a lush vegetablegarden could represent the idea of a productivewetland in which food is abundant, a vacation resortcould represent the idea of a resting or winteringplace for migrating waterfowl.)

NOTE: A metaphoric approach such as this allows avariety of objects to suggest some appropriate linkage to thebasic characteristics of wetlands.

BackgroundWetlands are many different things to many dif-

ferent people. Some people have never heard orthought about wetlands. Others are working activelyto protect wetlands because of their importance.

Wetlands include such areas as freshwater andsaltwater marshes, wet meadows, swamps, lagoons,bogs and prairie potholes. All wetlands, whethercoastal or inland, provide special habitats that serveareas far beyond their boundaries. Wetlands areuniquely important to plants, animals, humans andthe total environment.

Because of the abundance of food, vegetativecover (shelter) and water found there, most wetlandsare rich with diverse wildlife species.

Coastal and inland marshes, for example, providebreeding, resting and wintering habitats for thou-sands of migratory birds—including ducks, geese,swans, cranes and shore birds. Many species of fishthat are important for commercial and personal use

by humans reproduce and spend part, or all, of theirlife cycles in fertile wetlands adjacent to larger, moreopen bodies of water. These fish species includebass, salmon, walleye, perch and pickerel. A widevariety of reptiles, amphibians, insects and crus-taceans also breed and live in wetlands. Frogs andtoads, turtles of all kinds, salamanders, snakes, drag-onflies, water striders, clams and crayfish flourish inwetland habitats. Many mammals—from muskrat andbeaver to white-tail deer and moose—also depend onwetland areas.

Wetlands are often referred to as nurseriesbecause they provide critical breeding and rearinghabitats for countless numbers and kinds of wildlife.

Wetlands also have the unique ability to purifythe environment. They act as natural filteringsystems and have been shown to be extremely effec-tive. For example; they can trap and neutralizesewage waste, allow silt to settle and promote thedecomposition of many toxic substances.

The importance of vegetation associated withwetlands cannot be overlooked. Plants absorb nutri-ents and help cycle them through food webs. Plantsalso help keep nutrient concentrations from reachingtoxic levels. Plants slow down water flow, causing siltto settle out. Through photosynthesis, plants addoxygen to the system and provide food to other lifeforms. Of great importance to humans are the flood-control characteristics of wetlands. When runoff fromrains and spring thaws are high, wetland areas absorbexcess water until it gradually drains away downstreams and rivers and through the soil. Acting asbuffers, healthy wetlands prevent flooding anderosion. In dryer periods, wetlands hold preciousmoisture after open bodies of water have disappeared.

The many activities that take place in wetlandsmake them among the most productive ecosystemsin the world.

As remarkable and resilient as wetlands are,these unique areas have limits. Their destructionand/or abuse can have devastating effects on wildlife,humans and overall environmental quality.

Many of the major attributes of wetlands can beexplored through the use of metaphors. To use ametaphor is to apply a word or phrase to an object orconcept that does not literally denote in order tosuggest a comparison between the two. A metaphorrepresents a concept or idea through another conceptor idea. “A tree is a home” and “Books are windows ofthought” are two examples. In this activity, a variety of


everyday objects are used to represent the naturefunctions of wetlands. For example:

Object Metaphoric Function

sponge absorbs excess water caused by runoff;retains moisture for a time even ifstanding water dries up (e.g., spongeplaced in a small puddle of waterabsorbs water until saturated, then stayswet after standing water has evaporated)

pillow or is a resting place for migratory birdsbed

mixer or mixes nutrients and oxygen into the eggbeater water

cradle provides a nursery that shelters, protectsand feeds young wildlife

sieve or strains silt, debris, etc., from waterstrainer

filter filters smaller impurities from water

antacid neutralizes toxic substances

cereal provides nutrient-rich foods

soap helps cleanse the environment, as wet-lands do

Wetland habitats are being converted to otheruses (agriculture, roadways, housing developments)or otherwise being altered (drained for pest control orpolluted) at the rate of about a half-million acres peryear. And although many wetlands are protected byfederal and state laws, there still appears to be a sig-nificant need to create a greater understanding of theimportance of wetlands as ecosystems and as wildlifehabitat.

The major purpose of this activity is for studentsto develop an appreciation and understanding of wet-lands through the power of metaphor, linking thecharacteristics and natural functions of wetlands tothe familiar realm of everyday life.

Procedure

1.) Prepare a “Mystery Metaphor Container” (pillow-case, bag or box). It should be possible for stu-dents to put their hands into the container andpull out an object without being able to seeinside the container. Educators may want tocollect as many as one metaphor object perstudent, but at least have enough for one pergroup of four students. Put the container aside touse later.

2.) Discuss the variety of wetlands found in yourlocal area, state, country, etc. Then invite thestudents to sit quietly and close their eyes. Askthem to picture a wetland. Have them examinewhat it looks like. Have them look carefully atthe plants and animals, including insects andsmall creatures. What does the air feel like? Howdoes it smell?

3.) Invite the students to tell what they imagined.Compile a list of their offerings. Encourage dis-cussion and mutual sharing.

4.) With their lists as a point of reference, help thestudents identify which plants and animals aremost likely to be found in a wetland. If possible,have them classify the plants and animalsaccording to the kind of wetland in which theywould be found. State or federal wildlife officialsand representatives of private conservation ornature-related organizations can be helpful.

5.) Next provide the students with backgroundinformation to serve as an overview of the basicecological activities that characterize the wetlandhabitat. For example, educators might includethe following:• sponge effect—absorbs runoff• filter effect—takes out silt, toxins, wastes, etc.• nutrient control—absorbs nutrients from fer-

tilizers and other sources that may cause con-tamination downstream

• natural nursery—provides protection andnourishment for newborn wildlife

Suggest that these activities and many more thatthey could probably this of are taking place inwetlands all the time.

6.) Now bring out the “Mystery Metaphor Container.”Tell the students that everything in the containerhas something to do with a wetland. Have thestudents divide into groups of four. Announcethat when it is their turn, a representative ofeach group will draw an object from the con-tainer. Then, as a group, they must figure outhow the object could represent what a wetland isor does.

7.) Have the designated student reach into the con-tainer and withdraw one object. When each grouphas an object, ask them to work as a team todescribe the relationships between theirmetaphoric object and the wetland. Encouragethe students to build on each other’s ideas. Youcan also assist by strengthening their connections.

NOTE: Allow the students time to discuss their ideaswith each other before doing so in front of the entireclass.

65AC T I V I T Y: WE T L A N D ME TA P H O R S

8.) Ask each group to report its ideas to the class.

9.) Following discussion and review of the functionsrepresented by each metaphor, ask the studentsto summarize the major roles that wetlandsperform in contributing to habitat for wildlife.List the ways in which wetlands are important tohumans. Why do humans convert wetlands toother uses? Ask them if their own attitudes aboutwetlands are different now. If yes, how? If not,why not?

10.) For the final part of this activity, encourage thestudents’ understanding of how the wetlands’condition depends upon each of us. Many kindsof wildlife depend upon wetlands. Our own well-being requires wetland ecosystems. Strengthenthe students’ understanding of how humans areconnected to wetlands. Recreation, aesthetics,utilitarian uses, environmental quality and naturestudy are but a few of the connections we eachhave with wetlands.

Extensions

1.) Visit a wetland to verify the appropriateness ofthe metaphors explored in the classroom.Identify and discuss any limitations to the appro-priateness of these metaphors. Identify whatseem to be the most compelling attributes of themetaphors in helping you understand the charac-teristics and nature of the wetland. Expand onyour understanding of these metaphors. Identifynew and appropriate metaphors.

2.) Investigate local, county, state and federal regu-lations and laws that govern uses of wetlands.

Evaluation

1.) Explain why wetlands are among the world’smost productive ecosystems.

2.) Wetlands are important to a range of organisms inthe animal kingdom, from zooplankton tohumans. Select five species of animals anddescribe how wetlands are important to each.

Duration: one or two 30–60 minute sessionsGroup Size: anySetting: indoors or outdoorsVocabulary: wetlands, metaphor

This activity was reprinted with permission from,“Project WILD Aquatic K-12 Curriculum and Activity Guide”

Cattails

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Glossary

Abiotic: Non-living factor in an environment.

Acquisition: As a management strategy, the process of pro-tecting habitat through such transactions as purchasing crit-ical habitats or exclusive water rights, or negotiatingconservation easements.

Antlers: Skin-covered, bone projections found typically onthe heads of male members of the deer family, that areshed and re-grown annually, in contrast to the horns ofbighorn sheep, mountain goats, and pronghorn, which arenot shed.

Aquatic: Associated with, or living in, water.

Biodiversity: Short for biological diversity, includes thevariety of species, genetic diversity within a species, andthe diversity of ecosystems within a recognizable area.

Biomass: Organic material.

Biome: A large geographic area with uniform climatic con-ditions and distinct vegetation.

Bioregion: An area whose physical, ecological, or culturalcharacteristics set it apart from surrounding areas.

Biotic: Living factor in an environment.

Browsers: Those species that mainly eat twigs and leavesof woody or brushy plants. Often contrasted with grazers.

Buck: Mature male of certain mammal species, includingdeer and pronghorn.

Bull: Mature male of certain species, including bison,cattle, elk and moose.

Cambium: A thin layer of living, dividing cells just underthe bark of trees.

Camouflage: Protective coloration that helps species blendin with their surroundings.

Circumpolar: Occurring in the same habitats across thenorthern hemisphere, in both arctic and alpine tundraregions.

Climax community: A plant community at the end pointof the successional sequence, that maintains itself if theenvironmental conditions stay the same.

Coevolution: Shared shaping of adaptations.

Commensalism: Literally “at table together”, a relation-ship between two species where one benefits and the otherremains relatively unaffected, neither significantly helpednor harmed. See also symbiosis.

Community: Species living and interacting in an area.

Composite organism: Organism composed of two or threespecies functioning as one, e.g., lichens.

Coniferous: Trees that keep their green needlesthroughout the year.

Consumers: Species that primarily eat or consume others.

Cooperative breeding: Survival adaptation in which theprevious year’s offspring help the parents raise the newbrood.

Cultural diversity: The richness of human knowledge,beliefs, and traditions.

Deciduous: Trees that shed their leaves annually.

Decomposers: Species that help break down, or decom-pose, all others.

Delayed implantation: Reproductive strategy in which theattachment of the fertilized egg to the uterine wall isdelayed.

Diurnal: Most active in the daytime.

Ecosystem: The sum of interactions between a communityof species and the non-living components of the environ-ment, such as temperature, soils, water, and elevation.

Ecotone: Area of transition between distinct ecosystems.See also edge.

Edge: Area of overlap between two ecosystems where partsof each surrounding habitat are present. See also ecotone.

Endangered species: A species or subspecies that is injeopardy of becoming extinct.

Endemic species: A species found nowhere else in theworld.

Enhancement: As a management strategy, the process ofbettering an existing environment through such actions asplantings, providing nesting boxes for birds, or improvingwater quality.

Extirpated: Species absent from its native range but notextinct.

Fens: High elevation wetlands that form when ground-water seeps to the surface from enormous undergroundsprings. Also known as peatlands.

Forbs: Non-woody, broad-leafed, flowering plants.

Furbearer: As a legal classification, an animal with mar-ketable fur.

Game animal: As a legal classification, a wildlife speciesthat can be hunted according to legal seasons and limits.

Grazers: Those species that mainly eat grasses and forbs.Often contrasted with browsers.

Habitat: Where organisms live and get the food, water,shelter and living space they need to survive.

Hibernaculum: Place where bats hibernate.

Hibernation: A state of winter dormancy.

Horns: Bone-like projections from the heads of bighornsheep, mountain goats, and pronghorn that are not shedevery year like the antlers of deer and elk.

Hydric: Oxygen poor soils characterized by, and showingthe effects of, the presence of water.

Hydrophytes: “Water-loving” plants that have adaptationsto thrive in oxygen-poor, or hydric, soils.

Indicator species: Species whose relative abundance andcondition reveal much about the condition of the largerecosystem.

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Krummholz: Literally “crooked wood”, the stunted,twisted trees that border the highest edge of the subalpineforest.

Landscape: A general term for an area that shares enoughfeatures to set it apart from another area.

Lek: Strutting ground of male grouse and prairie chickens.

Life zone: A band or belt of plant and animal life, usuallyon the side of a hill or mountain, which changes with eleva-tion and latitude.

Macroinvertebrates: Animals lacking backbones butvisible to the naked eye.

Mitigation: As a management strategy, constructing or cre-ating wetlands to replace those lost to development.

Monoculture: The raising of a crop of a single plantspecies, generally even-aged.

Morphological: Pertaining to physical form and structure.

Mutualism: A mutually beneficial relationship betweentwo species. See also symbiosis.

Myotis: The “mouse-eared” bats.

Niche: The function, opportunity, or “job” available to aliving thing in an ecosystem.

Niche differentiation: Competitive strategy in whichspecies restrict their activities to a specific time period orpart of the environment. Also known as specialization.

Nocturnal: Most active at night.

Parasite: An organism that draws its needed nutrients fromanother.

Parasitism: A relationship between two organisms whereone benefits and the other is harmed. See also symbiosis.

Peatlands: High elevation wetlands that form whengroundwater seeps to the surface from enormous under-ground springs. Also known as fens.

Photosynthesis: The process by which green plants manu-facture simple sugars in the presence of sunlight, carbondioxide, and water.

Phytoplankton: Microscopic plants.

Pioneer: Early successional species that are often first tocolonize habitats not yet suitable for other living things.

Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the male part ofthe plant (anther) to the female portion of the plant(stigma).

Pollinator: An organism that pollinates flowers.

Playas: Shallow, temporary lakes.

Precocial: Refers to young that are sufficiently developedat birth or hatching to function with a degree of independ-ence from their parents.

Producers: Species that make their own food, and servemostly as food for others.

Restoration: As a management strategy, the process ofreestablishing the original condition of a degraded environ-ment.

Riparian: Describing lands bordering bodies of freshwater, usually the banks of rivers, streams, and ponds.

Rut: Mating season of male moose, elk, deer, sheep, andgoats.

Scat: Animal feces or droppings.

Specialization: Adaptive strategy in which species restricttheir activities to a specific time period or part of the envi-ronment. Also known as niche differentiation.

Species: Populations of individuals that basically lookalike, behave similarly, and are able to breed and producefertile offspring under natural conditions.

Species abundance: The number of individuals of eachspecies in a given area.

Species richness: The number of different species in agiven area.

Sublimation: Process in which moisture from snow returnsto the atmosphere directly as water vapor.

Succession: The natural process by which plant communi-ties replace previous ones over time.

Symbiosis: Literally “living together”, two organismsliving closely associated for extended periods of time, withat least one species benefiting. See also mutualism, para-sitism, and commensalism.

Taxonomist: Scientist who classifies organisms.

Threatened species: Species or subspecies in jeopardy ofbecoming endangered.

Torpor: A state of lowered metabolic rate. An animal insuch a state is described as torpid.

Treeline: The transitional zone or edge between subalpineforest and alpine tundra, sometimes called timberline.

Trophic level: The role of a species in the food chain, orfeeding level.

Wet meadows: Areas with soils that are saturated during aportion of the year, usually spring and early summer, justafter snowmelts.

Zooplankton: Microscopic animals.

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Field IdentificationManuals

Field Identification Manuals are an essentialresource for exploring and understanding nature inColorado and elsewhere. There are many excellentguides available at bookstores and libraries. Our sug-gested list is by no means exhaustive. The books orseries that are marked with a “•” may be more usefulto young or beginning naturalists.

Field Guide SeriesThe Audubon Society Nature Guides The Audubon Society Pocket Guides Golden Field GuidesGolden Guides •National Audubon Society Field GuidesNational Audubon Society First Field Guide Series •National Audubon Society Regional Field Guide SeriesNature Finder GuidesPeterson Field GuidesPeterson Field Guides for Young Naturalists •Peterson First Guides •Peterson Flash Guides (Map-like, with 24 waterproofpanels)Readers Digest North American Wildlife SeriesSimon & Shuster Guides

Smithsonian Kid’s Field Guides •Stokes Beginner’s Guides •Stokes Nature Guides

Other Field GuidesField Guide to the Birds of North America, Second

Edition; National Geographic Society,Washington, D.C.

Guennel, G. K. Guide to Colorado Wildflowers—Volume 1: Plains & Foothills. Colorado: WestcliffePublishers, 1995.

Guennel, G. K. Guide to Colorado Wildflowers—Volume 2: Mountains. Colorado: WestcliffePublishers, 1995.

Hammerson, Geoffrey A. Amphibians and Reptiles inColorado: A Colorado Field Guide, Second Edition.Colorado: University Press of Colorado, ColoradoDivision of Wildlife, 1999.

Weber, William A. Colorado Flora—Eastern Slope.Colorado: University Press of Colorado, 1990.

Weber, William A. Colorado Flora—Western Slope,Revised Edition. Colorado: University Press ofColorado, 1996.


References

Alonzo, A., Dallmeier, F., Granek, E. and Raven, P.Biodiversity: Connecting with the Tapestry of Life.Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution, 2001.

Andrews, Robert and Righter, Robert. Colorado Birds: A Reference to their Distribution and Habitat. Denver,Colorado: Denver Museum of Natural History, 1992.

Armstrong, David A., Adams, Rick A., Navo, Kirk W.,Freeman, Jerry and Bissell, Steven J. Bats of Colorado:Shadows in the Night. Denver, Colorado: ColoradoDivision of Wildlife, 1995

Fitzgerald, James P., Meaney, Carron A. and Armstrong,David M. Mammals of Colorado. Niwot, Colorado:University Press of Colorado, 1994.

Johnson, Kirk R. and Raynolds, Robert G. Ancient Denvers:Scenes from the Past 300 Million Years of the ColoradoFront Range. Denver, Colorado: Denver Museum ofNature & Science, 2002

Kingerly, Hugh E., Colorado Breeding Bird Atlas. Denver,Colorado: Colorado Bird Atlas Partnership, 1998.

Kruger, Frances Alley and Meaney, Carron A. ExploreColorado: A Naturalist’s Notebook. Denver, Colorado:Denver Museum of Natural History, Englewood,Colorado: Westcliffe Publishers, 1995.

Mutel, Cornelia Fleischer and Emerick, John C. FromGrassland to Glacier: The Natural History of Colorado and the Surrounding Region, Second Edition. Boulder,Colorado: Johnson Books, 1992.

Wildlife in Danger: The Status of Colorado’s Threatened orEndangered Fish, Amphibians, Birds, and Mammals,Denver, Colorado: Colorado Division of Wildlife.

Young, Mary Taylor. Colorado Wildlife Viewing Guide, SecondEdition. Helena, Montana: Falcon Publishing, 2000.

Zwinger, Ann H. and Willard, Beatrice, E. Land Above theTrees: A Guide to American Alpine Tundra. New York:Harper & Row, Perennial Library, 1972.

A great way to spice up your teaching.

Three Project WILD activities are included in this guide:

Which Niche? (page 6)The Edge of Home (page 52)

Wetland Metaphors (page 63)

These are just three of the 170 great activities you will find in the Project WILD and Aquatic WILD activity guides. These guides are free to

Colorado educators who attend one of our exciting WILD workshops.

For information on workshops offered in your area visit our Web site: coloradocorrelations.org

Go to the links on the left and click on Teacher Workshops.

These workshops are offered for continuing education credits. Also check out the workshops offered by our partner programs:

Project Learning Tree, Project WET, and Project Food, Land & People. The activities in Project WILD and our partner programs have been correlated to the Colorado Model Content Standards. You can find those correlations on the same Web page mentioned above. This

interactive Web page will guide you to just the right activity to enhance yourteaching to meet specific standards, or cover chosen topics or subject areas.

First introduced in 1983, Project WILD is now offered in all 50 states and throughout Canada. Over 650,000 educators in the United States

have participated in Project WILD workshops. Project WILD is sponsoredand administered in Colorado by the Colorado Division of Wildlife.

The goal of Project WILD is to assist students of any age in developingawareness, knowledge, skills, and commitment to result in informed decisions, responsible behavior and constructive actions concerning

wildlife and the environment.

For more information, visit coloradocorrelations.org or contact Colorado Project WILD at

(303) 814-1391.

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Colorado Division of Wildlife, Education Section

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Section

http://www.wildlife.state.co.us/education

Documents

WILD Colorado: Crossroads of Biodiversity