WOMEN: THE WOMEN: THE OPPRESSED OPPRESSED

MAJORITYMAJORITY

CHAPTER 15CHAPTER 15

Women and Minority StatusWomen and Minority StatusSubordinate status means confinement to Subordinate status means confinement to

subordinate roles not justified by a person’s subordinate roles not justified by a person’s abilitiesabilities

Biological differences between males and Biological differences between males and femalesfemales

Must separate differences of gender from Must separate differences of gender from those produced by sexismthose produced by sexism

Feminist movement has a long historyFeminist movement has a long historyChild care and housework still Child care and housework still

disproportionately responsibilities of womendisproportionately responsibilities of women

Men and women find it difficult to Men and women find it difficult to conceptualize women as a subordinate conceptualize women as a subordinate groupgroupNot all women live in ghettosNot all women live in ghettosNo longer attend inferior schoolsNo longer attend inferior schoolsFreely interact and live with their allege Freely interact and live with their allege

oppressors – menoppressors – men

Five properties of a subordinate or minority Five properties of a subordinate or minority groupgroup1. Women experience unequal treatment1. Women experience unequal treatment2. Women have physical and cultural 2. Women have physical and cultural

characteristics that distinguish them from the characteristics that distinguish them from the dominant group – mendominant group – men

3. Membership in the subordinate group is 3. Membership in the subordinate group is involuntaryinvoluntary

4. Women are aware of their subordinate status 4. Women are aware of their subordinate status and have a sense of solidarity and have a sense of solidarity

5. Women are not forced to marry, yet many feel 5. Women are not forced to marry, yet many feel subordinate status defined within marriagesubordinate status defined within marriage

SexismSexismThe ideology that one sex is superior to the The ideology that one sex is superior to the

otherotherAndrogynyAndrogyny

The view that there are few differences The view that there are few differences between the sexesbetween the sexesPermits people to see that humans can be both Permits people to see that humans can be both

aggressive and expressive depending on the aggressive and expressive depending on the situationsituation

Gender RolesGender RolesGender RolesGender Roles

Society’s expectations of the proper behavior, Society’s expectations of the proper behavior, attitudes, and activities of males and femalesattitudes, and activities of males and females

Socialization has powerful impact on Socialization has powerful impact on development of females and males in USdevelopment of females and males in US

Origin of gender roles are not clearOrigin of gender roles are not clearAnimal studies and genderAnimal studies and genderCross-cultural studies and genderCross-cultural studies and gender

Acceptable behavior for men and women Acceptable behavior for men and women change over time in a societychange over time in a society

Sociological PerspectiveSociological PerspectiveSociologist Estelle Disch (1997)Sociologist Estelle Disch (1997)

Gender differences maintained in our culture Gender differences maintained in our culture through systematic socializationthrough systematic socialization

Gender differentiation in US culture Gender differentiation in US culture embedded in social institutionsembedded in social institutionsFamily, education, religion, politics, economy, Family, education, religion, politics, economy,

medicine, and mass mediamedicine, and mass mediaFunctionalistFunctionalist

Sex differentiation contributes to overall social Sex differentiation contributes to overall social stabilitystability

Persuasive in explaining the way men and women Persuasive in explaining the way men and women are brought up is US societyare brought up is US society

Conflict TheoryConflict TheoryRelationship between females and males is Relationship between females and males is

one of unequal power with men being one of unequal power with men being dominant over womendominant over women

Functionalists and conflict theoristsFunctionalists and conflict theoristsAcknowledge it is not possible to change Acknowledge it is not possible to change

gender roles drastically without dramatic gender roles drastically without dramatic revisions in a culture’s social structurerevisions in a culture’s social structureFunctionalists see potential social disorder or Functionalists see potential social disorder or

unknown social consequencesunknown social consequencesConflict theorists contend no social structure is Conflict theorists contend no social structure is

desirable if maintained through oppressiondesirable if maintained through oppression

The Feminist MovementThe Feminist MovementWomen activists and sympathetic men who Women activists and sympathetic men who

spoke of equal rights were ridiculed and spoke of equal rights were ridiculed and scornedscorned

Emerged during the early part of the Emerged during the early part of the nineteenth centurynineteenth century

Evolved out of the oppression of women and Evolved out of the oppression of women and children within the colonial family and societychildren within the colonial family and society

Role of women in the abolitionist movement Role of women in the abolitionist movement and its influence on the development of the and its influence on the development of the women’s movementwomen’s movement

The Suffrage MovementThe Suffrage MovementSuffragistsSuffragists

Worked for years to get women the right to voteWorked for years to get women the right to vote

Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott and Seneca Falls women’s rights convention of Seneca Falls women’s rights convention of 18481848

Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution (1919)(1919)Remarkable achievement because it had to rely on Remarkable achievement because it had to rely on

male legislators to do somale legislators to do soMovement faded and regained prominence in Movement faded and regained prominence in

the 1960’sthe 1960’s

The Women’s Liberation MovementThe Women’s Liberation MovementRole of the civil rights movement and the re-Role of the civil rights movement and the re-

emergence of feminismemergence of feminismSeveral events delayed progress in 1960’sSeveral events delayed progress in 1960’s

Civil rights movement and the antiwar Civil rights movement and the antiwar movement slow to embrace women’s rightsmovement slow to embrace women’s rights

New Left as sexist as the rest of society in New Left as sexist as the rest of society in practice despite talk of equalitypractice despite talk of equality

Protest groups rejected women leadersProtest groups rejected women leadersEventually civil rights movement, New Left, Eventually civil rights movement, New Left,

and established women groups endorsed and established women groups endorsed feminist movementfeminist movement

Feminist movement underwent significant Feminist movement underwent significant changechange

Betty FriedanBetty FriedanFounder of National Organization for Women Founder of National Organization for Women

(NOW)(NOW)Feminine MystiqueFeminine Mystique

Recognizing that society saw women only as their Recognizing that society saw women only as their children’s mother and their husband’s wifechildren’s mother and their husband’s wife

Called for restructuring the “institution of home Called for restructuring the “institution of home and wife”and wife”

Sociologist Arlie Russell HochschildSociologist Arlie Russell HochschildWomen’s movement stalled revolution in which Women’s movement stalled revolution in which

women have more opportunities in the women have more opportunities in the workplace but are forced to do everythingworkplace but are forced to do everything

The Economic PictureThe Economic PictureOccupational segregation of womenOccupational segregation of womenWomen are concentrated in low paying Women are concentrated in low paying

occupationsoccupations Increase in female labor force participation Increase in female labor force participation

over the last centuryover the last centurySexism in employmentSexism in employmentBureau of Labor Statistics segregation indexBureau of Labor Statistics segregation index

54% of women and men workers would need to 54% of women and men workers would need to switch jobs to create a labor force without switch jobs to create a labor force without segregationsegregation

Occupational Segregation Occupational Segregation and Discriminationand Discrimination

Occupational segregation by gender Occupational segregation by gender continues, but women have increased continues, but women have increased participation in labor forceparticipation in labor force

Women earnings have increased Women earnings have increased significantly over the last quarter centurysignificantly over the last quarter centuryFrom 62 cents to 80 cents for every dollar From 62 cents to 80 cents for every dollar

earned by menearned by menShow little further narrowing through 2012Show little further narrowing through 2012

Sources of discriminationSources of discriminationPrimary cause is segregating influences in Primary cause is segregating influences in

the labor marketthe labor marketThe social and occupational roles of men The social and occupational roles of men

and women have become segregated and women have become segregated Ideologically Ideologically Physically Physically Socially Socially

Ideological devaluation of the occupational Ideological devaluation of the occupational roles of womenroles of women

Efforts to eliminate discrimination as it applies Efforts to eliminate discrimination as it applies to womento women1964 Civil Rights Act1964 Civil Rights Act

Equal Employment Opportunity CommissionEqual Employment Opportunity Commission Address cases of sex discriminationAddress cases of sex discrimination

Pay Equity (Comparable worth)Pay Equity (Comparable worth)Calls for equal pay for different types of work that are Calls for equal pay for different types of work that are

judged to be comparable by measuring:judged to be comparable by measuring: KnowledgeKnowledge SkillsSkills Effort Effort ResponsibilityResponsibility Working conditionsWorking conditions

Primary goal of feminists-eliminate sex Primary goal of feminists-eliminate sex discrimination in labor force and equalize job discrimination in labor force and equalize job opportunitiesopportunities

Glass CeilingGlass CeilingRefers to the invisible barrier blocking the Refers to the invisible barrier blocking the

promotion of a qualified worker because of promotion of a qualified worker because of gender or minority membershipgender or minority membership

Despite debate over affirmative action, Despite debate over affirmative action, consensus is that there is little room at the consensus is that there is little room at the top for women and minoritiestop for women and minorities

Mommy TrackMommy TrackAn unofficial career track that firms use for An unofficial career track that firms use for

women who want to divide their attention women who want to divide their attention between work and familybetween work and familyCan’t be applied to all womenCan’t be applied to all womenImplies that men are not interested in maintaining Implies that men are not interested in maintaining

balance between work and familybalance between work and family

Sexual HarassmentSexual HarassmentRecognized as any unwanted and Recognized as any unwanted and

unwelcome sexual advances that interfere unwelcome sexual advances that interfere with a person’s ability to perform a job and with a person’s ability to perform a job and enjoy the benefits of a jobenjoy the benefits of a job

Sociocultural theory of sexual harassmentSociocultural theory of sexual harassment Rooted within patriarchy and male dominanceRooted within patriarchy and male dominance

Takes place where the hierarchy of authority Takes place where the hierarchy of authority finds White men at the top and in which finds White men at the top and in which women’s work is valued less than men’swomen’s work is valued less than men’sAfrican American women 3 times more likely than African American women 3 times more likely than

White women to experience sexual harassment White women to experience sexual harassment

Power theory of sexual harassmentPower theory of sexual harassment Rooted within the distribution of power within Rooted within the distribution of power within

organizationsorganizations Function of the difference in power relationsFunction of the difference in power relations

Conflict PerspectiveConflict PerspectiveWomen, especially women of color, are most Women, especially women of color, are most

likely to be victims of sexual harassmentlikely to be victims of sexual harassmentThese groups typically are an organization’s These groups typically are an organization’s

most vulnerable employees in terms of job most vulnerable employees in terms of job securitysecurity

Feminization of PovertyFeminization of Poverty Poverty and womenPoverty and women Increase in the number of female headed Increase in the number of female headed

householdshouseholds Increase in divorceIncrease in divorce Displaced HomemakerDisplaced Homemaker

Defined as women whose primary occupation had Defined as women whose primary occupation had been homemaking but who did not find full time been homemaking but who did not find full time employment after divorce, separation, or widowhoodemployment after divorce, separation, or widowhood

Declining alimony and the lack of child supportDeclining alimony and the lack of child support Lack of family friendly Federal Lack of family friendly Federal

policiespolicies

EducationEducation

Sex-segregated classrooms (structure and Sex-segregated classrooms (structure and tracking by gender)tracking by gender)

Discrimination in admissions and financial Discrimination in admissions and financial aid by sexaid by sex

Increase in the number female faculty on Increase in the number female faculty on campusescampuses

Equal access to educational resourcesEqual access to educational resources

Education Act of 1972 and Department of Education Act of 1972 and Department of Health, Education, and Welfare guidelines of Health, Education, and Welfare guidelines of 1974 and 19751974 and 1975 Collectively called Collectively called Title IX provisionsTitle IX provisions

Regulations designed to eliminate sexist practices from Regulations designed to eliminate sexist practices from almost all school systemsalmost all school systems

Schools must make changes or lose federal Schools must make changes or lose federal assistanceassistance

Eliminate all sex-segregated classes and extracurricular Eliminate all sex-segregated classes and extracurricular activitiesactivities

Cannot discriminate by sex in admissions or financial aid; Cannot discriminate by sex in admissions or financial aid; cannot inquire if applicant is married, pregnant, or parentcannot inquire if applicant is married, pregnant, or parent

Schools must end sexist hiring and promotion practices Schools must end sexist hiring and promotion practices among faculty membersamong faculty members

Although women do not have to be admitted to play on all-Although women do not have to be admitted to play on all-men’s athletic teams, schools must provide more men’s athletic teams, schools must provide more opportunities for women’s sports, intramural and extramuralopportunities for women’s sports, intramural and extramural

Family LifeFamily LifeUS society equates work with wagesUS society equates work with wages

Women who do household chores and volunteer Women who do household chores and volunteer work are given little statuswork are given little status

Sociologist Susan Walzer (1996)Sociologist Susan Walzer (1996)Mothers are much more involved than fathers in Mothers are much more involved than fathers in

the invisible mental labor associated with taking the invisible mental labor associated with taking care of a babycare of a baby

Media attention (21Media attention (21stst century) century)Focused on high profile women who choose not Focused on high profile women who choose not

to climb the last steps of corporate ladderto climb the last steps of corporate ladder““opting out”opting out” led to generalization on all women led to generalization on all women

Seventy-two percent of care givers are Seventy-two percent of care givers are womenwomen

Psychologist Mary Clare Lennon and Psychologist Mary Clare Lennon and Sociologist Sarah Rosenfield (1994)Sociologist Sarah Rosenfield (1994)67% men suggested uneven distribution of 67% men suggested uneven distribution of

housework fair to both spouseshousework fair to both spousesMarried women with fewest alternatives and Married women with fewest alternatives and

financial prospects most likely to accept unequal financial prospects most likely to accept unequal household arrangementshousehold arrangements

Women who view unequal housework as unjust Women who view unequal housework as unjust experience more depressionexperience more depression

Sociologist Arlie HochschildSociologist Arlie HochschildSecond ShiftSecond Shift

Describes the double burden – work outside the Describes the double burden – work outside the home followed by child care and housework that home followed by child care and housework that many women face and few men share equitablymany women face and few men share equitably

Issue increasingly important as more mothers work Issue increasingly important as more mothers work outside the homeoutside the home

Mommy TaxMommy TaxEconomic cost of “second shift”Economic cost of “second shift”

Lower salaries women receive over their lifetime Lower salaries women receive over their lifetime because they have childrenbecause they have children

Lose job experienceLose job experience Trade off higher wages for following mommy trackTrade off higher wages for following mommy track Discriminated against by employersDiscriminated against by employers

AbortionAbortion

Controversial subject affecting family life in Controversial subject affecting family life in USUS

Roe v. Wade (January 22, 1973)Roe v. Wade (January 22, 1973)Applauded by pro-choice groups and Applauded by pro-choice groups and

condemned by pro-lifecondemned by pro-lifeSocial class issues and abortionSocial class issues and abortionAbortion issue centers on the distribution of Abortion issue centers on the distribution of

power and the (control) over the roles and power and the (control) over the roles and rights of men and women in societyrights of men and women in society

In terms of social class, right to terminate In terms of social class, right to terminate pregnancy affected poor peoplepregnancy affected poor people1976 Hyde Amendment1976 Hyde Amendment

Banned use of Medicaid and other federal funds Banned use of Medicaid and other federal funds for abortionfor abortion

Another obstacle – access to abortion Another obstacle – access to abortion providersprovidersFewer hospitals allowing doctors to perform Fewer hospitals allowing doctors to perform

abortions except in extreme casesabortions except in extreme cases

Political ActivityPolitical ActivityWomen constitute 53% of the voting Women constitute 53% of the voting

populationpopulationUnder-represented in National political officesUnder-represented in National political officesMore representation on Local and State levelMore representation on Local and State levelLack of representatives is a function of a Lack of representatives is a function of a

number of factors.number of factors.1. Fewer women in business and law– the 1. Fewer women in business and law– the

grooming ground for a political career.grooming ground for a political career.2. Fewer women in political organizations and 2. Fewer women in political organizations and

decision making.decision making.3. Some women may feel that a political career 3. Some women may feel that a political career

may interfere with family responsibilities. may interfere with family responsibilities.

Matrix of Domination: Minority Matrix of Domination: Minority WomenWomen

African American Feminist Patricia Hill African American Feminist Patricia Hill Collins (1990)Collins (1990)

Matrix of DominationMatrix of DominationWhites dominate non-Whites; men dominate Whites dominate non-Whites; men dominate

women; and the affluent dominate the poorwomen; and the affluent dominate the poorGender, race, and social class not only Gender, race, and social class not only

systems of oppressionsystems of oppressionProfoundly affect women and people of color in Profoundly affect women and people of color in

USUSDouble Jeopardy: Minority WomenDouble Jeopardy: Minority Women

Subordinate status twiceSubordinate status twice

QUESTIONSQUESTIONS

How is women’s subordinate position How is women’s subordinate position different from that of oppressed racial and different from that of oppressed racial and ethnic groups? How is it similar?ethnic groups? How is it similar?

Explain the “Double-Jeopardy” status of Explain the “Double-Jeopardy” status of minority women in America. How is this minority women in America. How is this explained by the Matrix of Domination?explained by the Matrix of Domination?

What are the special challenges facing What are the special challenges facing women of subordinate racial and ethnic women of subordinate racial and ethnic groups?groups?

How has the focus of the feminist How has the focus of the feminist movement changed from the suffragist movement changed from the suffragist movement to the present?movement to the present?

How do the patterns of women in the How do the patterns of women in the workplace differ from those of men?workplace differ from those of men?

How has the changing role of women in How has the changing role of women in the United States affected the family?the United States affected the family?