RAP PUBLICATION 2008/07

WORKSHOP TO COMMEMORATETHE INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF POTATO - 2008

Bangkok, Thailand, 6 May 2008

Proceedings

________________________ RAP PUBLICATION 2008/07

WORKSHOP TO COMMEMORATE

THE INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF THE POTATO - 2008

Bangkok, Thailand, 6 May 2008

Proceedings

WORKSHOP TO COMMEMORATE THE INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF THE POTATO - 2008

Bangkok, Thailand, 6 May 2008

Edited by

Minas K. Papademetriou

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS REGIONAL OFFICE FOR ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

BANGKOK, THAILAND, 2008

This publication brings together edited manuscripts of papers presented at the Workshop to Commemorate

The International Year of the Potato - 2008, held at FAO, Bangkok, Thailand, 6 May 2008. The Workshop was organized and sponsored

by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in cooperation with the Government of Peru

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do

not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning

the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

ISBN: 978-92-106005-6

Reproduction and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from

the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. All rights reserved. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial

purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders.

Applications for such permission should be addressed to Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch Communication Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy or by e-mail to: copyright@fao.org

FOR COPIES WRITE TO: Meetings and Publications Officer FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Atit Road Banglamphu, Bangkok 10200 THAILAND Tel: (66-2) 6974000 Fax: (66-2) 6974445

© FAO 2008

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Foreword ii 1. Welcome and introductory statement 1 by Dr He Changchui 2. Address 4 by H.E. Carlos Velasco Mendiola 3. Inaugural address 6 by H.E. Theerachai Saenkaew 4. Keynote address 8 by Dr Pamela K. Anderson 5. An overview of potato production in Asia and the Pacific 11 region: markets, development and constraints by Dr Fernando N. Ezeta 6. Policies and strategies conducive to potato 18

development in Asia and the Pacific region by Dr H.P. Singh 7. Potato research priorities in Asia and the Pacific region 30 by Dr S.K. Pandey 8. The status of organic potato production in China 40 by Dr Kaiyun Xie 9. The importance of quality potato seed in increasing 46 potato production in Asia and the Pacific region by Dr Fengyi Wang 10. Post-harvest issues of potatoes in Asia and the Pacific region 54 by Dr Sarath Ilangantileke 11. Potatoes, poverty and participation: making rural 60 institutions and markets work for the poor by Dr Dindo M. Campilan 12. Farmer field school for potato integrated pest 69 management: educating Asian farmers to grow healthy and profitable potato crops by Dr Jan Ketelaar 13. Conclusions and recommendations 71 14. List of participants 75

ii

FOREWORD In response to resolution 4/2005 of the Thirty-third Session of the FAO Conference in November 2005, the United Nations General Assembly, at its Sixty-eight Session in December 2005, declared 2008 as the International Year of the Potato (IYP). The resolution, submitted by the Government of Peru and co-sponsored by the Latin American and Caribbean Group of Countries, invited FAO to facilitate the implementation of the IYP in collaboration with governments, the International Potato Centre (CIP) and its associated research networks, other centers of the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), other organizations of the United Nations system, as well as non-governmental organizations and private sector stakeholders. The UN Declaration of the IYP reflects the importance of the potato in the diet of the world’s population. It affirms the need to focus world attention on the role that the potato can play in providing food security and alleviating poverty in support of achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The IYP provides another opportunity to raise awareness about food security, agriculture and rural development among policy-makers, donors and the general public. Against the above backdrop, the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in cooperation with the Government of Peru, through its Embassy in Thailand, organized a Workshop for the Commemoration of the International Year of Potato. The Workshop was held in Bangkok, Thailand, on 6 May 2008. A large number of Ambassadors, Senior University Academics and high ranking Government officials as well as experts/resource persons participated in the Workshop. They were able to identify critical issues needing more attention. This publication collates useful information, highlighting the major recommendations, in the form of proceedings. Appreciation is expressed to the participants for their presentation of papers and contribution to the discussions. Thanks must be accorded to Mr Minas K. Papademetriou for compiling and editing this valuable document. Also, the unfailing support of Mrs Valai Visuthi, who provided assistance in formatting the manuscript, is greatly appreciated. He Changchui Assistant Director-General and FAO Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific

1

WELCOME AND INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT

Dr He Changchui ∗ Your Excellency Mr Theerachai Saenkaew, Deputy Minister for Agriculture and Cooperatives, Excellencies and distinguished members of the diplomatic corps, Honourable guests, Distinguished participants, Ladies and gentlemen,

On behalf of the Director-General of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Dr Jacques Diouf, and personally, I take great pleasure in welcoming you all to the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific to commemorate the International Year of the Potato (IYP). This event is organized by the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific in cooperation with the Government of Peru through its Embassy in Thailand, and is one of a series of activities worldwide to commemorate IYP.

As you may be aware, the United Nations General Assembly at its sixty-eighth session in December 2005 declared 2008 the International Year of the Potato (IYP). The resolution, submitted by the Government of Peru and co-sponsored by the Latin American and Caribbean Group of Countries, invited FAO to facilitate the implementation of the IYP in collaboration with governments, the International Potato Center (CIP) and its associated research networks, centres of the Consultative Group of International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), other organizations of the United Nations system, as well as non-governmental organizations and private sector stakeholders.

The UN Declaration of the IYP reflects the importance of the potato in the diet of the world’s population. It affirms the need to focus world attention on the role that the potato can play in providing food security and alleviating poverty in support of achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). The IYP provides another opportunity to raise awareness about food security, agriculture and rural development among policy-makers, donors and the general public.

The potato contributes to many aspects of society. The crop should not be looked at in isolation, but within the framework of the complexities of sustainable agriculture and food systems. The potato is the world’s most important tuber vegetable, with a vital but often underappreciated role in the global food system. It is a staple food that contributes to the energy and nutritional needs of more than a billion people worldwide. Potato cultivation and post-harvest activities constitute an important source of employment and income in rural areas, especially for women in developing countries. Potatoes can be used as a staple food, as a cash crop, as animal feed, and as a source of starch for many industrial uses.

∗ Assistant Director-General and FAO Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Atit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

2

Excellencies, Ladies and gentlemen,

The world’s population is expected to grow on average by some 100 million people a year over the next two decades. More than 95 percent of the increase will be in developing countries where pressure on land and water is already intense. A key challenge facing the international community is, therefore, to ensure food security for present and future generations, while protecting the natural resource base. The potato will play an important part in our efforts to meet this challenge.

The potato is grown worldwide. In most of the developing countries today, the potato is considered to be the fourth most important food crop after rice, wheat and maize. Therefore, the potato should be a major component in strategies aimed at providing nutritious food to the poor and hungry. Potatoes are rich in protein, calcium, potassium, and vitamin C, and have an especially good amino acid balance. The crop is ideally suited to places where land is limited and labour is abundant, conditions that characterize much of the developing world. Moreover, the potato is a highly productive crop. It produces more food per unit area and per unit time than wheat, rice and maize. It is a nourishing food crop which has sustained civilizations for centuries in South America and Europe. It is becoming increasingly important in Asian diets and economies. China is the leading producer of potatoes in the world and India ranks third. In fact, of the 350 million tons of potatoes produced annually in the world, China and India alone produce a third of this. Although potato production declined in developed countries by around 1 percent over the last 20 years, it increased by about 5 percent in developing countries over the same period. The major source of growth has been in Asia, primarily in China and India.

One of the crop’s assets is its adaptability. Farmers in the tropics can harvest potatoes within 50 days of planting — almost a third of the time it takes in colder climates. In highland areas of southern China and Viet Nam, the potato is emerging as an off-season crop; planted in rotation with rice and maize, it brings relatively high prices in the market. Similarly, in the lowlands of Bangladesh and eastern India, the potato’s importance as a winter cash crop is rising rapidly. In the Philippines and parts of Indonesia, potato production helps to satisfy the demands of exploding domestic and regional snack food industries.

There is no doubt that in recent times the potato has become significantly more important for Asia and the Pacific region, which, like many other parts of the world, is facing enormous challenges today as a result of soaring food prices. Moreover, at the mid-point of the target year of the MDG, 2015, we are convinced that the region needs much stronger efforts to produce more food by substantially improving agricultural productivity in order to make greater contributions to food security and poverty reduction. Excellencies, Ladies and gentlemen,

There are still many technical problems and development-related issues that directly affect potato production and potato-based food systems. Allow me to elaborate on some of the challenges.

Biodiversity: To combat pests and diseases, increase yields, and sustain production on marginal lands, today’s potato-based agricultural systems need a continuous supply of new varieties. This requires access to the entire potato gene pool. But potato biodiversity is under threat: ancient varieties cultivated by Andean peoples for millennia have been lost to diseases,

3

climate change and social upheaval. Indeed, the history of the potato provides a grim warning of the need to maintain the genetic diversity of our staple food crops.

Economy: Despite its importance as a staple food and in combating hunger and poverty, the potato has been neglected in agricultural development policies for food crops. Subsistence potato growing in developing countries is declining as producers reorient toward domestic and international markets. These markets continue to expand, and in 2005, for the first time, the developing world’s potato production exceeded that of the developed world.

Biotechnology: The potato industry has benefited from major recent discoveries about plant’s genetics, physiology and pathology. Use of molecular markers helps identify desirable traits in potato collections, thus simplifying the development of improved varieties. Sequencing of the complete potato genome, now under way, will significantly increase knowledge and understanding of genetic interactions and functional traits. Genetically modified varieties have the potential to produce more stable yields, improve nutritional value and facilitate non-food industrial uses, but they must be carefully assessed before release.

Pests and diseases: Intensive potato cultivation tends to increase pest and disease pressure, which often leads to intensive use of harmful pesticides. Resistant potato varieties and improved cultural practices can reduce or eliminate many common pests and diseases. Integrated pest management has helped farmers drastically reduce the need for chemical controls while increasing production. Excellencies, Ladies and gentlemen,

Responding to these challenges is essential to the development of the potato sector and to sustainable potato production as well as food systems, for long-term food security, human nutrition, and poverty alleviation.

The potato has great potential for development. However, we have to recognize that the crop, despite its merits, has not received the attention it deserves from governments. Inadequate institutional support and infrastructure, lack of established marketing channels, insufficient fund and credit support, and restrictive trade policies are but a few impediments to scaling up production and commercialization of the sector, which needs special promotion at national, regional and international levels.

In this connection, and taking into consideration the importance of this crop in the region, this one-day workshop aims to: raise awareness of the merits of the potato; review the situation regarding the potato sector in Asia and the Pacific region; and elaborate on key issues and propose further actions needed to promote sustainable potato crop production and development in the region.

I trust the workshop will produce tangible outputs. I look forward to your recommendations for follow-up action.

Thank you.

4

ADDRESS

H.E. Carlos M. Velasco ∗ Mr Theerachai Saenkaew, Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Cooperatives of Thailand, Dr He Changchui, Director-General and Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Excellencies, Representatives of academic and research institutions, Dr Pamela K. Anderson, Director-General of the International Potato Center, Heads and representatives of international organizations and regional agencies, Ladies and gentlemen,

In my capacity as Ambassador of Peru to the Kingdom of Thailand allow me to express the gratitude of the Government of Peru to the FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific for organizing this international workshop dedicated to the commemoration of the International Year of the Potato - 2008. Also, my thanks go to the Director-General of FAO, Dr Jacques Diouf, for supporting this Peruvian initiative that was co-sponsored by the Latin American and Caribbean Group of Countries in the UN system. As a result, the United Nations General Assembly at its sixty-eighth session in December 2005, declared 2008 to be the International Year of the Potato.

As is known worldwide, the potato is one of the most important contributions of ancient Peru to the human race. In this sense, I would like to highlight some key facts that we consider indispensable for understanding the multiple dimensions of sustainable potato production and development.

For the inhabitants of Peru, the potato has been the “bread of life” for centuries. Taken by the Spaniards to the Old Continent, the potato helped to support the population explosion in Europe in the nineteenth century. During the seventeenth to the nineteenth century, Ireland survived primarily on potatoes. Furthermore, in the same period the potato was the most useful food crop during the times of war and other calamities in Europe and Latin America. In the world today, the potato is considered to be the third most important food crop after rice and wheat. Potato production and consumption contribute to many aspects of society and should not be looked at in isolation, but in the contexts of sustainable agriculture and food systems. The potato is the world’s most important tuber vegetable with a vital but often underappreciated role in the global food system. It is a staple food that supplies the energy and nutritional needs of more than a billion people worldwide. Potato cultivation and post-harvest activities constitute an important source of employment and income in rural areas and for women in developing countries. It can be used as a food security crop, as a cash crop, as animal feed, and as a source of starch for many industrial uses. However, there are still many technical problems and development-related issues that directly affect potato production and the potato-based food systems. Responding to

∗ H.E. Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary, Embassy of the Republic of Peru, 16th Floor, Glas Haus Building, No. 1, Sukhumvit 25, Sukhumvit Road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand.

5

these challenges is essential for development of potato crops and for sustainable potato production, long-term food security, human nutrition, and poverty alleviation.

The world’s population is expected to grow on average by more than 100 million people a year over the next two decades. More than 95 percent of that increase will occur in the developing countries where pressure on land and water is already intense. A key task facing the international community is, therefore, to ensure the food supply for present and future generations while protecting the natural resource base. Potato production could be an important part of the efforts to meet those challenges, as the crop is vital to the food security of hundreds of millions of people in the developing world.

The potato crop is ideally suited for places where land is limited and labour is abundant, conditions that characterize much of the developing countries. Moreover, the potato is a highly productive crop. It produces more food per unit area and per unit time than wheat, rice and maize.

As has been pointed out by FAO, there is no doubt that potato is important for Asia and the Pacific region. Over seventy percent of the world’s poor people live in rural areas in this region, and depend largely on agriculture for their daily food and income. I am confident that the outcome of this important workshop, which counts the participation of distinguished regional experts, can shed some light on long-term programmes of potato crop development in the countries of the region. For my country and the Latin American region as a whole, it is imperative to share the knowledge and acquired experience with our Asian friends. Peru is deeply committed to strengthening the support for national development and management strategies for the potato sector, through the International Potato Center (CIP), a research organization founded in 1971, with its headquarters in Lima. The Director-General of the Centre, Dr Pamela K. Anderson is here with us today and will be the keynote speaker for this workshop. I firmly believe that only through a joint effort between Asia and Latin America, will we be able to achieve sustainable growth and to reduce and eventually eliminate poverty in our regions.

Thank you.

6

INAUGURAL ADDRESS

H.E. Theerachai Saenkaew ∗ Dr He Changchui, Assistant Director-General and FAO Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific, Honourable guests, Ladies and gentlemen,

I am very happy to be here today at this regional workshop to commemorate the International Year of the Potato deputizing for the Minister of Agriculture who had an unavoidable engagement elsewhere.

This workshop is being organized in response to the current global food situation, during which the prices of staple foods such as rice have been spiraling out of control. Many developing countries are seeking new alternative crops that have high productivity and a short growing cycle. The potato could be one of these alternatives. Honourable guests Ladies and gentlemen

Forty-two years ago, in 1966, rice became the first agricultural commodity to have a year dedicated to it. The year 2004 marked the second time that the United Nations (UN) dedicated a year to rice. This year, 2008, has been designated by the UN as the International Year of the Potato.

Increasing population has been a cause for concern in the world in general and in Asia and the Pacific region in particular. As you might have noticed in the media, food riots have been a common occurrence in many poor countries as poor people have responded to spiraling food prices and food shortages. Governments and international organizations have assumed responsibility to ensure that the growth in agricultural production keeps pace with the growth in population and to prevent suffering caused by hunger and malnutrition. This will necessarily involve increasing the productivity of staple crops such as rice, maize, wheat and potatoes.

The potato is truly a global crop grown in nearly 150 countries and ranking fourth after the major staple food crops maize, wheat and rice. There is no country in the world that is not familiar with this wonderful crop. It is a nourishing food that has sustained civilizations for centuries in South America and Europe. To the inhabitants of Peru and Bolivia, the potato was the “bread of life” for centuries. Just as in Thailand we believe that rice performs a similar function.

∗ Deputy Minister for Agriculture and Cooperatives, Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Rajdamnern Nok Avenue, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

7

Today, the nations of this world are very much concerned about the quality of nutrition and food security, and Thailand is no exception. Here is a crop that can play an important role in maintaining food and nutrition security. In 2007, Thailand’s potato growing area was about 50 601 rai with a productivity of 2 520 kilograms per rai. We are looking for even higher potato production and productivity in Thailand.

We would like to express our gratitude to FAO and the Government of Peru for

organizing this workshop to commemorate the International Year of the Potato - 2008. Many representatives and scientists from various countries have joined us to give their support and insights in order to develop and boost the production of the potato in Asia and the Pacific region. Honourable guests Ladies and gentlemen

The food price crisis happening at the moment will only lessen if every country collaborates like they are doing today. I therefore hope that this regional workshop will be a success, and would like to officially inaugurate the opening of the Workshop to commemorate the International Year of the Potato - 2008.

Thank you.

8

KEYNOTE ADDRESS

POTATO SCIENCE FOR THE POOR: CHALLENGES AND

OPPORTUNITIES

Dr Pamela K. Anderson ∗ Progress on the millennium development challenges

In 2000, under the leadership of the United Nations, 191 countries adopted the Millennium Declaration and eight Millennium Development Goals (MDG) as the universal framework for development. Within these eight MDG, 18 Millennium Development Targets (MDT) were defined. These are specific, measurable targets that should be achieved by 2015. In 2004, the International Potato Center (CIP) adopted the MDG as the framework for our new vision and we committed ourselves to contributing to the targets on poverty reduction, hunger reduction, reduction of under-five mortality, and sustainable development.

We are now at the mid-point between adoption of the MDG and the 2015 target date. What the progress has been made?

With reference to Target 1 (to halve the proportion of the population living on less than a dollar a day), the percentage of people living in extreme poverty (<US$1.00/day) fell from 30 percent in 1990 to 19 percent in 2004. If this trend holds, the MDT on poverty will be met at the global scale and in most regions of the world. However, almost one billion people are still absolutely poor, living on less than a dollar a day, and 162 000 000 are ultra poor, living on less than US$0.50/day. It is projected that 700 000 people will remain extremely poor in 2015.

Most of the global poverty reduction is a result of the progress in East Asia, particularly China. China is the first country to have met the MDT for poverty ahead of 2015. However, there are still an estimated 24 000 000 people in extreme poverty in China — about the same level of extreme poverty that we still see in Latin America. In other words, in Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean, we must find ways to crack the intractable poverty in the poverty belts and poverty pockets of these regions. In sub-Saharan Africa, the number of extremely poor has leveled off and fallen by 6 percent since 2000. But the region is not on track to meet the MDG poverty target by 2015.

With reference to Target 2 (to halve the proportion of people who suffer from hunger), the number of undernourished people decreased from 20 percent in 1990 to 17 percent in 2004. However, because of population increase the number of hungry in absolute terms increased from 823 000 000 in 1990 to 830 000 000 in 2004, with an even greater number suffering from vitamin and micronutrient deficiencies. An estimated 600 000 000 people will still be hungry in 2015.

The indicator utilized for hunger is child hunger, that is, the proportion of children under age five who are underweight. Globally, the proportion of children under five who are underweight declined by one fifth over the period 1990 to 2005. East Asia showed the greatest

∗

Director-General, International Potato Center (CIP), Apartado Postal 1558, Lima 12, Peru

9

improvement and is surpassing the MDG target, largely because of the nutritional advances in China. Western Asia and Latin America have also demonstrated significant progress, with underweight prevalence dropping by 30 percent. The greatest proportion of children going hungry continues to be found in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Poor progress in these regions means that it is unlikely that the global target will be met. If current trends continue, the world will miss the 2015 target by 30 million children.

There seems to be an assumption that by addressing poverty we will automatically address hunger. We need to develop specific strategies and tactics to address hunger as a problem distinct from income poverty. In the next 50 years, the population is expected to increase to nine billion. As the world population becomes more urban, incomes grow and diets are transformed, the demand for food will increase. At the same time that we see demand for food increase, we see growing constraints to food availability and access, e.g. global cereal stocks are at their lowest levels since the early 1980s, cereal prices are increasing dramatically, and severe weather events are affecting food production. We must address food security and hunger with strategies and tactics distinct from income poverty.

With reference to Target 5 (to reduce by two-thirds the under-five mortality rate), estimates for 2005 indicate that 10.1 million children died before their fifth birthday, mostly from preventable causes.

Finally, with reference to Target 9 (to integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and programs and to reverse the loss of environmental resources), the indicator for this target, the portion of land area covered by forest, is not directly applicable to agriculture. However, the World Bank 2008 World Development Report has challenged agriculture to reduce its environmental footprint, increase resilience in farming systems so that they are less vulnerable to climate change, and harness agriculture to deliver more environmental services.

In conclusion, although there has been some progress towards meeting the MDG, the most intractable poverty and hunger have yet to be addressed. Geographically, all of the challenges (poverty/hunger/mortality) must still be met in sub-Saharan Africa, hunger must be addressed in South Asia, and the poverty belts and poverty pockets of East Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean must be targeted.

How can we expedite progress toward meeting these challenges? International Year of the Potato mission

The mission of the International Year of the Potato is to increase awareness of the importance of the potato as a food in developing countries, and promote research and development of potato-based systems as a means of contributing to the achievement of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDG). Global trends in potato production and consumption

Why do potato-based systems represent an increasingly important opportunity for the poor in terms of food security and poverty alleviation?

Potatoes are the third most important food security crop in the world. In the developing world, there has been strong growth in potato production across all regions since 1990, especially in the low-income food-deficit countries. In Africa, the area under potatoes grew by

10

120 percent between 1994 and 2004, and we have seen growth of almost 50 percent in China in the past ten years. Since 2005, more potatoes are being harvested in the developing world than in the industrialized world, and the area planted is showing the same trend. Although the rate of cereal production is stagnating and cereal prices are growing exponentially, the price of potatoes in the developing countries remains stable. Potatoes represent an overlooked opportunity for diversifying national food security systems in the context of the new food security crisis. How potato research-for-development can respond to global trends, and opportunities to contribute more significantly to MDG

Potato science can be a significant vehicle for targeting the poor and hungry. At the International Potato Center, we have adopted a pro-poor research and development cycle, which starts by identifying areas where rates of poverty, hunger and child mortality are high. Then we overlay that data with our maps of potato production zones to see where our research can have the greatest impact. We also try to understand the larger sustainable livelihoods framework — what assets vulnerable communities have, what shocks they are vulnerable to, the institutional arrangements that determine their constraints and opportunities.

We need to address three developing worlds: agriculture-based countries, transforming countries and urbanized countries. The agriculture-based countries are primarily in Africa and the challenge there is to boost productivity. World average potato production is around 15 tonnes per hectare, compared to 35 to 40 tonnes in Europe and North America. To increase productivity, research needs to provide breakthroughs in overcoming intractable problems such as lack of clean seed potato, diseases such as late blight and viruses, and storage problems. The transforming countries are primarily in Asia where increases in agricultural productivity have driven poverty reduction in countries like India and China. In Asia, production systems are over-exploited. Continued increases will demand modifications and intensification of systems to enhance the productivity of the system as a whole while maintaining sustainability of production. In Latin America and the Caribbean, our challenge is to improve well-being by making resource-poor farmers competitive and linking them to growing urban markets.

This meeting is one in a series of more than ten international research and development meetings designed as part of the IYP mission. Our aim is to share our insights and the results of the latest research in the development of new strategies and approaches that are needed in each of the developing worlds. We have named this year-long dialogue with the international potato science community the 'Cuzco Challenge' — the challenge to formulate a research agenda that puts potato science at the service of the poor in order to make a more significant impact on poverty, hunger, child mortality and sustainable development.

I look forward to our deliberations today and to identifying an action plan for Asia and the Pacific region.

11

AN OVERVIEW OF POTATO PRODUCTION

IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC REGION: MARKETS, DEVELOPMENT AND CONSTRAINTS

Dr Fernando N Ezeta ∗ 1. Context and trends of potato production in Asia and the Pacific region

Asia and the Pacific region (AP) comprises a vast geographical area which holds one half of the world’s population. The dominant factor in the region is the enormous presence of China in East Asia and India in South Asia and the importance of potatoes in the two most populated countries in the world. Home to the rapidly growing economies known as the Asian tigers in Southeast Asia, AP countries range from the very wealthy to among the poorest in the world. The lifting of migration restrictions in some countries, along with liberalization of the economies in the region has resulted in an accelerated process of urbanization that has significantly changed the supply and demand relationship for food and other agricultural products. This process will most likely intensify in the coming years, creating new needs and opportunities for the agricultural sector in response to the demand for raw materials and food from an emerging industrial society. Migration of young people from rural areas to cities and demographic policies to reduce population growth are rapidly creating an aging rural population. An older population will influence trends on labour force, access to land and technological development. In contrast, some countries are lagging in the transformation to market economies and remain mostly rural and vulnerable to food shortages and possible famine. Some of the poorest countries in the region exhibit very low average per capita incomes and negative development indicators. The heavily populated South Asian and West Asian countries like India, Bangladesh and Pakistan have large numbers of people living in extreme poverty and exposed to food shortages and malnutrition. The islands of the Pacific, which have relatively small populations, are also among the most vulnerable countries in terms of food security because of fragile agro-ecosystems and limited opportunities for economic growth.

Most countries in AP are densely populated and still growing. The pressure on land is among the highest in the world, with the available arable land as low as 700 m² per capita. More than half of the population of AP is heavily dependent on the agricultural sector. In Myanmar up to 70 percent of the population is involved in agriculture whereas in China more than 60 percent still lives in rural areas despite the accelerated urbanization of the last two decades.

Rice is the basic staple of the diet of most of the population of AP; potatoes appear in these diets as accompanying vegetables. There are significant exceptions to this, namely in the highland areas of China, Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, India, Mongolia and Nepal where potatoes are a dietary staple. In the subtropical mountains of Southeast Asia the potato is an important vegetable in diet diversification and an anchor in intensive cool-weather horticulture systems. The potato in these countries fills a role in diet diversification and improved nutrition. The value of the potato as a nutritious food is well recognized in those ∗ Regional Leader, East, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (ESEAP), International Potato Centre (CIP), c/o BALISTA, Jl. Tangkuban Perahu No. 517, Lembang, Bandung, Indonesia.

12

countries with a potato production tradition and could be a vehicle for addressing specific cases of malnutrition in selected areas where potato consumption is meaningful.

Led by China, the AP region produces more than 80 percent of the potatoes in developing countries. Most of the recent growth in potato production in the region took place in China where potato production increased very rapidly in the 1990s, essentially doubling during the decade to reach nearly 70 million tons per year by the turn of the century. Potato production expanded the fastest in Democratic People’s Republic of Korea where the government targeted potatoes as a linchpin of their food security strategy.

India is the largest potato producer in Southwest Asia and the third most important producer in the world. Potato production rapidly increased in the last two decades by area expansion in the Indo-Gangetic Plains. Potato consumption has also increased as a result of its popularity as a vegetable in urban diets and because of the growing demand for Western-style fast food. India plays a leading role supplying potatoes for the growing processing industries of neighbouring countries. 2. Market opportunities for the potato in Asia and the Pacific region

There are significant opportunities for improved potato production and utilization technologies in this part of the world to address poverty, food security, and environmental degradation. There are millions of households in the region that grow potatoes, each household producing on average about two tons of this commodity on 0.1 to 0.2 hectares of planted area per year. Demand for potatoes is increasing rapidly, and a large share of production is marketed as a vegetable cash crop, with a small but increasing share going for processing. The potato also tends to be an input-intensive crop, often grown in fragile mountain environments. Thus, improved potato productivity is likely to have favourable impacts on the incomes of poor farming families. A share of these benefits will likely be passed on to consumers through the price-lowering effects of increased production. Improved potato production practices that reduce pesticide requirements and soil erosion are likely to have positive health and environmental impacts.

The market for fresh consumption of potatoes is expanding in most of Asia in response to income growth and urbanization. In addition to economic and demographic forces, government policies in several countries in the region are promoting expansion of the potato crop. In China the potato is included in the five-year national development plan aiming at reducing the poverty of the western provinces, and in Democratic People’s Republic of Korea the leader of the country is actively promoting the potato crop to ensure food security in the country’s northern highlands.

The potato is a bulky product difficult and expensive to transport long distances. The international market for fresh potatoes in the region is mostly restricted to cross-border trading among neighbouring countries and this has intensified in recent years with the building of better roads. Cross-border trading is very dynamic and opportunistic, responding quickly to price differentials and seasonal windows. The seasonality of potato production in northern Viet Nam, which grows most of its potatoes in the Red River Delta in the winter, restricts the supply of the local product to a short period after harvest in the spring creating an opportunity for cross-border potato trading from Yunnan in the south of China. The very high price of potatoes in some fast- growing economies of Southeast Asia have created space for international trade. Up to 1998, Indonesia was the main supplier of fresh potatoes to Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand from the highlands of North Sumatera. Since then, other countries have become competitive in that market, especially China and to a lesser extent Australia. In Southwest Asia, regional free trade

13

agreements recently signed will favour trade in seed and ware potatoes among neighbouring countries, with India playing a dominant role in potato markets.

The market for potato chips is growing strongly in urban Asia and the Pacific. Factories for potato chips are usually installed close to or in the big urban centres in order to reduce the cost of distributing the final product, which is characterized by its low value per unit of volume. Transnational corporations of the potato snack industry are aggressively expanding operations all over Asian countries with few exceptions. The raw material for potato chips must meet high standards of quality, uniformity and regular supply to keep the processing units operating all year round. An emerging domestic industry can be found in some countries of Asia and the product competes well in terms of price and quality with the international brands for lower income segments of the domestic markets.

Driven by the steep growth of the fast food industry over the last two decades, the frozen French fries (FFF) market has undergone a huge expansion in most developing countries around the world. Asia and the Pacific region is a net importer of FFF from North and South America as well as Europe. Efforts to develop this product in Asia have been curtailed by the economies of scale of production units, the high price of potatoes in most countries and the uneven quality of the raw material. However, the potential for expansion of the FFF industry is promising in the northern latitudes of Asia where growth conditions are quite similar to those found in Canada or the northern part of the United States. The Inner Mongolia plateau in China, under irrigation, is becoming an important player in the production of processing quality potatoes with an upward trend in the coming years. Meanwhile, China still remains a net importer of FFF from several sources in the international market.

Potatoes have been used as animal feed in some countries of Asia but the high price of potatoes in the fresh product markets usually found in this part of the world has limited further expansion of their use as animal feed. In Eastern Europe the use of potatoes as feed was drastically reduced after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, which opened the markets for more efficient alternative sources of livestock feed. Nevertheless, the use of non-marketable potatoes to feed hogs is a common practice in China.

The demand for high quality fine potato starch in Asia is largely unsatisfied. There is a huge potential for expansion of this product, but the markets confront issues of export subsidies in the European Union, economies of scale, supply of raw material including expansion of storage capacity of raw material and quality of final product. Nevertheless, several plants for large-scale starch production are now operating in the northern provinces of China. A traditional way of processing potatoes in rural China has been the production of coarse starch and this is still a current practice at household level and is commercialized in local markets. 3. Technical constraints for the potato by agro-ecological zones in Asia and the Pacific region

In the principal potato-growing zones of the region, the main technical constraints limiting productivity differ widely. Latitude provides a good demarcation for these environments, from the long-day, dry flatlands in northern China to the short-day, humid mountain environments in South Asia and Southeast Asia. Potato production in Asia can be broadly grouped into four principal systems according to latitude, each with a distinct set of needs and opportunities: a) the single cropping system characteristic of the northern latitudes; b) the double cropping system prevalent in the central part of China where two crops are accommodated in one season; c) the mixed cropping commonly found in the southwest of China where combinations of latitude and altitude favour multiple-cropping patterns and where

14

planting and harvests extend from spring to autumn; and d) the winter crop of the extreme southern part of China, the Indo-Gangetic Plains, Bangladesh, and northern Viet Nam where potatoes are planted in the winter between two crops of rice. Potatoes are also grown in the hillsides of the Himalayan mountain range of northern India, Nepal and Bhutan. Potatoes can also be found in the tropical highlands in West and Central Java and Sumatera in Indonesia, Dalat in Viet Nam and Papua New Guinea in the Pacific.

In the single cropping area of northern China, seasonal aphid pressure is high and potato viruses (PLRV and PVY), drought, and sometimes devastating late blight (Phytophtora infestans) epidemics from July to September are the major factors limiting yield. The double cropping system is characterized by a very short potato growing season where the potato is first cultivated as a monocrop and then as an intercrop with maize. Viruses and bacterial wilt (Ralstonia solanacearum) are the main diseases. Late blight is important if potatoes are grown in the fall. The mixed cropping system is found in hilly and mountain areas in the southwest of China where late blight, bacterial wilt and wart are the main diseases. This system also extends into northern Myanmar.

In East Asia and Southeast Asia the winter crop (October to March) is found in China, the Red River Delta in northern Viet Nam, parts of Myanmar and northern Thailand, and the northern tip of Luzon in the Philippines. In South Asia, winter potatoes are grown in India and Bangladesh. The potato is grown in rotation with rice or other cereal grains usually under irrigated conditions. The growing season is short, demanding early varieties with good storage ability if farmers save and use their own seed. Bacterial wilt, late blight and viruses are common diseases and potato tuber moth can be a limiting factor in storage as seeds have to be kept for long periods under warm temperatures. Expanding the potato area of winter crops in China and Indochina presents an opportunity to increase food supply and improve the nutrition of large populations in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Most of the area growth of potatoes in India and Bangladesh observed over the last two decades took place in this type of environment.

In Southeast Asia the predominant potato production environment is in the high elevation, humid mountain areas. These areas are often under continuous year-round cultivation, with one or two crops of potato grown annually in rotation with cabbages or other vegetables. Late blight, bacterial wilt, viruses and various insect pests such as leaf miner fly (Liriomyza huidobrensis) and potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella Zeller) all pose significant constraints to productivity in this system. Recently, the potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis) has emerged as another important pest in parts of Indonesia. Chemical input use is high, cultivated fields may be steeply sloped, and natural resource degradation is a major concern. This system is characteristic of potato production found in Indonesia, northern Thailand, southern Viet Nam (Dalat highlands), and the Cordillera mountain areas of Luzon and Mindanao, Philippines.

In all of the systems described above, the potato is primarily cultivated on small farms. In China and Viet Nam, past land reforms created an egalitarian farm structure in which individual farm families were issued long-term leases to small plots of land. With the exception of the flat lands of northern China, production is very labour intensive. About 22 percent of the total output is processed, most of it as coarse starch at household level to make noodles. Only about 5 percent is transformed into fine starch, chips, frozen fries, mashed or dehydrated potato.

In northern Viet Nam about a third of the potato crop is sold, a third fed to livestock, and a third kept for home consumption and seed. In Indonesia, Philippines and Thailand, farm structure is less equally distributed but small farms still predominate. Production is very labour intensive, and even small farms may make extensive use of hired labour in potato cultivation,

15

employing landless labourers. Potato production in these countries is commercially oriented with more than 80 percent of the harvested crop being sold.

The lack of a reliable and affordable source of good quality seed is a major problem in all of the potato production environments found in the region. Since several of the most significant potato diseases are seed borne, this becomes a double constraint for poor farmers. Although high prices keep it out of reach of poor farmers, Indonesia, Thailand and Viet Nam import certified seed. China and the Philippines severely restrict the importation of potato tubers because of phytosanitary concerns. Each country of the region with significant potato production has invested in formal seed systems in which disease-free seed is produced and certified locally. These formal seed systems are often established with significant external financial and technical support and their record of sustainability after the termination of the support is poor.

Modern potato varieties have been widely adopted in Southeast Asia and are now beginning to make significant inroads into China, although the rate of variety turnover is generally slow. The lack of good seed systems constrains farmers’ choices regarding variety adoption. Inadequate seed systems limit the availability of seed of improved varieties but the high expense of seed renewal leads farmers to adopt varieties that do not degenerate quickly. This usually implies varieties that possess some resistance to viruses and that have sufficient dormancy so seed can be stored under ambient conditions until the next planting period. This helps explain the long-standing popularity of certain varieties. 4. Strategy for development 4.1 Promoting the sustainable use of biodiversity

Potatoes were introduced into this region by European explorers in the seventeenth century from a narrow base brought to Europe from the Andean region. There is still an untapped wealth of genetic resources that the World Potato Center (CIP) holds in the world gene bank in Lima, Peru available for improving the potato plant. CIP and its research partners in this region are committed to working together on the identification of useful genes and the characterization of the potato genome in order to facilitate the work of potato breeders and biotechnologists. 4.2 Increasing yield stability

Concentrations of most marginalized peoples in the region are found in highland areas where potatoes appear in cropping systems. The highland areas where these poor communities live are physically isolated by poor infrastructure and vulnerable to climate shocks and pest and disease outbreaks. For these communities, providing yield stability is a higher priority than absolute productivity increases. CIP seeks to achieve stability by introducing varieties resistant to major pests and diseases and environmental stresses such as drought or heat. In order to mitigate the negative impact of global warming on potato production, CIP aims at selecting varieties with stable yield under a wider range of environmental stresses. CIP also seeks to improve seed quality. Virus research, vectors and physiological aspects of potato seed quality are the main elements of yield stability research. 4.3 Linking farmers to markets

Processes of agro-industrialization are well established in China, India and other Asian countries. Linking poor farming families and communities to the markets in these countries could solve the problem of poverty. Enabling reliable participation and equitable treatment in

16

these market chains are important objectives. Making technology work for the poor will require marketing studies, access to services and improving the capacity of farmers to become more competitive either individually or collectively. The involvement of all members of the value chain of the potato industry is required to share the benefits of technological development.

With agro-industrialization, potato processing quality has become an important factor. Good frying quality for French fries and snack foods is rewarded by higher prices from processing companies. China has made significant investments into starch production in large processing plants in the north, but producing coarse starch is also a popular way of processing potatoes among poor farmers. There is a need for technology to facilitate the competitive participation of poor farmers in the emerging processing market.

The perishability of potatoes calls for alternatives to fresh consumption. Research should look at simple and affordable ways to extend the storage life of fresh tubers or transform them into long-term storable forms. 4.4 Sustainable intensification of potato-based farming systems

The scarcity of farmland in the region poses a challenge to potato agriculture. The growing demand for potatoes in the coming years will have to be met by increasing productivity per unit area instead of expanding cultivated area. This will require intensification of agriculture on potato-based farming systems with potential negative collateral effects on the environment. Environmentally friendly agricultural practices will be needed to mitigate negative impacts such as soil degradation, depletion and contamination of water resources, excessive utilization of agrochemicals among others. For instance, in northern China large areas of grassland have been incorporated into potato production with excellent productivity but with potential environmental costs that should be assessed in order to minimize negative and irreversible impacts on the environment.

Potato production in South Asia and Southeast Asia is often the economic anchor in intensive small-farm, high-value horticulture systems. Potato production often consumes more fertilizer and pesticides than other crops in the system. The pesticide exposure affects the health of farmers and their families. Contamination of soil and water and chemical residues in the product are a constant threat to consumers. The intensive movement of soil to grow potatoes leads to soil erosion especially in the hillsides of Southeast Asia. It is urgent to minimize the environmental damage of intensifying potato agriculture as well as to reduce health hazards to farmers and consumers of potato products.

In Asia and the Pacific region the potato is a commercial crop both for fresh consumption and for processing. Better varieties with integrated crop management practices will increase yield and provide higher productivity for the farmers. To be sufficiently competitive, the production needs of farmers have to be addressed in order to generate sustainable technological inputs to their farming systems. The availability and marketing of healthy potato seed, processing varieties, ware potato for fresh consumption and potato post-harvest technology are important for farmers in all potato producing countries in the region. 5. Partnerships for greater impact and the role of international cooperation

Building partnerships with national and international organizations will enhance our capacity to address the R&D task required for the sustainable development of the potato in AP. The scarcity of financial and human resources calls for better integration of regional resources in order to respond to a growing demand for potato technology. There is a long history of regional

17

partnerships in agricultural research in the region. Partners, such as the Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture (SEARCA), that are supported by organizations of regional governments, offer stable platforms and partnerships in capacity building. Thematically-based or subject-specific partnerships have also proved to be resilient approaches, both in responding to demands and in tapping into regional and local innovation systems.

CIP seeks partnerships with stable, government-sponsored regional partners, especially for improved capacity building in this region, and will also elaborate the model of thematic and subject-matter partnerships and platforms at regional level to facilitate innovation and knowledge exchange throughout the region. In particular, it will help build partnerships which benefit from the growing role of China and India as advanced research partners and capacity builders in the region.

CIP’s UPWARD network (Users’ Perspectives with Agricultural Research and Development) is an example of a thematic partnership built around the mainstreaming of participatory research approaches within public and non-governmental organizations. UPWARD builds participatory research capacity in root and tuber crop production and utilization networks in the region through formal and research-based learning and innovation. It also provides a regional platform for cooperation between the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) centres on participatory research and capacity building. Strategic partnerships between CIP and other CGIAR centres have already been established in the area of crop genetic resources, participatory research and crop—livestock systems. CIP will continue to seek ways to gain synergy working with other allied centres either through bilateral arrangements or through system-wide programmes.

A major characteristic of countries of the region is the dynamic and creative character of local innovation systems, especially in the development of new uses for fresh products and in the techniques for transforming them. Individual households in China and more recently small and medium-sized private enterprises have been major engines of growth. CIP’s experience with building alliances and platforms can be applied to supporting these local innovation system alliances, especially linkages along value chains and between the value chain and public sector research and development organizations. For example, provincial-level agricultural departments have a strong capability to support seed multiplication and distribution systems, which can be key components of local potato innovations such as in chip or starch processing.

A major strategy for scaling up innovations in intermediate countries is strengthening local agricultural knowledge sharing and learning alliances. In many countries of AP, agricultural knowledge and information systems are relatively weak and fragmented with little sharing among civil society, the private sector and government organizations. International research organizations can function in a dual role in these countries. They can participate in local innovation systems through providing national research and development organizations access to new technologies and methods, be they germplasm, integrated pest management strategies or socio-economic techniques. Or they can facilitate dialogue and partnership among organizations. In addition to biophysical and socio-economic research there is an urgent need for backstopping capacity development on policy analysis, institutional strengthening, competitive production and provision of services enabling technology to serve the poor and increase market penetration. All this must be done in close collaboration with partners from the national and international community with congruent mandates and synergic capacities and a common vision of improving the livelihoods of the rural poor.

18

POLICIES AND STRATEGIES CONDUCIVE TO POTATO DEVELOPMENT IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC REGION

Dr H.P. Singh∗ 1. Introduction The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.), belonging to the family Solanaceae, grown in about 18.6 million ha in 150 countries with an estimated production of 322 million tonnes annually, is the fourth most important commodity, exceeded only by maize (637 million tonnes), rice (585 million tonnes) and wheat (549 million tonnes), and is consumed by billions of people across the globe. Half of all the potato produced is used in the developing countries. Since the potato gives an exceptionally high yield, produces more edible energy and protein per unit area and time than many other crops, fits well into multiple-cropping systems prevalent in tropical and subtropical agroclimatic conditions, its cultivation is profitable and it provides employment. Thus, potato cultivation is expanding rapidly in developing countries. There has been a paradigm shift both in area and production of the potato from developed to developing countries during the last five decades because of rapid technological advances — mainly the development of improved varieties, modern agrotechniques for ware and seed potato production, and post-harvest management and utilization. Whereas the developed countries make the most diversified use of potatoes as food, feed and raw material for processed products, starch and alcohol, the developing countries are increasingly adopting the potato primarily as a food crop. The share of developing countries in world potato area rose from 15.1 percent in 1961 to 51.0 percent in 2005. In 1961, potatoes produced in the developing countries accounted for 10.5 percent of the global output; today, they account for about 47.2 percent. It is not surprising that the potato has also emerged as one of the most important food crops in Asia and the Pacific region. Averaged over the three-year period of 2003 to 2005, the potato was grown on 7.3 million ha in 28 countries of Asia and the Pacific region, producing about 121.7 million tons with an average productivity of 16.49 tons/ha (Table 1). The share of the region in the world area and production of potato was 39.27 percent and 37.71 percent, respectively. Although potato productivity in the region varied widely from 2.50 tons/ha in Timor-Leste to 44.25 tons/ha in New Zealand, average potato productivity (16.49 tons/ha) was just a little less than the world average (17.18 tons/ha). China and India alone accounted for about 79 percent of the area and production of potato in the region. Clearly, increased potato production in other countries of Asia and the Pacific region could play an important role in providing livelihoods to the region’s large population. With appropriate policy, the region may emerge as a major producer of potatoes both for domestic use and export. 2. Opportunities, challenges and strategies According to the estimates published by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Potato Center (CIP), developing countries will have higher growth ∗

Deputy Director-General (Horticulture), Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Ausandhan Bhavan –II, Pusa, New Delhi 110012, India

19

rates in production and productivity of potatoes during 1993 to 2020 (Table 2). According to these growth rates, total potato production in the world in 2020 will be 403.5 million tonnes with China producing about 87.8 million tonnes and India 43.3 million tonnes. During the same period, worldwide demand for potatoes for food, processing and animal feed is expected to increase by about 40 percent (Table 3). There are several challenges to achieving these targets, namely an increasing population, the decreasing amount of arable land, the reducing water availability, and improved purchasing power leading to an increased demand for food, more environmental degradation, a reduction in input use efficiency and adverse changes in climate and sea-levels. Since land and water are shrinking resources for agriculture, there is no other option except to produce more food from less land and water. In other words, we have to produce more food per unit land, water, energy and time. The other major constraints in potato production have been the incidence of a wide range of pests, difficulties in production and distribution of quality seed, inadequacies of transport and cold storage facilities, indiscriminate use of pesticides resulting in environmental problems, emergence of new pests and price fluctuations. Under this scenario some of the strategies to increase potato production in an environmentally, economically and socially sustainable manner are given below. 3. Varietal situation Most of the countries in Asia and the Pacific region are using potato varieties bred for the growing conditions of Europe or the United States. These varieties are not specifically adapted to the agroclimatic conditions of the country where they are grown. Cultivation of exotic potato varieties cannot be stopped in these countries because many of them do not have appropriate research and development systems for indigenous varieties. However, it would be in the best interest of these countries to evaluate the exotic varieties before they are recommended for large- scale production. The government of each country should work out a strategy, similar to the All India Coordinated Research Projects, to evaluate potential potato varieties and advanced hybrids under local growing conditions before adopting their large-scale cultivation. The evaluation could be done in a participatory mode involving potato breeders, farmers, processors and other stakeholders of the region. A mechanism for intergovernmental exchange of advanced breeding materials has also to be worked out. The expertise and resources of the CIP can be helpful in this regard. In India, the focus has been on developing cultivars resistant to phytophthora, suitable under short-day conditions and also for cultivars with high dry-matter content. In fact, Indian potato varieties are already popular in many of the countries in the region. The selections I-822 and I-1085 are grown as the cultivars Krushi and Sita, respectively, in Sri Lanka; I-1035 is grown as the cultivars Montonosa in the Philippines and Mailaka in Madagascar; I-1039 is grown as the cultivars Red Skin in Viet Nam and BSUP-04 in the Philippines. Furthermore, Indian potato varieties enjoy a high degree of consumer preference in this region. Two Indian varieties, Kufri Chandramukhi and Kufri Lauvkar, are very popular in Afghanistan and can be equally good in other central Asian countries. Thus, the varietal development programme of India would better suit the region rather than the long-day variety programmes. The emphasis has also to be on developing heat tolerant and drought resistant cultivars. 4. Visualizing ideotypes and their development In contrast to other major food crops, not much work has been done on developing ideotypes in the potato. It is, therefore, necessary to identify the ideal agronomic attributes of the potato plant that can give the highest yield in a given agro-ecological region. If such ideotypes for different agro-ecological regions are clearly defined, it will make the breeding efforts much easier. The potato varieties commercially grown throughout the world have originated from only

20

a few genotypes introduced from South America and hence the genetic base in these varieties is very narrow. The large and valuable potato gene pool available has not been exploited to the extent it should have been. Prebreeding approaches for combining desirable attributes from wild species with commercial cultivars need to be given priority. To overcome interspecific sexual barriers between cultivated and wild potato species, breeding at dihaploid level and modern techniques of protoplast fusion can be employed. A molecular marker is another valuable tool that can be of much help in refining breeding methods for quantitative traits and also in gene pyramiding. 5. Enhanced breeding efficiency using molecular tools Conventional potato breeding is a lengthy process involving hybridization, selection, initial evaluation, multilocation evaluations, and release of a variety. From hybridization to release of a variety takes about 10 to 12 years. Sometimes a high-yielding variety falls short of expectation because of the lack of one attribute or a few specific attributes. Such specific traits can be incorporated into well adapted high-yielding varieties by genetic engineering. Some important traits that can be introgressed through genetic engineering are: (i) resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses like late blight, potato viruses, bacterial wilt, major insect and nematode pests, drought and salinity; (ii) enhancement of nitrate and phosphate uptake by the root system; (iii) improvement of the nutritional quality of tubers; and (iv) modification of starch for making it more suitable for industry. However, it is necessary to address environmental and food safety issues associated with transgenics and the developments need be transparent. 6. Ensuring availability of good quality seeds Quality planting material is one of the most important ingredients in successful potato cultivation. Shortage of good quality seed is recognized as the most important factor inhibiting potato production throughout the world. The availability of quality planting material of improved potato varieties in adequate quantities, therefore, is the major issue that needs to be attended by respective national agricultural research systems. Once a strong formal seed system is in place it needs to be integrated with informal seed systems, the private seed sector, progressive farmers, seed village clusters, co-operatives and NGOs so that benefits of new varieties and technological advances percolate to the farming communities. Training of the extension officers and farmers through Farmer Field Schools (FFS) would be an effective medium here. The seed tubers account for nearly 40 to 50 percent of the total cost of cultivation. Seed production in vegetatively propagated crops like the potato is beset with problems of low seed multiplication rate (1:6 per generation), a low proportion of seed-sized tubers in the produce, high production cost, and high rate of degeneration. Therefore, a high level of technical skill is required for potato seed production. India and Japan have organized disease-free seed production systems and China is developing its own seed production system. Because of the huge quantity of seed potato required, it will be difficult for most countries to satisfy their own seed requirement. Therefore, each country should conduct a detailed survey to identify suitable areas for production and multiplication of quality seed and seek assistance of those countries in the region that have expertise. The selected area should be free from soil-borne pathogens like wart, cyst nematode, bacterial wilt, black scurf, and common scab, and a low aphid or aphid-free period of at least 75 days after planting the crop should be ensured. The minimum and maximum temperature should be within the range 8 to 28 oC during the growing season. Alternatively, a seed production programme can be implemented under protected conditions.

A suitable package of practices for the production of healthy seed tubers may require refinement depending upon the location. The seed plot technique developed in India has made it

21

possible to grow seeds even on the plain. Since a large quantity of seed tubers is required for potato cultivation, it would be difficult to satisfy the entire seed demand of a country from a formal seed production system. In many countries of the region the majority of the farmers still use locally produced seed tubers like other cereal crops. Unlike cereals, however, deterioration of seed quality is very fast in the case of the potato. Therefore, an innovative strategy like the concept of a “seed village”, which envisages the establishment of a local seed bank through appropriate intervention, has to be worked out for maintaining the health standard of locally produced seed potato through an informal system.

Since potato seed production is a technically challenging enterprise, private participation should be encouraged for production and distribution of quality seed. The private sector should be given incentives to establish the seed production system. It has to be subsequently ensured that the micro propagation technique is adopted for the production of quality seeds. Registration of private firms as well as farmers growing different stages of seed potato should be made compulsory. The labelling of seed bags should be enforced stringently so that the source can be identified in case of any doubt in health standards. There should be an appropriate institutional mechanism to monitor the seed multiplication activities on private as well as public farms. This agency should be responsible for maintaining uniform quality parameters and health standards of seed potato and for estimation of the demand/supply situation of seed potato in the country. Seed potato warehouses/distribution centres need to be established at each of the potato growing regions of the country so as to facilitate credible linkages between the seed suppliers and buyers.

The true potato seed (TPS) technology developed and adopted in India has a great potential in this region. The cost of TPS is negligible when compared to seed tubers. Moreover, it can save the entire transportation cost of seed tubers from long distance. The TPS technology is becoming popular in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. Basic research is required on TPS development by apomixis and parthenogenesis in commercial potato cultivars. 7. Plant health management

Diseases, insect pests and weeds are major constraints in achieving full yield potential in the potato. The losses resulting from these biotic stresses are around 40 percent and if we add about 20 percent post-harvest losses, the situation becomes more alarming. Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has resulted in the emergence of more aggressive pests because of resistance development, residual problems in food and drinking water, and ecological imbalance as a result of the elimination of beneficial micro-organisms and insects. Therefore, for sustainability of the potato crop, these biotic stresses need to be managed through ecofriendly measures supported by need-based and judicious use of chemicals to achieve high economic returns without disturbing the environmental balance. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is one of the most economically viable and environmentally safe key technologies to increase crop productivity.

Since, the potato is largely propagated by tubers, there is a great risk of introducing alien pathogens or pests through seed tubers. In fact, most of the potato pathogens that are now prevalent in the region have been transferred through seed. Furthermore, most of the countries in the region are geographically contiguous, which facilitates the transboundary spread of diseases and pests. A database of prevalent pests and diseases of the potato in all countries of the region should be created for quick assessment of pest risk.

Establishing plant health clinics with public or private participation would be a good idea too. Such clinics would provide the latest techniques and equipments for diagnosis and detection of potato pathogens. Countries with relatively better infrastructure for disease diagnosis may be

22

encouraged to support the smaller nations in the region. The clinics should be manned by agricultural graduates with training on plant disease diagnostics.

Potato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans is the most devastating disease of the potato having the potential of causing 40 to 50 percent loss to the farmers. Tackling late blight should be the priority of the region and a working group should be constituted urgently. A joint effort should be initiated to renew and broaden the base of late blight resistance in potato cultivars. A collaborative project for refinement and validation of available late blight forecasting models should be taken up immediately. The forecasting model should integrate remote sensing data of the entire region for comprehensive and quick coverage. The forecast should be given wide publicity through national and regional communication media.

The use of large quantities of pesticides by the farmers, especially for the control of late blight in the potato, has created problems of groundwater pollution, toxic residues in table potato, resistance development in pests and ecological imbalance. Only need-based fungicidal spray based on disease forecasting and cultivar resistance should be advocated. Ecofriendly tuber treatment schedules using safe botanical or chemical agents should be worked out and popularized in the region. It is also essential to have in place an institutional system to ensure the quality. 8. Biotechnological approaches

Biotechnology could play a key role in the improvement of the potato in the future. Since the potato crop is highly amenable to modern biotechnological tools, basic research on genomics and bio-informatics should be encouraged so that the full potential of the crop can be exploited. Meristem culture and the rapid multiplication strategy should be used extensively for cleaning of seed stock and breeders’ seed production. In addition, molecular markers should be effectively integrated in potato breeding schemes wherever possible. Conventional potato breeding is a lengthy process involving hybridization, selection, initial evaluation, multilocational trials, and release of a variety; this takes about 10 to 12 years. Development of transgenics through genetic engineering is an effective tool for obtaining a desired trait without disturbing the plant’s genetic make-up. Development of genetically modified (GM) potato varieties for biotic and abiotic stress tolerance and for improving nutritional and processing attributes have to receive priority. However, transgenic techniques should be followed only when the desired resistance cannot be obtained by conventional breeding.

In most of the countries in the region, agriculture is the backbone of the national economy. Therefore, GM crops could eventually be of higher value in these countries compared to GM crops in rich countries. Yet, at the same time, most of the countries have a weak scientific, technical, and regulatory capacity for safe development and use of GM crops. Close cooperation among the partner countries is required to evolve a rational approach for development and release of GM potatoes. For access to promising technologies there could be a common pool of relevant intellectual property rights (IPR) for sharing among the partners. The RB gene for conferring late blight horizontal resistance can be a model system for working out an IPR sharing strategy. Conflicting and often divergent policies toward GM technologies in developed countries have created a complicated problem of policy choice in the developing world. It has become extremely difficult to decide whether to follow the more permissive United States approach or the more precautionary European Union approach. The region may work out a common rational approach for addressing IPR, biosafety, trade, food safety and consumer choice policies for GM potatoes.

23

9. Production system management

Degradation of natural resources, soil, water and the environment, has been a cause of concern, and the development of technologies to manage the natural resources in a sustainable manner is a priority. In this context, biofertilizers can supplement the use of fertilizers in an ecofriendly manner. Similarly, enhancing water productivity “crop per drop” is one of the approaches for the sustainable use of water. Micro-irrigation/fertigation has proved beneficial in potato cultivation. Vast tracts of arable land are fast becoming unfit for cultivation because of salinity. Suitable management practices should be devised for bioremediation of degraded soils. Modern biotechnological tools, including transgenic bacteria and biosensors, can be deployed for this purpose.

Except a few countries in the region, the average yield of potatoes is below 20 tonnes/ha compared to the physiological potential of 120 tonnes/ha. There is a wide intracountry and intercountry gap in potato production in the region. For example, yields as high as 70 tonnes/ha have been reported from New Zealand compared to 8 tonnes/ha in Kazakhstan. Similarly, there is wide variation in yield among different regions of bigger countries like China and India. Keeping in view the yield gap and diminishing per capita availability of agricultural land in Asia and the Pacific region, there is a great challenge to improve the potato yield. This could be done through adoption of improved varieties and appropriate production technologies.

In this regard, in India, the Central Potato Research Institute has played a key role in providing technological innovations in terms of cultivars, production technologies, plant health management, value addition and processing. An institutional arrangement at regional level could be made for the import of suitable promising varieties from donor countries having similar agroclimatic conditions. In order to effectively manage the inputs like fertilizer, soil-test values have to be used leading to precision farming. In order to achieve these goals it is imperative that governments launch soil health improvement programmes in the major potato producing countries of the region.

The potato crop requires 300 to 500 mm of water per growing season. With increasing demands for food and depleting ground water levels, water scarcity is going to be a serious problem in the entire region. Also, with climate change resulting from global warming, the precipitation has become highly variable often leading to droughts at critical stages of the crop cultivation. Construction of minor irrigation structures for rainwater harvesting and use of drip irrigation should be encouraged. The Asian countries have the highest population pressure on agricultural land with India and Bangladesh at the top of the list. Also, the share of population dependent on agriculture continues to be high in this region even in the rapidly industrializing countries. Thus, there is no option except to produce more food per unit area and time. The potato crop with short duration varieties of 80 to 90 days can fit well in various intensive cropping systems. India has successfully demonstrated this practice through a number of short duration potato varieties. These Indian varieties like Kufri Chandramukhi, K. Pukhraj, K. Ashoka, K. Jawahar, etc. could be utilized by other Asian countries having similar agroclimatic conditions. For this purpose, the International Potato Center could be entrusted to identify the available short duration potato varieties in the region and their suitability to countries with similar agroclimatic conditions.

24

10. Extending the shelf life of produce

In European countries, the potato crop is grown in the summer and the main storage season is the cold winter. However, in most of the Asian countries, the potato is largely produced in winter and stored during the long hot summer. The potato being a semi-perishable crop rots at higher temperatures. This requires storing potatoes at 2 to 4 oC. Although India and some other countries in the region have sufficient cold storage capacity, there are many countries where cold storage capacity needs to be expanded to provide a boost to potato cultivation. Conventionally, potatoes are stored at temperatures of 2 to 4 oC that spoil the culinary properties of the tubers. Recently, a breakthrough technology of storing ware and processing potatoes at 10 to12 oC with Chlorpropam (CIPC) treatment to inhibit sprouting and shrinking has been developed in India. This technology can save a lot of electrical energy in addition to preserving the quality of ware and processing potatoes. This technology should be popularized in all the countries of the region where potatoes are produced as a winter crop.

Cold storage involves substantial costs that resource-poor farmers cannot afford. There are a number of traditional low-cost and non-refrigerated storage structures (essentially based on evaporative or passive evaporative cooling) like sand pits, diffused light storage rooms, thatched mud wall rooms, on-farm heaps under tree shade, etc., which are used by the farmers of various countries. These structures do not require electric energy and are suitable to store potatoes for three to four months. These traditional structures with or without CIPC treatment and other modifications should be popularized and encouraged with government support. In this regard, CIP could take the lead in identification, documentation and validation of indigenous technical knowledge pertaining to the storage of potatoes in different countries of the region. 11. Value addition and processing

Potato processing is a fast growing agricultural subsector worldwide. However, potato processing in developing countries is far behind that in developed countries. For example, the processing of potatoes constitutes only about 2 percent of the total annual production in India compared to 55 percent in the Netherlands and 60 percent in the United States. In most of the countries of Asia and the Pacific region a substantial part of the potato crop is produced in spring and summer seasons at higher altitudes in addition to the main winter season. Thus, the supply chain from different areas could be integrated through appropriate interventions to ensure that the potato processing industries run on profitable lines throughout the year. Similarly, CIPC-treated potatoes stored at 10 to12 oC can feed the processing industries for a longer period.

In most of the developing countries, more than 90 percent of potato processing is done in the unorganized sector. The organized potato processing sector has not proliferated because of the lack of suitable indigenous potato processing varieties. India is one country in the region that has developed four indigenous potato varieties especially for processing, namely Kufri Chipsona-1, Kufri Chipsona-2, Kufri Chipsona-3 and Kufri Himsona. These varieties could be utilized by other countries of the region having similar agroclimatic conditions. Besides, the governments of each country should support funding of research for the development of indigenous potato processing varieties. In many countries of the region, organized retailers and potato processors are becoming established and subsequently so are direct linkages between rural economies and industry. All the national governments of the region should encourage this trend through appropriate legislation in order to boost the potato processing sector. Public-private partnerships should be encouraged for research applications and investment in marketing infrastructure.

25

12. Marketing and trade

Only 2 to 3 percent of about 322 million tonnes of world potato production is traded internationally. Import and export of fresh potatoes from and to developed countries account for 83 and 86 percent of total world trade, respectively. The export share of developing countries for fresh potatoes (14.3 percent) and frozen potatoes (2.9 percent) is not commensurate with their 47 percent contribution to world potato production. The export of potatoes from developing countries faces several constraints and concrete measures to address these need to be undertaken. Surveys of potential export markets and strengthening of suitable infrastructure for export like cold storage, surface transportation and shipping facilities are essential components of successful exports. The database on potato exports, price, grade standards, phytosanitary standards, processing standards, consumer preferences, seed standards, etc. need to be prepared for all importing countries so that all information is readily available to the exporters and manufacturers.

The export and import of potatoes mainly takes place within European countries and five other countries, namely Canada, Cyprus, Egypt, Turkey and the United States. The trade among these countries account for 80 percent of the global potato trade. Asia’s share in export and import of potatoes is only 9.8 percent and 11.6 percent, respectively. The countries of Asia and the Pacific region can supply fresh potatoes year-round because potatoes are grown throughout the year in one or the other part of the region, unlike in European countries where potatoes are grown only during the summer months. The poor trade performance of potatoes among the countries of Asia and the Pacific region can be attributed to several factors such as trade barriers, lack of marketing infrastructure, lack of seed production systems and poor market intelligence. As mentioned above, a database on potato exports, price grade standards, phytosanitary standards, processing standards, consumer preferences, seed standards, etc. needs to be prepared for all importing countries.

Many of the countries in this region import the seed material from European countries, mainly the Netherlands, which dominates the world seed potato export market. However, the European varieties are not suitable for the agroclimates of Asian countries. Hence, it is imperative for all the countries of the region to develop their own seed potato production programme or to import the seed from other countries within the region. In this regard, India and Japan could play a significant role in providing the expertise and basic seed material.

Because of domestic pricing policies related to food items, the governments of developing countries often find it difficult to target the export of a particular food commodity, including potatoes. Nevertheless, to facilitate the export of potatoes, areas suitable for growing export quality potatoes exclusively should be identified in each country and agri-export zones should be established in the vicinity of such areas. The produce from these areas could be properly labelled and popularized in the international market so as to create credibility for it. In most of the countries of the region, the marketing of potatoes is mainly in the hands of the private sector. The commodity has to pass through a number of market intermediaries to reach the consumers. This coupled with a lack of market infrastructure results in lower returns to the producers and the loss of about 20 percent of the produce in its transit. Also, there is lack of market integration within and between the countries because of the non-availability of market information. Integration of different potato markets in the region through a market intelligence network has to be a priority.

Among the East Asian countries, China and Democratic People’s Republic of Korea are developing countries, whereas Japan and the Republic of Korea are developed countries. Because of high standards of living and domestic settlement policies, agriculture is largely not

26

viable in Japan and the Republic of Korea. However, Japan has a well developed seed potato production system, which is lacking in other East Asian countries. On the other hand, China is the world’s largest potato producer and has abundant cheap labour. Thus, Japan could become a major supplier of seed potatoes to other countries, whereas China could be the major exporter of table and processed potatoes.

The countries of Southeast Asia have fast growing economies with an expanding middle class. These countries are also promoting tourism vigorously to attract domestic and foreign tourists. As a result, the demand for processed foods, especially processed potatoes, is rapidly increasing. India, with its indigenous processing potato varieties like Kufri Chipsona-1, Kufri Chipsona-2 and Kufri Chipsona-3 could play a major role in the supply of raw material and processed potato products. India also has a vast network of potato processing in the organized and unorganized sectors, whose expertise could be utilized in technical and capacity-building support to the Southeast Asian countries. 13. Capacity building and technology transfer

This region is confronted with high levels of poverty and low levels of literacy in the rural areas, particularly among women. As a result, there is a low level of adoption of agricultural technologies, including potato technologies, by the farmers. Hence, there is a case for providing technical and capacity building support to potato producers in Asian countries. In this regard, India has a vast amount of manpower working on the potato. Out of 28 states in India, more than ten states have well established seed potato production networks under the departments of agriculture/horticulture. These departments have well trained personnel whose expertise could be utilized for imparting training to the farmers of other Asian countries. The Central Potato Research Institute at Shimla, for example, has seven research stations in various regions of the country with a total of 109 scientists working on potato research and development. The country also has an All India Coordinated Research Project on Potato with 22 centres and 37 scientists working on potato development. This scientific manpower could also be utilized by other Asian countries to train their extension personnel through faculty exchange programmes. The participating countries need to establish norms/institutional arrangements for sharing knowledge and information.

The Oceania region comprises Australia and New Zealand and has a low human to land ratio and a high standard of living. New Zealand is also bestowed with high average potato productivity levels of around 45 tonnes per hectare. This region has vast potential to expand the area under potato cultivation. Since the productivity levels are high because of the moderately cool climate, the two countries could serve as the ‘potato basket’ of the world if proper strategies are adopted for self-sustaining seed potato production and processing of potatoes. The increasing knowledge pool of potato research and development in the region will require information and communication technologies to facilitate rapid dissemination and exchange among farmers, extension workers, researchers and policy-makers. Now, e-marketing has enabled farmers to get maximum returns from their produce through direct access to consumers via digital markets. Such efforts are needed on the part of all the countries in the region to ensure better incomes for potato growers.

In the wake of the liberalization of the global economy, several national and multinational companies involved in marketing of table, seed and processed potatoes have started contract farming in different countries. This type of farming can enable small farmers’ participation in the market economy. It seeks not only to transform the small farmer into a viable commercial producer but also links production with consumption. Contract farming has the potential of reducing the risk and uncertainty of the fluctuating potato price by creating links

27

with a stable and sustainable market. It also contributes to technology transfer by providing new and better farming skills to the contract farmers. These companies also offer economies of scale to the mainly small and marginal farmers through providing opportunities for processing, value addition and export. Keeping in view the advantages of contract farming, the governments of the region must provide adequate policy support to this system of farming. Adequate safeguard measures also need to be taken to monitor the production activities of these companies so that the farmers are not exploited.

A potato cooperative movement could be started in each country involving the potato growers, self-help groups and development agencies to organize the potato growers into national level potato federations. This type of arrangement would provide a network for linking the production activities with storage, distribution and supply to the end users. The average per capita consumption of potatoes in Asian countries (14 kg/year) is much less that in European countries (86 kg/year), despite the fact that the potato is a nourishing and wholesome food. This is a result of wrong notions about the nutritional value of potatoes. Hence, there is ample scope for improving the consumption of potatoes in these countries through publicity campaigns in the mass media. 14. Conclusions

The potato is important both for the consumer and the grower, as the crop provides higher income per unit and time. This also provides opportunities for downstream employment. In the quest for ensuring food security with a shrinking quantity of arable land, reduced water availability, changing climate and expanding biotic and abiotic stresses, the potato may play a significant role within an effective policy framework and strategic research and development approaches. Evidently, potato production is shifting to Asia and the Pacific region as demonstrated by the fact that the total production percentage has increased. This provides both opportunities and challenges. Thus, to convert a weakness into an opportunity, a sound policy framework conducive for potato development has to be developed. The policy should cover both research and development.

• There is an urgent need to establish a regional cooperation system to build on the present strengths by converting weaknesses into opportunities.

• There is an increasing trend in the production of potatoes in Asia and the Pacific region and with effective R & D support countries within the region may emerge as breeders. This would need integrated research and development related to the potato in the region.

• There is a need to revisit genetic resources, their management, valuation and evaluation for their utilization to improve the cultivars so that changing biotic and abiotic stresses can be dealt with.

• Besides conventional breeding, biotechnological tools have to be used to enhance the speed of breeding programmes and to develop ideotypes that are efficient in nutrient and water use and can adjust to emerging challenges.

• Seed production and delivery systems have to be strengthened to ensure seed health and availability. This would need institutional mechanisms for quality regulation, management and delivery.

• The creation of databases on potato exports, prices, grade standards, phytosanitary standards, prevalent pests and diseases in the region would help in the decision-making process.

• Appropriate mechanisms for sharing of germplasm and advanced breeding materials need to be worked out. Exchange of farmers and scientific personnel and training of scientific and technical personnel have to be encouraged among the countries in the region.

28

• There is a need to establish a consortium for potato research and development. This should address the emerging problems and provide guidance.

• Transboundary research is required for understanding the movement of disease to strengthen the biosecurity system and to safeguard the interests of different countries in the region.

Table 1. Potato production in Asia and the Pacific region (Triennial averages

for 2003-2005)

Country Area (000 ha) Yield (tons/ha) Production (million t) Australia 36.01 35.71 1.29

Bangladesh 262.23 14.23 3.73

Bhutan 4.57 8.80 0.04

China 4 408.93 16.04 70.65

Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

188.72 10.85 2.05

Fiji Islands 0.01 8.00 0.0001

India 1 390.00 17.99 25.00

Indonesia 64.74 15.47 1.00

Iran (Islamic Rep. of) 186.67 21.66 4.04

Japan 87.13 33.38 2.91

Kazakhstan 166.40 13.76 2.29

Kyrgyzstan 85.80 15.81 1.36

Lao People’s Democratic Republic 5.50 6.55 0.04

Mongolia 9.17 8.89 0.08

Myanmar 32.23 12.44 0.40

Nepal 143.33 11.42 1.64

New Zealand 11.30 44.25 0.50

Pakistan 112.51 17.52 1.97

Papua New Guinea 0.19 4.46 0.0008

Philippines 5.45 12.70 0.07

Republic of Korea 23.74 25.34 0.60

Sri Lanka 5.72 13.47 0.08

Tajikistan 27.76 18.06 0.50

Thailand 6.89 14.11 0.10

Timor-Leste 0.40 2.50 0.0010

Turkmenistan 29.00 5.31 0.15

Uzbekistan 50.45 17.05 0.86

Viet Nam 34.29 10.67 0.37

Asia and the Pacific region (Total/Average)

7 379.14 16.49 121.72

World 18 792.68 17.18 322.75

(Source: FAOSTAT data, February 2006)

29

Table 2. Projected production and productivity growth rates (Average annual percent) for potato, 1993-2020 according to two scenarios (A and B)

Production growth rate (%/year)

Productivity growth rate (%/year)

Country/Region

2020 A* 2020 B 2020 A 2020 B China 1.49 2.94 1.32 2.04

India 3.10 3.67 1.89 1.94

Developing countries 2.02 2.71 1.50 1.85

World 0.96 1.29 0.87 1.06

* According to IFPRI’s International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT), 2000. A= Baseline scenario and B= High demand/production growth scenario.

Table 3. Projected annual growth rates (Average annual percent) for demand of potatoes for food and feed, 1993-2020

Food Feed Total Country/Region A * B A B A B

China 2.20 2.78 0.27 2.74 1.47 2.76

India 3.09 3.80 0.00 0.00 3.09 3.80

Developing countries 2.33 2.75 0.37 2.66 2.02 2.76

Developed countries 0.37 0.34 0.22 0.20 0.30 0.28

World 1.20 1.39 0.26 1.01 0.96 1.29

* According to IFPRI’s International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT), 2000. A= Baseline scenario and B= High demand/production growth scenario.

30

POTATO RESEARCH PRIORITIES

IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC REGION

Dr S.K. Pandey∗ 1. Introduction

The cultivated potato originated about 8 000 years ago in the Andean range of South America and by the nineteenth century had spread to almost all continents. In fact, Charles Darwin, the greatest naturalist of that time, encountered the potato everywhere, from the sterile mountains of Central Chile where a drop of rain does not fall for more than six months, to the damp forests of the southern islands. He was highly fascinated by the remarkable adaptability of this plant during his 1839 voyage aboard HMS Beagle. Today, the potato is the world’s fourth most important food crop and by far the most important vegetable for billions of people across the world. Although the potato is grown by people throughout the world, its production in Asia and the Pacific region has increased faster than in any other part of the world during the last 30 years. Potatoes were grown on 8.7 million ha in the region, producing about 137.14 million metric tons (MT) with an average productivity of 15.68 MT/ha in 2006 (Table 1). The share of the region in the world area and production of potatoes was 45.38 percent and 42.76 percent, respectively. Although, the two most developed countries in Asia — Japan and the Republic of Korea — and the two most developed countries in Oceania — New Zealand and Australia — have experienced the most significant increases in productivity, the average yield in Asia and the Pacific region is low. Potato productivity in the region varies widely from 2.50 MT/ha in Timor-Leste to 45.33 MT/ha in New Zealand with an average productivity of 15.68 MT/ha, a little less than the world average of 16.64 MT/ ha.

The rapid expansion of potato cultivation in the region is the result of better adapted potato varieties and the cultivation compatibility of the potato with other important crops, especially rice and wheat. The introduction of improved, short duration varieties of wheat and rice has provided a niche for the potato crop in this region. However, the major reason for the expansion in potato production has been the desire by farmers to satisfy expanding markets and changing consumer preferences. This region consumes almost half of the world’s potato supply. However, the annual per capita potato consumption is still extremely modest (25 kg) when compared to Europe (80 kg) or the United States (58 kg), reflecting the fact that the crop is still considered a high status vegetable in the region as opposed to a dietary staple in European countries. The processing for the emerging snacks and fast food industry is a growing source of additional potato demand in the region. 2. Trends of potato production in Asia and the Pacific region

Three broad bands of potato cultivation in the region are clearly visible. One runs from west to east across the subtropical lowlands of the major river basins in South Asia and includes Bangladesh, India and Pakistan; the second traverses the interior of China starting at the

∗ Director, Central Potato Research Institute, Indian Council of Agricultural Research 9ICAR), Shimla – 171001, Himachal Pradesh, India.

31

Myanmar border in the southwest and ending at the Siberian border of Russia in the northeast and includes China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea and Myanmar; and the third is typified by high productivity in the Oceania island continent region and includes Australia and New Zealand.

On the subtropical lowlands of South Asia, the potato has become a highly productive food crop within a short period of time. The potato’s explosive growth has placed India as the world’s third largest potato producing nation, with production of around 24 million MT in 2006. Between 1960 and 2000, potato production in India increased by almost 850 per cent. The emergence of the potato as an important vegetable crop in the Indo-Gangetic Plains of India reflects the synergy between government and private sector investment. Expanding irrigation infrastructure, supported by the government, made cultivation in the cool post-rainy season possible. Private sector investment in large cold storage facilities greatly increased the availability of ware potatoes during the hot summer and rainy season months and kept seed potatoes in a reasonable physiological state for the following year’s planting. Public supported agriculture research led by the Central Potato Research Institute (CPRI) in India generated practical impact through the development of location-specific improved varieties and production technologies, and through the production of an adequate quantity of healthy planting material.

Table 1. Potato production in Asia and the Pacific region in 2006

Country Area (000 ha)

Production (Million MT)

Yield (MT/ha)

Australia 37.44 1.29 34.41 Bangladesh 301.04 4.16 13.82 China 4 901.00 70.34 14.35 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

190.00 2.00 10.53

India 1 400.00 23.91 17.08 Islamic Republic of Iran 189.65 4.83 25.47 Japan 86.90 2.60 29.90 Kazakhstan 160.00 2.36 14.76 Nepal 150.86 1.97 13.09 New Zealand 11.03 0.50 45.33 Pakistan 117.50 1.57 13.34 Turkey 154.30 4.40 28.50 Asia and the Pacific region

8 742.26 137.14 15.68

World 19 262.42 320.67 16.64

In Bangladesh, the potato has become a highly successful October to March winter crop with a production of 4.1 million MT in 2006. This placed the country fifth in Asia and fifteenth in the world in terms of the amount of potato produced. Potato production in Bangladesh is mainly concentrated in the Dhaka district. Potato cultivation in Pakistan is restricted to a few thousand hectares and the lion’s share of potato production comes from the Punjab region, where spring and autumn crops account for 85 percent of the total harvest. In the decades since independence, the potato has become the country’s fastest growing staple food crop and production rose from 1 million MT in 1995 to 1.57 million MT during 2006.

32

China is the world’s largest potato producer, and also emerging as an important global

supplier. In China, the potato is an interior and highland crop. Its production has increased nearly fivefold since 1961. Most of the potatoes are for human consumption at 30 kg per capita per year. Potatoes are important to China not only as a staple food, but also as a source of income, especially for farmers in mountainous areas with poor soils. In northern China’s Inner Mongolia and Shanxi provinces, sales of potatoes account for more than half of rural household earnings. Potatoes are also cultivated in southern and eastern China in rice fallows during the winter season to get the benefit of higher seasonal and regional market prices. However, cultivation in these rice fallows is constrained by frost, and the crop requires cultivation under plastic.

Japan is at number six in Asia and the Pacific region with the production of 2.6 million MT of potatoes in 2006. Two-thirds of this came from the northern island of Hokkaido, which had a very high yield of 41 MT per hectare. There has been a steady decline in potato production in recent decades. The potato is also an essential food security crop in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. In 2006, it produced an estimated 2 million tons, placing the country among Asia’s top ten producers.

Since its introduction in the nineteenth century, the potato has adapted well to the cool climate of New Zealand. The island country produced abount half a million MT of potatoes from an area of just 11 000 ha in 2006, with an average yield of 45 MT per ha. A commercial yield exceeding 70 MT per ha is not uncommon in the country. This has fueled strong growth in the potato processing sector in the country (300 000 MT were processed into French fries and crisps in 2006) with huge potential for fresh and frozen potato exports. Potatoes are grown across the Australian continent, from the southern temperate island of Tasmania to tropical North Queensland with production exceeding one million tons a year. More than 60 percent is processed into frozen potato products and crisps, and around 37 percent is marketed as fresh potato.

Among the Near East Asian countries, Iran is the world’s number thirteen potato producer and the third in Asia, after China and India. In 2006, the country achieved an all-time record harvest of 4.8 million MT, with per hectare yields averaging more than 25 tons. Turkey is the Near East’s biggest producer after Iran, with an output of almost 4.4 million MT and a yield of 28.5 MT per hectare in 2006. Near East and Central Asian countries heavily rely on European cultivars and seed. Efforts to expand potato production in tropical island economies like Indonesia, Philippines, Sri Lanka and others have not been successful. Potatoes are produced in very small areas in these countries. However, in these countries the potato: rice price ratios typically exceed one, indicating a strong and unsatisfied market demand for potatoes. Also, the consumption of potatoes and potato products is growing rapidly in these countries on account of economic development and changing lifestyles. 3. Priorities for potato research and development

In Asia and the Pacific region, the challenge of producing more food is complicated by the limited amount of arable land. In fact, in some countries land resources for food production have been decreasing because of rapid urbanization and industrialization. The challenge of sustainable growth in agriculture is felt deeper in this region since it accounts for more than 75 percent of the worlds’ agricultural population. It is also the biggest and most rapidly expanding food producing region with the largest agricultural workforce. However, the region is far less productive than the Western world. The global competition under the World Trade Organization regime necessitates that the region should come up with better quality and bigger

33

volumes of agricultural products. It is, therefore, imperative that technology and research be tapped to their fullest to address the challenge of global competition. Analyzing constraints and priority needs is essential for developing strategies towards global competitiveness and the sustainable production of potatoes.

The agro-ecological characteristics and farming practices adopted by the people of the region are mostly similar. Also, the region is largely inhabited by poor farmers and potato cultivation is done mainly on small and marginal landholdings with low levels of productivity. Hence, a joint effort to increase potato productivity will be beneficial for all the countries in the region. Besides, rapid technological advances in varietal improvement, agrotechniques, plant protection, storage and processing, etc. in countries like Australia, China, India, Japan and Turkey offers wide scope for regional cooperation in potato research and development. 3.1 Varietal improvement

Improved yield and quality, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and improved environmental adaptation are the primary needs of the region. Except for a few countries, average potato yield is below 20 tonnes/ha in this region. There is a huge gap in yield among the countries in this region. For example, a yield as high as 70 tonnes/ha has been reported from New Zealand compared to 8 tonnes/ha in Kazakhstan. In most countries a highly intensive cropping system is followed, as a consequence of which it will be impossible to bring new areas under potatoes. Hence, the only way to increase potato production in the region is yield improvement. A modest improvement in yield will make the region the world’s leading potato grower. The need for stable and high-yielding varieties acceptable for the fresh market is a high priority for this region. The demand for processed potato products is also increasing in the region, especially in East Asia and Southeast Asia. Therefore, improved processing varieties suitable for French fries, flakes and flour production are strongly needed in the region.

Late blight can be ranked as the biggest biotic stress limiting potato productivity throughout the region. A second important biotic stress problem in Asia is viruses. The economically significant potato viruses are PVX, PVY and PLRV. Bacterial wilt, caused by Ralstonia solanacearum, is a soil and tuber-borne disease that has proven difficult to control especially in East Asian and Southeast Asian countries. Lack of a resistance source has hampered the effort of breeding for introgression of bacterial wilt resistance. The potato tuber moth infestation is a major concern for potato storage, especially in the case of small and marginal farmers. Climate change resulting from global warming is likely to pose a serious challenge to potato production, particularly in the tropics and subtropics. An analysis of potential impacts of climate change found that Asia and the Pacific region was the most vulnerable potato-growing region of the world. Heat and drought stresses are likely to be important abiotic problems in the region. Cold stress is also be an important constraint for some high altitude potato cultivation in China.

Keeping in view the multidimensional constraints, there is a strong need for introducing earliness in potato varieties. Earliness serves several purposes such as increasing cropping intensity, reducing the crop’s exposure to pests and diseases and allowing farm families to harvest the crop during a lean period in the seasonal crop cycle. Seed dormancy to fit into the local cropping calendar is also a priority need for the region. The need for long-day adapted varieties is important for central and northern Asia.

34

3.1.1 Research priorities • Prebreeding using exotic germplasm for development of parental materials and their

selection under local environmental conditions. • The development of early maturing high-yielding potato cultivars resistant to late blight,

viruses and bacterial wilt. Recently, some new sources of resistance to bacterial wilt have been discovered in CIP’s germplasm collection. Breeding this resistance into cultivated varieties should be initiated as soon as possible.

• The development of product-specific processing cultivars with high dry matter and low reducing sugar content.

• The development of heat and drought tolerant potato cultivars with the ability to initiate tuberization at higher temperatures. India has already developed a heat tolerant variety called Kufri Surya and is working to develop a drought tolerant variety.

• The development of potato cultivars resistant to potato tuber moth. • Adoption of biotechnological tools like somatic hybridization, genetic engineering etc. to

complement conventional breeding for the development of biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, quality improvement, etc.

3.1.2 Development priorities • The development of indigenous research and development systems for the potato in each of

the major potato producing countries. Countries like India, with well-developed potato R&D systems, could assist other countries in this regard.

• Exchange of advanced breeding materials among different countries for evaluation under local growing conditions.

• Establishment of a regional laboratory for creation and maintenance of a DNA fingerprint database of all the potato varieties cultivated in the region.

3.2 Seed production and multiplication

The major constraint on potato production in the region is the inadequate supply of reasonably priced, good quality seed potatoes of the desired varieties. Seed potato is usually the most expensive input to potato cultivation, accounting for 40 to 50 percent of the production cost. Moreover, a high rate of degeneration causes the seed to deteriorate after a few multiplications. Thus, by the time the “improved” seed reaches the farmer, it is already seriously contaminated by viruses and tuber-borne diseases. In the tropics, the rate of seed degeneration is more rapid than it is in the temperate zones because of higher aphid populations and adverse storage conditions. The lack of seed storage methods suitable for small-scale farmers is also a major constraint in the region.

Therefore, ensuring seed availability and seed quality is the priority need for the potato crop in the region. Seed production, which includes technologies for rapid multiplication and disease elimination, as well as farm production and seed management such as seed certification and distribution systems altogether need immediate attention. The true potato seed (TPS) technology has also a great potential in this region wherein the cost of seeds is negligible when compared to seed tubers. Moreover, it can save the entire transportation and storage cost of seed tubers. The TPS technology is already popular in Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Viet Nam. However, this technology is beset with the problem of seedling survival, longer crop duration and production of non-uniform tubers of smaller size as compared to those from seed tuber crops.

35

3.2.1 Research priorities • Adoption of advanced techniques like micropropagation, microtuberization and hydroponics

for production of pre-basic seed. • Adoption of advanced techniques like ELISA, NASH, Qrt-PCR etc. for virus diagnosis and

seed certification. • TPS development by apomixis and parthenogenesis in commercial potato cultivars. 3.2.2 Development priorities • Identification of suitable area and season for healthy seed production and multiplication in

each country. • The development of seed exchange mechanisms among different countries of the region. • The development of a national seed production programme in each of the major potato

producing countries and establishment of seed potato banks at the local level. • The development of packages of practices for healthy seed production. • The development of packages of practices for seed management including storage. • Initiation of public-private collaboration for seed production. 3.3 Crop production

The potato is grown in multiple cropping systems in rotation with other vegetables or cereal crops in many parts of the region where farm size is declining with population growth and cropping intensity increasing with expanding irrigation. Except for a few countries, there is a wide intracountry and intercountry gap between actual and potential production of potatoes in the region. The potato crop is also highly input-intensive and requires high doses of water and fertilizers. However, the overuse of chemical fertilizers in many countries has led to the depletion of soil fertility and the contamination of groundwater. Similarly, global warming and overuse of water for irrigation have resulted in the depletion of groundwater tables and the occurrence of droughts. Therefore, improved management of natural resources and optimization of water and fertilizer use are essential for sustainable potato production. 3.3.1 Research priorities • Optimization of a best-fit potato-based cropping system to increase crop intensity. • Optimization of fertilizer application doses based on soil nutrition status. • The development of cultural practices with higher land conservation efficiency to overcome

erosion and fertility degradation in highland areas. 3.3.2 Development priorities • Identification of available short duration potato varieties in the region and testing their

suitability to similar agroclimatic conditions for fitting into the existing cropping system. • Improvement of soil organic matter content by incorporating crop residues, green manuring,

application of farmyard manure, compost, Model-compost, biofertilizers and other biodigested products.

• Construction of minor irrigation structures for rainwater harvesting and use of drip irrigation. • Capacity building of farmers through faculty and farmer exchange programmes for adoption

of improved potato technologies.

36

• Integration of information technology (IT) tools like geographic information system, crop modelling, precision farming for sustainable utilization of natural resources.

3.4 Plant protection

The potato is prone to many diseases and insect pests. Since the potato is largely propagated by tubers, there is a great risk of introducing alien pathogens or pests into the region through seed tubers. In fact, most of the potato pathogens that are now prevalent in the region are introductions from Europe. Since most of the countries in the region are geographically contiguous, there exists a bigger threat of large-scale spread and destruction by new virulent pathogens as a consequence of natural occurrence or bioterrorism. Potato late blight caused by Phytophthora infestans is the most devastating disease of the potato having the potential of causing 40 to 50 percent loss to the farmers. Tackling late blight should be the top priority of the region and should preferably be the joint effort of the countries in the region. Furthermore, the use of large quantities of pesticides by the farmers, especially for the control of late blight in potatoes, has created the problems of groundwater pollution, toxic residues in table potatoes, resistance development in pests and ecological imbalance.

A second important pathogenic problem in the potato is viruses transmitted mainly by aphids. The most economically significant potato viruses are PVY and PLRV, whereas PVX is generally not important alone but only in co-infection with PVY. Bacterial wilt is a major problem, especially in East Asian and Southeast Asian countries. Potato tuber moth, aphids and the Colorado potato beetle are important insect pest problems in the South Asia and Central Asia regions. 3.4.1 Research priorities • Standardization of advanced diagnostic tools for pathogen detection. • The development of a database on prevalent pests and diseases. • The development of a pest forecasting model, especially for late blight. • The development of integrated pest management practices to control key pests. • Identification of natural enemies and biopesticides for controlling pests and diseases. 3.4.2 Development priorities • Pest risk assessment and strengthening of quarantine offices in each country of the region. • Establishment of plant clinics with the latest equipments and trained personnel for diagnosis

and detection of potato pathogens. • Popularization of pest forecast information and ecofriendly technologies. 3.5 Post-harvest management

Asia and the Pacific region has witnessed very rapid growth in the area planted during the last three decades in response to the rapid growth in the demand for potatoes. Unlike European countries, the potato is largely produced in most of the Asian countries in winter and stored during the long hot summer. The potato being a semi-perishable crop rots at higher temperatures. The storage constraints become more acute as one moves from north to south in Asia. This requires the storage of potatoes in cold storages at 2 to 4 oC. Although India and some other countries in the region have sufficient cold storage capacity, there are many countries where cold storage capacity needs to be expanded to provide a boost to potato cultivation. However, cold storage involves substantial costs and farmers in the poor Asian countries cannot afford these. There are a number of traditional low-cost and non-refrigerated storage structures which are in

37

use in many countries of the region and these could be adopted in other countries with similar climatic conditions.

Although processing opportunities are expanding all over the region, the extent of potato processing in the region is far behind that in European countries. There are several reasons for this such as lack of year-round supply of fresh potatoes, lack of suitable potato processing varieties, lack of potato processing industries and lack of appropriate linkages for processing. Therefore, improvement of potato storage and processing technologies are priority needs for better post-harvest management and utilization of the potato crop. 3.5.1 Research priorities • Determination of an optimum harvesting period for processing cultivars. • The development of energy-efficient storage conditions that do not compromise processing

attributes. • The development of new processes that have minimal effect on the environment, and

products that have lower fat content and fewer additives but maintaining crispiness. • Reduction or elimination of enzymatic oxidation of cut surfaces. 3.5.2 Development priorities • The development of specialized cold-chain systems to support the farm-to-market

infrastructure for potatoes. • Technological and financial support to the needy countries of the region for establishment of

cold storages and potato processing industries. • Identification, validation and popularization of traditional storage systems with appropriate

refinements such as CIPC treatment. • The development of linkage mechanisms at the regional level for year-round supply of raw

material to major potato processing industries of the region. 3.6 Potato trade and marketing

The export and import of potatoes mainly takes place within European countries and five other countries, namely Canada, Cyprus, Egypt, Turkey and the United States. The trade among these countries accounts for 80 percent of the global potato trade. Asia’s share in export and import of potatoes is only 9.8 percent and 11.6 percent, respectively. The poor trade performance of potatoes among the countries of Asia and the Pacific region can be attributed to several factors such as trade barriers, lack of marketing infrastructure, lack of seed production systems and poor market intelligence. These impeding factors also lead to lower returns to the producers and discourage further investments for higher production. Hence, there is a need to strengthen the market infrastructure like cold chain, surface transport and shipping facilities in these countries. 3.6.1 Research priorities • Preparation of a database on potato exports, price grade standards, phytosanitary standards,

processing standards, consumer preferences, seed standards, etc. for all importing countries of the region.

38

3.6.2 Development priorities • Avoidance of intracountry and intercountry trade barriers for potatoes. • Identification of areas suitable for exclusively growing export quality potatoes in each

country of the region and establishment of agri-export zones in such areas. • Integration of different potato markets in the region through a market intelligence network. • Adoption of IT-based modern tools for technology transfer and access to national and

international potato markets. • Adoption of cooperative and contract models of farming to avoid the hardships of small and

marginal potato growers and to maximize their returns. • Publicization of the nutritional value of potatoes through campaigns in the mass media for

increasing the consumption of potatoes in the region. 3.7 Others

The potato crop is among the highest receivers of fertilizer and pesticides in developing countries and an impact study of these chemicals on health and the environment should be carried out urgently. Moreover, stronger capacity building for upgrading skills of the potato research and development community is required for sustainable potato development in the region. 3.7.1 Research/Development priorities • Studies on the impact of health and the environment of the prevalent cultural practices. • Improvement in capacity building of farmers for utilization of information technologies. • The development of a public-private synergy model of basic research, development and

commercialization of products, and intellectual property management. • Human resource development and international collaboration. 4. Conclusions

The potato is an important commodity in the Asia and the Pacific region, and plays an important role in the region’s food security because of the crop’s short vegetative cycle. Potato production and use expanded more in this region than in any other region of the world during the last three decades. More importantly, an emerging consensus points to the strong potential for continued rapid growth in the years ahead. However, low potato productivity, declining per capita arable land, perpetual late blight epidemics, inadequate availability of quality planting material, depleting soil fertility and falling groundwater tables, lack of adequate cold storage facilities and potato processing industries, and lack of market integration for potatoes are some of the major bottlenecks in potato development in the region. With respect to demand, a major source of uncertainty is the long-term trend in per capita potato consumption of the rice-eating peoples of South Asia and East Asia.

Breeding for processing, heat tolerance, yield improvement, and resistance against pests, use of advanced techniques for healthy seed production, optimization of input use, adoption of advanced diagnostic tools for pathogen detection, use of ecofriendly technologies, and preparation of a database of major potato markets are some of the important research priorities for the region. The development of indigenous R&D systems for national seed production programmes in each of the major potato producing countries, establishment of a regional potato laboratory, pest risk assessment, and strengthening of quarantine offices are vital development priorities for potatoes in the region. The development of cold chain, popularization of traditional

39

storage systems, market integration, the development of linkage mechanisms for farm-to-market supply chains, and use of IT-based modern tools for technology transfer are also be imperative for potato development in the region. Exchange of advanced breeding materials and seeds of suitable varieties, and capacity building through faculty and farmer exchange programmes could serve as a positive force towards regional cooperation in the region. Bibliography Fuglie K.O. 2007. Priorities for potato research in developing countries: results of a survey.

American J Potato Res 84: 353—365. Maldonado, L.A., Wright J.E. & Scott G.J. 1998. Constraints to production and use of potato

in Asia. American J Potato Res 75: 71—80 Niederhauser, J.S. 1993. International co-operation in potato research and development. Annu

Rev Phytopathol 31: 1—21. Pandey, S.K. 2007. Approaches for breaching yield stagnation in potato. Potato J 34: 1—9. Pandey, S.K. & Sarkar, D. 2005. Potato in India: emerging trends and challenges in the new

millennium. Potato J 32: 93—104. Scott, G.S., Rosegrant, M.W. & Ringler, C. 2000. Roots and tubers for the 21st century:

trends, projections and policy for developing countries. Food, Agriculture and the Environment Discussion Paper, International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, 64 pp.

Walker, T.S, Schmiediche P.E. & Hijmans R.J. 1999. World trends and patterns in the potato crop: An economic and geographic survey. Potato Res 42: 241—264.

Willard, M. 1993. Potato processing: past, present and future. American Potato J 70: 405—418.

40

THE STATUS OF ORGANIC POTATO PRODUCTION IN CHINA

Dr Kaiyun Xie ∗ 1. The concept of organic food and the classification of foods Organic farming is defined as a production system that avoids or largely excludes the use of synthetic fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators, and livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible, organic farming systems rely on crop rotations, crop residues, animal manures, legumes, green manures, off-farm organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral-bearing rocks, natural pesticides and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and to supply plant nutrients, and to control insects, weeds and other pests. All these should be under conditions of sustainable natural resources utilization and a healthy environment.

The basic requirements for organic foods are: a) the environment (water, air and arable lands) should not be polluted; b) no synthetic materials should be used during the production; c) the production technologies should not be gene-modified technologies; d) pollution is avoided during processing, transportation, storage and distribution; and e) the necessary procedures for their certification and supervision are followed.

Based on the food production methods and the different product standards found in the country, the foods in China can be classified as follows: common food, non-polluted food, green food (A and AA), and organic food. With the exception of the common food, all kinds of foods should follow the required standards. Production and processing should be approved and certified by the relevant authorities. The quality of organic food is the highest among these foods. 2. The situation of organic food in China

Consumers can now easily buy organic foods (certified by relevant organizations) in the large cities of China, such as Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Nanjing. The first organic farm and enterprise was approved by a foreign certification organization in 1990. After 20 years of progressive development, organic foods in China have become increasingly important. The areas of organic food production have been determined, such as the organic bean production area in Northeast China, the organic vegetable production area in Shandong, and the organic tea production area in Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and Jiangxi.

With improvements in the standard of living, Chinese consumers are paying more and more attention to food safety. Both non-polluted and green foods are now widely preferred by the consumers. This provides a conducive environment for the development of organic food in China. Up to the end of 2006, the total value of organic food sales reached 5.6 billion Yuan (US$800 million). ∗

Liaison Scientist, CIP Beijing Liaison Office, 12, Zhongguancum South Street, Beijing 100081, P.R. China.

41

Though the total value is high, organic food accounts for about only 0.1 percent of the total food consumption, and this is far behind the 2 percent found in the developed countries, especially when compared to the 1.3 billion population and 2 820 Yuan (US$403) spent on food consumption per capita per year. So far, the main constraint on organic food production is the price. Compared to common products the cost of organic products is higher. This is understandable as the yield is lower. In the developed countries, the price of organic foods is about 30 percent higher than that of the common food. However, the price of organic foods in China is about three to five times higher.

The local market for organic food is increasing by 20 to 30 percent every year. In the meantime, the international demand for Chinese organic food is increasing year by year. The international market demand for Chinese organic food (including organic processed food) is very good; it includes organic rice, vegetables, tea, minor crops, tea oil, walnut oil, and honey. The export value of organic foods was about US$350 million in 2006; this is about 0.7 percent of the global value of organic foods in 2006. The good market demand and the higher prices encourage more and more farmers to produce organic food.

However, there are some constraints on organic food production in China, namely: a) the higher cost of investment; b) the already high and increasing cost of the certification organizations which are without uniform standards, labels and charges; c) lack of efficient management and supervision after certification; and d) difficulties for the grower to follow organic standards which are not uniform internationally.

Up to the end of 2006, about 2 300 enterprises received approval for organic food from 31 certification organizations. A total of 5.28 million ha of organic food production have been certified, and a total of 3.85 million tons of organic foods have been produced.

It is predicted that the increasing rate will be between 30 and 50 percent per year during the coming ten years; the proportion of organic foods will be 1 to 3 percent of the total planted area and production. The export of organic products will be about 5 percent of the total exported agricultural products. The proportion of Chinese organic food will be about 5 percent of the global organic food market. China will become the fourth country in terms of organic food consumption; the consumption of organic food will account for 1 to 1.5 percent of the total food consumption. 3. Potato production in China

The potato is the only crop which can be planted in all regions of China. There are four planting regions. These are: a) the single cropping region in North China, which includes the whole or part of the following subregions: Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Ningxia, Gansu, Qinghai and Xinjiang - these account for about 47 percent of the total planting area in China; b) the double cropping region in Central China, which includes the whole or part of the following subregions: Liaoning, Hebei, Shanxi, Shaanxi, Hubei, Hunan, Henan, Shandong, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Anhui and Jiangxi - these account for about 7 percent of the total planting area; c) the double cropping region in South China, which includes the whole or part of the following subregions: Guangxi, Guangdong, Hainan, Fujian and Taiwan - these account for about 8 percent of the total planting area; and d) the mixed cropping region in Southwest China, which includes the whole or part of the following subregions: Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Chongqing, Tibet, Hubei and Hunan - these account for 38 percent of the total planting area.

42

Table 1. Potato planting area, production and yield in different regions of China in 2006 Region Area(Ha) Rank Production(ton) Rank Yield(tons/ha) Rank Guizhou 592 800 1 7 730 000 5 13.04 16 Inner Mongolia 589 100 2 8 795 000 2 14.93 13 Gansu 567 800 3 9 400 000 1 16.56 11 Yunnan 539 900 4 8 610 000 3 15.95 12 Sichuan 348 200 5 8 515 000 4 24.45 4 Chongqing 347 400 6 4 705 000 6 13.54 15 Heilongjiang 319 300 7 4 050 000 7 12.68 18 Shanxi 299 200 8 2 415 000 10 8.07 22 Shaanxi 252 000 9 2 550 000 9 10.12 20 Hubei 229 800 10 3 390 000 8 14.75 14 Ningxia 186 600 11 1 620 000 15 8.68 21 Hebei 152 900 12 1 880 000 12 12.30 19 Jilin 141 900 13 1 850 000 13 13.04 17 Hunan 113 200 14 2 085 000 11 18.42 9 Liaoning 90 000 15 1 685 000 14 18.72 8 Fujian 87 400 16 1 510 000 17 17.28 10 Qinghai 80 100 17 1 545 000 16 19.29 7 Guangdong 42 800 18 940 000 18 21.96 6 Xinqiang 22 900 19 755 000 19 32.97 2 Anhui 7 600 20 185 000 20 24.34 5 Jiangxi 4 200 21 105 000 21 25.00 3 Tibet 600 22 35 000 22 58.33 1 Total 50 15 700 74 355 000 14.82

Note: 1) The data in the table are from the Abstract of National Agricultural Statistics; 2) The data of Shandong, Guangxi, Zhejiang and Henan were not included; 3) The data in the table are a little bit different from the FAO data. In 2006, the actual planted area of potatoes was 5.34 million hectares in China. However the planted area was 5.02 million hectares according to Chinese official statistics (Table 1). Based on the FAO statistics, it was 4.90 million hectares, and this was about 26.14 percent of the total global planted area. The total production of potatoes in China was over 70 million tons and it accounts for 22.41 percent of the global potato production. The average yield of potatoes in China was 14.35 tons/ha, which was lower than the world average yield of 16.74 tons/ha. The planted area has been increasing during the past ten years because of the important role of potatoes in food security, poverty alleviation and higher economic returns compared to other crops. In 2006, the planted area reached 5.02 million hectares (not including the planted areas in Shandong, Henan, Zhejiang and Guangxi). The actual planted area is over 530 hectares if we include the missing subregions.

Guizhou, Inner Mongolia, Gansu and Yunnan were the top four subregions in China in terms of planting area, and each of them covered more than 500 000 hectares in 2006.

In the subtropical and tropical regions from north latitude 33 degrees, there are about 30 million hectares of winter fallow paddy fields and a number of crops can be planted in the winter season, such as rapeseed, wheat, potatoes, minor grain crops, forage crops, melons and

43

vegetables. As farmers can produce off-season potatoes in these regions, they can get much higher prices. As a consequence of this, the potato planted area is increasing year by year in these regions. For example, the potato planted area in the Guangxi Autonomous Region has increased from 30 000 hectares to 130 000 hectares in the last five years. 4. Organic potato production in China

The first organic potato enterprise was approved and certified in Heilongjiang. Now there are between 10 and 20 enterprises dealing with organic potato production and distribution in Heilongjiang, Inner Mongolia and Gansu. Among the organic potato producing counties, Wuchuan County is the biggest organic potato producer in China.

Wuchuan County is located in the north part of the Yingshan Mountain. The cool weather, unpolluted water, sandy soils and the tradition of using organic fertilizers provided the possibility for the development of organic potatoes. So far, all the 60 000 hectares of potato fields have been certified for the production of organic potatoes. Organic food production started in the county in 2004. In 2006, the total organic food production area reached 2 530 hectares, with just under half of this amount, or 1 330 hectares, used for the production of organic potatoes. 4.1 Potential for organic potato production 4.1.1 Most of the potatoes are planted in pollution-free marginal regions

Most of the potatoes in China are planted in the marginal regions where industrialization is very limited and there are almost no modern enterprises. There are 592 national poverty counties in China and potatoes are planted in 429 of these. The total planted area of potatoes in these 429 counties accounts for 58.13 percent of the total planted area in China and the other 900 potato planted counties account for 41.87 percent. Because of the difficult economic conditions, farmers used few fertilizers and almost no pesticides. 4.1.2 The long history of organic fertilizer use in potato production

China is an agricultural country with a long history and farmers have the tradition of using organic fertilizers in agricultural production. Organic fertilizers dominated agricultural production in China before the twentieth century. Up to now, farmers are still using organic fertilizers in potato production in some marginal regions of China, and organic fertilizers account for a slightly higher proportion of total fertilizers used than chemical fertilizers. 4.1.3 The high financial benefit from organic potato production

The price of organic potatoes is between three to five times higher than that of normal potatoes. In the supermarkets, the price of normal potatoes is about 2 Yuan/kg whereas the price of organic potatoes is about 8 Yuan/kg. Though the cost of organic potato production is higher than the production of normal potatoes and the yield of organic potatoes is lower than the yield of normal potatoes, the financial benefit of organic potatoes is much higher than that of normal potatoes.

44

4.1.4 The large pollution-free areas facilitates the development of organic potato production

In the past ten years, with the action on pollution-free food and the development of green food, a number of lands (including arable lands and orchard lands) have been used for the production of pollution-free and green food. According to the statistics of the Green Food Management Centre (GFMC), the total land under its supervision was 9.97 million hectares at the end of 2006. Table 2. Area for green food production under the supervision of the GFMC in 2006 Kind of crops and aquaculture Area (1 000 ha) Percentage (%)

Annual crops 4 205.3 42.2 Grain crops 2 337.4 23.4 Oil crops 783.7 7.9 Sugar crops 189.7 1.9 Melon and vegetables 280.7 2.8 Other crops 613.8 6.2 Orchards 1 825.9 18.3 Tea gardens 74.3 0.7 Pastures 305.9 3.1 Aquaculture 2 815.7 28.2 Others 745.3 7.5 Total 9 972.5 100

4.1.5 The development of other kinds of organic food facilitates the development of organic potatoes

Rotation is necessary for potato production and organic potatoes should rotate with other organic crops, such as wheat, maize (in northern China) and rice (winter potatoes). Based on the data in Table 2, there were about 2.34 million hectares of organic grain crops in 2006. This land provides a good opportunity for organic potato production. In combination with organic rice production, the organic potato production in paddy fields in southern China has become more and more common. Covering it with rice straws has become a common way of potato cultivation. It is possible to grow potatoes by just putting seed potatoes on the top of the paddy soil, covering them with rice straw, and picking potatoes from a mulch of rice straw. 4.1.6 Availability of potato varieties with special traits will be helpful for the development of organic potato production

There are three major constraints on potato production in China: seed, late blight and drought. Most of the potato production regions suffer from late blight and drought. The chemical pesticides to control late blight are strictly forbidden in organic potato production and the late blight resistant varieties could be the best choice in this situation. In the marginal and dry regions with fresh air, healthy soils, but low rainfall, drought tolerant varieties could be the best choice.

45

4.1.7 Rapid economic development will stimulate the consumption of organic foods

In the past ten years, China has experienced rapid economic development with an annual growth rate of 7.6 percent to 11.9 percent; and the gross domestic product has tripled. The increase of incomes will help to expand the consumption of more expensive organic food, including organic potatoes. 4.2 Constraints on organic potato production

Though the potential for organic potato production is remarkable, there are several constraints which affect its development. For food security, the amount of food is more important than the quality of food; this is because of the continuing growth of the country’s population and the decrease of its arable land. Also, many people cannot afford to purchase organic potatoes because of the higher prices. The small scale of farming is another constraint on organic potato production.

46

THE IMPORTANCE OF QUALITY POTATO SEED

IN INCREASING POTATO PRODUCTION IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC REGION

Dr Fengyi Wang ∗ 1. Introduction

Because of climate change, the reduction of arable land, increasing population, and frequent occurrence of natural disasters, food security has become a crucial issue. To face this situation, increased food supply has become a priority in the world’s development agenda. In terms of nutritional value, adaptability to diverse environments and yield potential, the potato is a preferred crop, especially in developing countries. According to FAO statistics, potato production in developing countries has increased by 94.6 percent over the last 15 years (Table 1). Out of the four major food crops (rice, wheat, potato and maize), the potato has the best potential for yield increases.

Table 1. World potato production in 1991-2007 (million ton) Countries 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 Developed 183.13 199.31 177.47 174.63 165.93 166.94 160.97 159.99 155.56Developing 84.86 101.95 108.72 128.72 135.15 145.92 152.11 160.12 165.15WORLD 257.25 301.27 285.97 303.36 301.08 312.86 313.09 320.11 320.71Source: FAOSTAT

The potato is grown in more than 150 countries with an average yield of about 16

tons/ha. However, yields in North America and some European countries are over 40 tons/ha; even 70 to 80 tons/ha can be realized in experimental plots. The yield in developing countries is less than 20 tons/ha, even less than 10 tons/ha in some countries. There is a big gap among the various countries between high and low yields, even with the same variety of potato. If constraints could be overcome to some extent, it would be possible to increase the yields in the developing world significantly. 2. Potato yield and the affecting factors

Potato yield is determined both by the crop per se and the environment. The former can be defined as internal causes including genetic identity, health and physiology. The latter are external factors that consist mainly of temperature, light, nutrition and water. The genotype determines tuber number, tuber size and yield potential for any given cultivar. Then, the performance of yield is largely influenced by the health status of seed tubers and plants. The physiological age of seed tubers is also a factor that can affect final yield. Since some external factors (such as light and temperature) cannot be controlled, we can only adjust the inputs of nutrition and water by appropriate fertilizer application and irrigation. Then, appropriate crop

∗ Coordinator for CFC/CIP DPR Korea Project, CIP-ESEAP, Training Building in the Campus of Northeast Agricultural University, 59-Mucai Street, Xiangfang District, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China 150030.

47

management practices should be applied to harmonize the relationship of crop and the environment. It is the only way to get good yields. Unfortunately, we cannot control all external factors, but efforts can be made to optimize yields by using high quality seed.

Genetic identity is modified by breeders through developing new cultivars. Healthy seed is the responsibility of seed producers, and only the physiological age of seed tubers can be adjusted by growers. After reviewing the history of potato breeding, it seems that all registered cultivars have similar yield potential; even some cultivars that have been cultivated for over 100 years can still yield 50 or 60 tons/ha if seed quality is good and, of course, under appropriate crop management. We can say that genotype at present is not a major constraint for getting higher yields. The physiological age of seed tubers can influence yield to a certain extent through adjusting growth speed. Old seed develops fast at an early stage and senesces earlier, which leads to relatively lower final yields. In contrast, young seed develops slowly at an early stage, but it can keep vigour longer and get higher final yields. The range of yield fluctuation adjusted by physiological age is not clear, but yield effects of physiological age are evident. Therefore, it is clear now that seed quality in terms of health and physiological status is a determinant factor of the yield potential of the potato crop.

Crop management practices are related to local conditions, production purposes and utilization, and growers’ experience. In many countries irrigation and fertilizer application are restricted by economic factors. Under these conditions what we can do for yield improvement is just to have healthy seed and good crop management. In fact, high productivity is based on good quality seed, combined with the use of other critical inputs and application of appropriate crop management practices. 3. Effects of good quality seed

Potato yields are affected by several factors. Quality seed is a very important factor. The average yield increase from the use of good quality seed is 30 to 50 percent compared to farmers’ seeds. Two cases from China and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea can illustrate the differences of yield. The results of investigations carried out in 2005 in Shandong, China are shown in Table 2. In the whole province, the use of good quality seed accounted for 24 percent. Medium quality seed accounted for 43.3 percent; and 32.7 percent of production was based on poor quality seed. The yield difference between good quality and poor quality was 28.4 percent.

Table 2. Comparison of yields from different quality categories of seed

Seed quality Yield (tons/ha) Yield comparison (%) Good 37.6 100.0 Medium 30.7 81.5 Poor 22.0 71.6 Data from Academy of Agriculture Sciences, DPR Korea, 2007.

The second case, in the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, shows the yield

differences among various classes of seed (Table 3). The basic seed was microtubers. In Class 1 the tubers were harvested in normal size net-houses. In Class 2 the tubers were multiplied in the field.

48

Table 3. Yield comparison of different classes of seed

Variety Seed class Yield(T/ha) Ratio (%)

Basic 22.3 120.2 Class 1 30.7 162.0 Jangjin-6 Class 2 18.9 100.0 Basic 25.2 142.0

Class 1 28.5 160.0 Yolmaejo-saeng

Class 2 17.7 100.0 Data from Academy of Agriculture Sciences, DPR Korea, 2007.

4. Indicators of potato seed quality

Quality indicators of potato seed have two dimensions: the biological attributes (biological quality) and the appearance attributes (commercial quality). Biological quality is crucial for productivity, whereas commercial quality mainly affects seed price. 4.1 Biological quality

The biological quality includes two aspects: a) the level of disease infection and b) the physiological age of seed tubers. The former is quite complicated and important. It is well known that seed tubers planted continuously for several years will show degeneration. The degeneration is aroused by several kinds of viruses and virus-like organisms. Because of asexual propagation, viruses and viroids can be accumulated in tubers, and lead to degeneration of the potato.

Major viruses affecting the potato are potato virus Y (PVY), potato virus X (PVX), potato virus M (PVM), potato virus A (PVA), potato leaf roll virus (PLRV) and potato spindle tuber viroid (PSTV). Infection of any one alone or some of them jointly would retard plant growth and reduce tuber yield. Apart from viruses, fungal and bacterial pathogens borne by tubers lead to late blight, ring rot, black-leg and others, and are also limiting factors for seed quality. 4.2 Commercial quality

Commercial quality is defined by uniformity and size of tubers, as well as external appearance. For normal production, a reasonable size of seed tuber or tuber pieces should be about 40 to 50 grams. Big size seed will increase cost and seed that are too small can rot before emergence.

4.3 The way to guarantee biological quality

Good biological quality seed is free from any pathogens, including viruses, viroids, fungi and bacteria, that may lead to degeneration of seed. Seed multiplication started with clean stocks should be the key step. After that, appropriate multiplication technology should be applied according to classes of seed multiplied. Figure 1 shows the pattern of the general flow of seed multiplication in most seed production programmes.

49

Figure 1. General flow of potato seed production

Under given conditions, this flow could be modified. No matter what improvements are made, the quality of seed should be guaranteed. Of course, more generations of multiplication always increase the risk of degeneration, but seed costs can be reduced. 5. Seed supply systems

Seed supply systems are quite diverse. Many seed supply schemes have been adopted by local seed producers especially in tropical and subtropical regions. Some examples used in Asia and the Pacific region are shown below. 5.1 China

China is the world’s foremost potato producer in terms of harvest area and amount. In 2007, the harvested area was five million hectares and total production was 72 million tons. Nevertheless, national average yield was only 14.4 tons/ha, even lower than the world average (16.64 tons/ha). The adverse natural environment such as infertile soil in southwest mountain zones and shortage of water supply in the north-central zones are negative factors, but poor quality of seed is more significant. It is estimated that only 20 percent of the total cultivable area is planted with quality seed (Figures 2 and 3).

Basic stock

Plantlets in vitro

Microtubers Pre-Basic seed

Minitubers Basic seed

Foundation seed Elite seed

Certified seed

Growers’ fields

Breeding materials

Multiplied in vitro

Multiplied in greenhouses

Multiplied in green/net-houses

Multiplied at isolated environment

Multiplied in fields

Commercial production

50

5.2 Democratic People’s Republic of Korea

During the last ten years, rapid potato development has taken place in Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. Up to 2006, the harvested area was 188 388 hectares and total production was 470 451 tons with average yields of 9.3 tons/ha for spring potatoes and 10.7 tons/ha for summer potatoes. Poor quality of seed is a major constraint on yield increase. For this reason, supply of quality seed became a key issue for potato production. The first step was to install hydroponic facilities to produce mini-tubers of virus free stocks. There are already six tissue culture laboratories equipped with hydroponic facilities around the country. Mini-tubers produced in the laboratories will be distributed to provincial seed farms, and then followed by county seed farms and sub-work teams of cooperative farms. In the northern regions, a four-year

Virus-free plantlet in vitro rapid multiplication by stem-cutting

Minituber (pre-elite) multiplication in aphid-proof greenhouse

Elite 1 multiplication in aphid-proof net-houses

Elite 2 multiplication under protect and harvest before aphid coming

Certified seed multiplication in fields (appropriate delaying)

Growers’ fields

First year spring

Autumn

Second year spring

Autumn

Microtuber induced from virus-free plantlet in vitro

Figure 3. Potato seed production scheme in Central China (double cropping)

Growers’ fields

Minituber (pre-elite) multiplication in aphid-proof greenhouse or net-house

Certified seed multiplication in fields

Figure 2. Potato seed production scheme in Northern China (single cropping)

First year

Second year

Third year

Fourth year

Commercial production

Certified seed multiplication in field

Virus-free plantlet in vitro rapid multiplication by stem-cutting

Elite 1 multiplication in aphid-proof net-houses or isolated area

Elite 2 multiplication in isolated area

Micro tuber induced from virus-free plantlet in vitro

51

multiplication scheme was adopted. In the lowland zones, a scheme of four generations in two years was adopted. As an alternative, true potato seed (TPS) was tried as well for seed production.

Although several approaches to seed multiplication have been tried in lowland zones, the supply of mini-tubers and aphid-proof facilities is still not satisfactory. Sexual reproduction can eliminate almost all pathogens; thus TPS as basic material can be used for seed production. Hybrid or open-pollinated TPS were sowed in July between rows of maize, and harvested in late October. After four to five months of storing, those tubers from TPS can be used as seed for commercial production in lowland zones. All potato clones are heterozygous, and tubers harvested from TPS do not represent a pure variety. However, they are available for family consumption after selection of parental clones (Figures 4 and 5).

5.3 Mongolia

In 2004, the average potato yield was only 8.5 tons/ha in Mongolia. Results of interviews with 300 growers revealed that seed quality was the major cause of low yields. Most growers said that they did not know the origin of the seed they planted, as a seed supply system does not exist to which small-scale growers can have access.

Mini-tuber

Basic seed 1

Basic seed 2

Certified seed

Institutes

Institutes

Seed farm

Seed farms

Commercial Cooperative farms

Spring year 1

Autumn year 1

Autumn year 2

Spring year 2

Figure 5. Multiplication scheme in lowland zones

Initial plant materials

Pre-basic seed

Basic seed

Certified seed 1

Certified seed 2

Certified seed 3/4

Commercial production

Figure 4. Multiplication system in northern region

Cooperative farms

Tissue culture labs

Minituber factory

Basic seed farms MOA

Provincial seed farms

County seed farms

AAS

MOA

52

From 2005, revitalization of Mongolia’s potato sector (funded by donors) started.

Improvement of seed quality was a major component of the project. Based on natural and financial conditions, a decentralized seed system was adopted (Figure 6).

Although the system is not perfect, and still needs to be improved in many aspects, it is

already showing results. Up to 2006, 103 informal seed producers were operating in 21 aimags (top-level administrative divisions). The average yield reached 10.2 tons/ha. However, technologies for virus detection and quality control are still under development. 6. How to increase the supply of quality seed

The use of quality seed involves two aspects: whether seed of good quality and in large enough quantities can be supplied and whether growers are willing to use quality seed considering the cost—benefit ratio. Both aspects are related to market conditions. The only factor motivating growers to grow potatoes is competitive returns compared to other crops. If higher profits can be achieved, growers would be eager to get quality seed, and then seed producers could have a market for their product. For example, in Shandong, a special area for potato production in China, potatoes can be harvested from late April to June when fresh potato supply is short in most other regions of China. Fresh potatoes harvested in Shandong are easily sold at a good price. Potato growing has become a major source of income for local farmers. Since the profits from increasing yield are higher by using quality seed, growers are willing to buy good quality seed. Shandong has the highest potato yield in China now. Provincial average yield is over 30 tons/ha, with a total harvest area of 1.4 million hectares. Furthermore, Inner Mongolia, which is located on a plateau and has sufficient sunshine, has become a major area for potato production with irrigation facilities. Higher profits from potato growing are encouraging growers to use quality seed.

With the growth of the potato seed market, some large scale seed producers have emerged in recent years. The biggest one is the Shandong Xisen Group, with a capacity of 250 million mini-tubers per year. After multiplication in fields, 75 000 tons of certified seed can be produced yearly. Annual seed production of Inner Mongolia’s Hesheng Potato Industry is already stable at 40 000 tons of certified seed. There are also many small-scale seed producers in

Multiplication in vitro

SS elite (G1) S elite (G2) Elite (G3)

Farmers Informal growers

Small-scale farmers

Certified 1 (G4) Certified 2 (G5) Certified 3 (G6)

PSARTI/PPRI Seed companies

PSARTI/PPRI

Commercial production

Certified seed production

Elite seed production

Mini-tuber production (G0)

Figure 6. Proposed seed production scheme

53

China. With the improvement of seed quality, potato yields in China will be significantly increased in the near future. 7. Conclusions

Potato yields are affected by several factors, but the basic factor is seed quality, especially its biological quality. Application of fertilizers and irrigation, as well as appropriate crop management, could be more effective when good quality seed is used.

Good returns from potato production are the driving force for using quality seed. As long as potato growers can achieve higher profits, they are willing to use quality seed. The key is that the profit from using quality seed must offsets its higher cost.

The only way to increase potato production in the region is by increasing productivity per unit area of land. Increasing productivity rather than area expansion will be the key factor to meet the increasing potato demand in the future.

54

POST-HARVEST ISSUES OF POTATOES IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC REGION

Dr Sarath Ilangantileke ∗ _____________________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction 1.1 The current status of post-harvest handling and processing

Potato production in the Asia and the Pacific region is increasing and is significant in China and India, which rank first and third in terms of amount produced and area cultivated in the region, respectively. However, although production and area in the Asian and South Asian countries are increasing compared to the Western potato growing countries, post-harvest handling and processing practices need to be improved to achieve the ultimate goal of adding value to excess production. Despite the large production areas, high productivity and large total amount produced in the bigger producing countries in the region such as China and India, the processing of potatoes accounts for only a small percentage of the total crop produced. Although processing activities in India, China and some other countries in the region are increasing, the percentage of potatoes processed at present is very low compared to Western countries. In Asia, except for a few large multinational and locally-owned companies in India and China, potato processing is limited to the small-scale and medium-scale potato chip or flake producing plants of local entrepreneurs in the potato-producing countries such as Bangladesh, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, etc. In the West, and other potato-growing countries such as Russia, processing is a vital and highly profitable part of the potato chain. The potato is gaining popularity in all Asian producing countries. Research and development activities are mainly taken care of by the national potato organizations, and in a limited number of countries multinationals and national private organizations are involved in processing related research and development of the crop system. Although all countries emphasise increased production, in general issues related to the post-harvest handling and processing of potatoes receive little emphasis. These issues are complicated in that factors that control the quality of processed potato products vary. Many products could be processed using existing potato varieties and production techniques, but yields and outputs of processed products are very low mainly because of a lack of good processing potato varieties that could be grown in the countries themselves. In addition to the non-availability of processing varieties, the lack of facilities for the entire processing chain in countries other than India and China, hinder the development of the processing industry. 1.2 Poverty in the region and its alleviation

Many potato-producing countries in Asia and the Pacific region are listed as countries having populations below the poverty line of US$1 per day. South Asian and West Asian countries have over 500 million people living on less than US$1 per day and countries in

∗ Consultant, International Potato Center (CIP), South, West and Central Asia (SWCA) Regional Office and former Regional Leader, CIP-SWCA Regional Office, New Delhi 110012, India.

55

Southeast Asia and the Pacific have populations of over 200 million living on less than US$1 per day, although the trend now seems to be reducing. Although large-scale potato cultivation is seen in the larger producing regional countries, many poor small farmers also cultivate small areas of potatoes. Many of these farmers lie below the poverty line and are at the mercy of traders and other market forces and have to dispose of their freshly harvested crops at low prices immediately after harvest when large quantities of potato are available in the market. Farmers who can store the freshly harvested produce at the best possible condition for sale at a later period will obtain better prices for their crop. They will also have an opportunity to add value to the harvested potatoes, thereby obtaining higher incomes. This will help them evade a situation of compulsion to sell at low prices immediately after harvest, resulting in reduced incomes. In addition, interventions to keep the produce in good condition for longer periods will help farmers reduce quality and quantity losses after harvest and make available more food for their communities. 1.3 Solution to improving farm incomes of potato farmers

Increased incomes for poor potato farmers will help them move above the existing poverty line. Adding value and preservation of the crop is important to obtain more food and higher incomes in the market. For this, post-harvest practices and operations have to be understood and existing practices improved to suit the conditions of crop preservation and food availability. 2. Post-harvest practices for potatoes 2.1 Existing post-harvest operations

There are many post-harvest practices in potato production and they depend on the end requirement. Potatoes can be used in various ways and therefore careful planning is necessary to provide for all of these. 2.2 Use of potatoes as seed and ware (for fresh consumption)

Potatoes can be kept and used as seed for the next cultivation season, or sold as seed to other farmers in the farming community. They can also be used for large commercial seed sale if there is a planned commercial operation. In many countries in the region where potatoes are cultivated under subtropical humid conditions, seed is kept from one season to another. Seed is kept for about nine months since these countries will have only one planting season. 2.2.1 Potato storage

Storage is an important post-harvest activity in seed production. Storage under specific conditions is important to prevent excessive loss of weight as a result of driage and to preserve germination quality. Prevention of diseases in storage is also important whether it be small farmer storage or commercial potato seed storage. 2.2.2 Storage systems

A majority of stores in the countries of Asia and the Pacific region are at farm level and are for short-term storage only. These have no temperature control and have to be modified to prevent spoilage. They are used mostly to offset the low prices in the market immediately after harvest and to keep the potatoes for a few months after harvest until prices increase. Most may not be organized but in some cases seed stores are planned. Cold storage is the answer to many

56

of the storage problems and for long-term storage. However, many small farmers are unable to obtain space in cold stores and cannot afford storage space.

A famous saying is that Asia is blessed with good conditions for bad storage. This is because the harvest in most cases and for most crops coincides with inappropriate climatic conditions to keep the crop after harvest. This is a non-controllable factor. Wet weather, increasing temperatures and high humidity after harvest give ideal conditions for pests and diseases. In some cases high temperature and low humidity give rise to weight loss or driage in the stores, resulting in revenue losses. These are the most common problems of storage. In addition to this, inappropriate storage structures do not help in preventing these storage problems. Improved storage structures therefore would prevent losses. The provision of structures with better ventilation and aeration to remove respiratory heat, provide diffused lighting for seed stores, and prevent the seepage of water is necessary. So is insect and disease control (especially tuber moth in potatoes), developing a market infrastructure for moving the harvested and stored product rapidly and improved pre-storage practices such as grading, preconditioning etc.

Small farmers who depend on their own production for seed in the next season have primitive or minimally improved farm storage. Most seed storage in this case is either in farm houses or in small sheds. Some farmers improve storage conditions by providing ventilation and also using structures with diffuse light to help keep the seed potatoes. In most cases, however, the conditions are poor and result in wastage, thus reducing the total amount of potatoes left for seed to be planted in the next season.

Commercial seed storage is available in many countries, with the best cold store facilities seen in Bangladesh and India in South Asia. Cold stores are available in many of the potato growing districts. The numbers vary but in India about 60 percent of the total produce is stored in cold stores. The percentages going into seed and for normal consumption, however, vary. Bangladesh and India have associations for cold store owners.

Since the seed is kept for long periods, it is essential that the seed be conditioned beforehand by reducing field heat (especially in cold stores). Thereafter the cold store temperatures have to be maintained well at 2 to 4 oC in order that the quality of potatoes as seed is maintained. Frequent monitoring for humidity and air composition is important.

Under farm conditions, there is not much control of temperature. In most growing countries in the subtropics, ambient temperatures increase while the produce is in storage. Proper ventilation and light management is essential to keep the seed under good conditions. 2.2.3 Structural requirements for storage

Structural requirements for farm storage depend on environmental conditions. These vary in relation to the growing conditions in different countries. In countries where harsh winters are present and potatoes are grown in the summer months (for example in Ghazni, Afghanistan and in Inner Mongolia, China), farm level storage in the winter months after the summer harvest is underground. Similar underground storage is seen in the mountain areas of Pakistan. However, these structures do not store potatoes well because of water seepage arising from the winter thaw. However, for such conditions, improved design and storage construction with very little additional cost will provide better storage over the winter period before the next summer planting. Well constructed leak-proof underground stores could tolerate temperatures as low as minus 10 oC (ambient). Examples of these stores can be seen in Afghanistan. Here, potato-

57

growing districts with very low temperatures were provided with such stores. Potatoes removed from these stores were perfect both for ware and seed.

In areas where the temperatures are higher and farm storage is the only option, ventilation is a very important factor in addition to light control for seed. Light control is not required for ware where the potato is stored in the dark, but preferably should be at low temperatures.

Evaporative cool stores have been tried in the Indo-Gangetic Plains where potato is harvested in February and March and then kept in evaporative cool stores. However, it is essential in this case that the environment is composed of high day temperatures with very low humidity. This leaves for evaporation of a water surface in the store bottom thus cooling the store at times below 10 oC from the ambient. 2.2.4 Storage of processing potatoes

In the case of potatoes that may go into processing or that may be consumed late in the storage period, conditioning needs to be done. In low temperature long-term storage, potatoes convert the starches within its tubers into sugar, a physiological factor in potatoes. These have been well documented in different potato producing countries. Conditioning of these potatoes is therefore necessary to reconvert the sugars into starch. When potatoes with high sugar contents are processed say to chips or French fries, the resulting products are dark brown or brown coloured chips or French fries. This is because of caramelization of sugars present in the raw material.

Reconditioning of the potatoes from sugar to starch is done by increasing the temperatures in storage prior to the produce going into processing. High starch and low sugars give a better coloured potato product.

Recently, sprout suppressants have been used to prevent sprout formation in stored potatoes. Potatoes then can be stored at higher temperatures thus preventing the buildup of sugars. Potatoes stored with the use of sprout suppressants could be used for processing since the sugar content is low and not converted to sugars from starch. Commercially available formulations are available. Energy is also saved by storing the potatoes at higher temperatures, thus reducing energy that is required to cool the store. 2.2.5 Better storage practices for potatoes used for seed, ware and processing

Better storage of the harvested potatoes can be achieved by: 1. good crop management prior to harvest; 2. seed and ware potato drying, cleaning and preparation for storage; 3. seed and ware grading for maturity, quality and seed size; 4. preconditioning in the atmosphere (shade) to reduce field heat after harvest; 5. maintenance of set temperatures in cold stores (when under cold storage); 6. better storage structure for farm level short-term storage; 7. maintenance of humidity to prevent driage under high temperatures and low humidity as

seen in storage in the Indo-Gangetic Plains after the winter /spring harvest; 8. better hygienic practices during storage; 9. use of sprout suppressants for higher temperature storage (8 to 15 oC); and 10. proper insect control, especially potato tuber moth.

58

2.3 Marketing as a post-harvest activity to move the harvested and stored product

Although not considered in most discussions in the post-harvest chain, good and efficient marketing channels are important means of moving the harvested potato as fast as possible after harvest and also during storage. This reduces the time the product spends in storage before it is consumed or processed. In the vast majority of Asia and the Pacific region countries, potato markets are not well established. The advantage of a good marketing system, whether it be for seed, fresh consumption or potatoes to be processed, is that a good market chain allows the product to flow from excess areas to deficit areas in a short time. This reduces the burden on infrastructure such as storage and also lowers handling requirements. Marketing, therefore, should be considered an important and an integral part of the post-harvest chain.

Marketing provides for quality grading, branding and preparation of the produce for sale. It also provides an avenue to fetch higher prices for the potatoes that have been graded, packed and prepared for sale. With the current trend leading to the supermarket culture, preparation and sale in sophisticated markets will play an important role in distributing potatoes throughout the deficit and demand areas. Developing an organized marketing chain is a priority in post-harvest handling. 2.4 Potato processing

Adding value to the potatoes is an important activity in the potato post-harvest chain and therefore needs to be considered as a very important step in providing added income for poor farmers who could either prepare the harvested produce to be marketed to processors or could undertake small-scale farm processing to add value to the potato crop. Processing helps preserve the product during times when there is a glut, reduces storage requirements, adds value to the produce in many forms such as chips, French fries, flakes, dehydrated products, potato powder and secondary products from powders and flour etc. and thereby extends the shelf life of the semi-perishable produce.

Small scale processing activities are found in many Asia and the Pacific region countries, for example home processing for chips and dehydrated potato products. In larger potato- producing countries in the region, however, multinationals and large national firms process potatoes mainly as chips and their presence is increasing. The volume, as mentioned earlier, is still small and needs to be and is expected to be increased in the years to come. Fast food is rapidly being adopted in the booming markets of Asia and the Pacific region. Potato processing is therefore bound to increase rapidly in the near future.

The quality of the processed product is variety dependent, as processing requires high dry matter, low sugar potato varieties that have to be produced in the country. In addition, the cultivation techniques should result in a produce that is of good quality to reduce processing losses and thereby production costs. In the processing plants, attention should be given to assuring the quality of raw material at all times and throughout the processing cycle. This will keep the processing machinery of the plants active throughout the year and lower production costs.

Processing should be matched with adequate storage requirements to provide the processing plant with quality potatoes in its yearly manufacturing plan. Reversal of sugar accumulation could be done for potatoes stored for long periods. This could be done by increasing temperatures in selected time periods before processing. Reversal could also be done by using sprout suppressants as mentioned earlier.

59

In processing, the quality of the end product is dependent on the machinery, the oil utilized (if fried) and the time for processing etc. It is important that the countries in Asia and the Pacific region strive for their own varieties. Now, many countries depend on existing non-processing varieties for small-scale and large-scale processing. This will not yield the best quality of potatoes. India, now, has three processing varieties that are being used. 3. Conclusions and suggestions

Post-harvest issues are many and important considering the increasing importance of potatoes in Asia and the Pacific region. 3.1 Storage i. Storage is important both for seed and ware potatoes as it helps reduce waste and prevents driage and processing losses if handled correctly. Good storage is required for seed, ware and processing varieties to maximize food availability and markets. ii. The construction of stores should be made to suit the agroclimates of the growing areas and farming conditions whether on small or large farms. iii. Good quality raw material should be used for storage, thereby indicating the importance of cleaning and grading of the produce prior to storage. iv. Good store management is essential whether it is for small country stores or for large cold stores, keeping in mind the storage requirements and factors involved in management. 3.2 Processing i) Processing is important because it adds value to the existing potato crop and helps in increasing farm income whether the crop is sold for processing or for small-scale farm or large-scale processing. ii) Processing systems help in handling the excess potato crop after the harvest. Planning of processing systems to handle the excess from fresh consumption is important. iii) Processing varieties should be developed if the full benefits of processing are to be obtained. iv) Domestic processing should be encouraged to handle excess production and keep prices uniform. v) Special products should be developed for the emerging markets. 3.3 Marketing i) Marketing should be an integral part of post-harvest activities in potato production. ii) Marketing and market surveys should help determine the seasonal storage requirements for potatoes in a growing area. iii) Branding of products for the market whether for seed, ware or processed products will help develop identities in the market and develop products, thereby helping to increase farm incomes. iv) Developing a marketing chain when planning post-harvest activities is essential.

60

POTATOES, POVERTY AND PARTICIPATION:

MAKING RURAL INSTITUTIONS AND MARKETS WORK FOR THE POOR

Dr Dindo M. Campilan ∗ _____________________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction: the many faces of potato agriculture in Asia

Asia produces and consumes more potatoes than any other region in the world. This makes the region a strategic location for demonstrating the crop’s contribution to poverty alleviation in the developing world.

Research and development efforts face the challenge of dealing with diverse systems in which the crop is grown and utilized in Asia. First, regional production is dominated by two potato giants, China and India, along with five of the world’s top 20 producing countries, and several others engaged in smaller-scale production. Second, the crop is grown across the broad agro-ecological landscape in Asia — from the warmer lowlands in the subtropics to the high-altitude temperate areas. Third, the crop’s utilization pattern extends from being a staple food to a high-value vegetable and key ingredient in various processed products.

With this heterogeneous character of potato agriculture, the crop’s importance as a source of livelihood cuts across the various segments of Asia’s poor. And since there cannot be a single potato farmer stereotype, research and development interventions have to fine-tune the targeting of different categories of poor potato farming households.

This paper presents a series of International Potato Center (CIP) projects (Figure 1) in Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines. It describes research for development experiences in working with poor farming households to address disease, general crop health and marketing constraints. The paper aims: a) to characterize poor farming households and their potato livelihoods, b) to assess how poor farmers can meaningfully participate in and benefit from potato research and development, and c) to examine the role of rural institutions and markets in pro-poor potato research and development.

Figure 1. Potato research for development

∗ Social Scientist, Impact Enhancement Division and Regional Leader (incoming) for South, West and Central Asia International Potato Center (CIP), c/o IRRI, DAPO Box 7777, Metro Manila, Philippines.

Bacterial wilt disease mgt (Nepal mid-hills)

Integrated crop mgt: seed and diseases

(Nepal-wide)

Integrated crop mgt for fresh markets

(Philippines)

Linking farmers w/multiple markets

(Indonesia)

61

2. Mobilizing communities for bacterial wilt management in Nepal

The potato is Nepal’s second most important food crop, after cereals; it is grown from the southern plains to the remote northern mountains. In South Asia, the country has the highest per capita consumption of potatoes. Still, Nepal has one of the lowest national yield averages globally and for the developing world. Diseases are a major limiting factor to improving potato productivity in the country. Use of low-quality seed, and poor crop management practices are among the key factors contributing to the widespread occurrence of disease (Hidalgo et al, 2001). In addition, potato farmers are rarely reached by formal research and extension services. Government agencies are constrained by limited resources and capacities to respond to problems faced by potato farmers in remote areas.

In the early 1990s, Nepalese researchers conducted several diagnostic activities to assess serious crop losses faced by potato farmers in the western midhills. Local farmers identified bacterial wilt disease as their most important problem, with losses in yield ranging from 10 percent to over 90 percent. Its occurrence was mainly associated with the use of infected seed, along with planting in infested soil and poor crop management practices.

Subsequently, CIP and Nepal’s Lumle Agricultural Research Centre (LARC) initiated a research project to help local potato farmers manage bacterial wilt. Drawing on previous research, the project introduced an integrated disease management strategy covering technology components for seed, soil and general crop health,

However, in implementing this strategy, it became clear that the proposed technical solutions were not adequate to manage the disease problem. There were crucial socio-cultural and economic factors that hindered implementation of the technology components. For example, enforcing measures to control the spread of infected seed implied restricting the use of seed potato as a cultural symbol in traditional rituals (e.g. as wedding gifts). Most importantly, carrying out the entire integrated disease management strategy required full community participation, since if only one farmer refused to stop planting potatoes this would create conditions for the pathogen to persist in the soil and spread in the community (Campilan, 2002).

During a series of community meetings and with the guidance of the project team, local farmers identified the social measures needed to accompany the technical components of integrated disease management (Box 1). To oversee its implementation, a village-level committee was formed to promote incentives for participation (e.g. introducing alternative food crops during the three-year ban) and to enforce sanctions for non-compliance with the jointly agreed strategy (e.g. imposing fines on farmers found to have planted potatoes during the three-year ban).

Evaluation results showed that project implementation was sustained in one village for a

Box 1. Technical and social components of bacterial wilt management in Nepal Technical components Elimination of infected planting materials Three-year moratorium on potato cultivation Use of clean seed and quarantine scheme Rouging and field sanitation Social components Reaching community consensus on strategy for bacterial wilt management Formation of a village-level committee to oversee implementation of strategy Enforcement of community-agreed incentives and sanctions Regular field monitoring

62

Evaluation results showed that project implementation was sustained in one village for

a three-year period. All of the 51 farming households fully complied with the technical and social requirements of the strategy. In contrast, implementation of the same strategy came to an early end in the second village after the committee disbanded within a year of launching the project. Among the key reasons were: farmers’ perceptions about the committee’s lack of formal authority to assume “police” powers; the resignation of key committee members as a result of emerging conflicts with farmers over the latter’s performance of their assigned tasks; and the inability of individual farmers to cope with pressures to meet immediate food and livelihood needs of their own households (Campilan and Ghimere, 1998).

The contrasting experiences unwittingly provided an opportunity to compare outcomes between the two communities. Post-project evaluation carried out after the three-year implementation period revealed that in the first village, bacterial wilt was completely eliminated. In comparison, a disease incidence of 75 percent was observed in the second village (Ghimere and Dhital, 1998). 3. From piloting to scaling up in Nepal

Following positive outcomes of the community-mobilization approach, a follow-up project was launched in 1998 that aimed to implement integrated disease management in other key potato-growing areas across Nepal. The CIP teamed up with the Department of Agriculture and district-level agricultural offices. The project team then recognized that the innovation cannot exclusively focus on bacterial wilt because farmers in potato-growing areas face several disease constraints at any one time. In addition, to reach more farmers more quickly, a more extensive approach needs to be employed for facilitating group learning to help farmers manage location-specific constraints on growing a healthy potato crop.

The integrated disease management innovation evolved into integrated crop management of potato through participatory group training, based on the Farmer Field School (FFS) approach (Lama et al 2003). Although the lack of any previous experience in potato FFS was a major bottleneck, the project benefited from an earlier programme in Nepal which focused on integrated pest management in rice. The approach for rice was adapted to suit the potato crop and the constraints being addressed. Because there was a wide variability in potato systems and constraints among FFS sites, each group of facilitators and farmers developed their own locally relevant training curriculum (Hidalgo et al, 2001). Thus, although they had a common focus on seed health and late blight, each FFS decided to include bacterial wilt, true potato seed, and/or crop management. From 1999 to 2003, 1 320 farmers in 14 districts across the country participated in FFSs on potato integrated crop management.

At the national level, the project realized that sustaining these FFS activities would require longer-term funding commitment from the government. Extension workers were keen to implement FFS, but needed funding support to travel to remote potato farming communities and to secure clean seed and training materials. On the other hand, government funds can only be accessed if there is an officially approved allocation for potato FFS from the annual budget for agricultural extension.

Thus the project published and distributed training manuals for use by local extension workers, in partnership with CARE Nepal. These materials were most useful for FFS facilitators in remote villages with limited access to information sources. The project team also joined an informal advocacy network that sought to mainstream the FFS approach in Nepal’s agricultural extension policy. Consequently, the national government officially adopted the FFS approach as

63

part of the agricultural extension strategy, under Nepal’s national development plan for 2003—2007.

This policy support paved the way for district-level agricultural extension offices to access government funds for implementing FFS activities. Similarly, NGOs have since adopted the FFS approach to extend their outreach programmes, as this is consistent with the principles of community empowerment and locally driven development that they promote. Between 2003 and 2005, 130 FFS activities on potato integrated crop management (ICM) were implemented and funded by various organizations in Nepal. By 2005, over 4 000 farmers had already taken part.

Project evaluations indicated even wider diffusion of the ICM innovation because each FFS participant shared information with an average of 18 other farmers. Maintenance and use of clean seed was the most common ICM practice adopted by farmers two years after the FFS. Economic analysis showed that gross and net returns to land and labour significantly increased post-training as compared to before the training (Chettri et al, 2005).

However, the evaluation revealed that producing adequate supplies of clean seed remained a continuing challenge for farmers. Thus in 2006, the FFS approach was further adapted to focus production of clean seed through true potato seed technology, which makes use of botanical seeds rather than whole tubers. With funding from the Japanese government, local Nepal partners have since conducted a national programme to conduct FFS activities, this time with a curriculum centred on using true potato seed in on-farm seed production (Campilan et al, 2006). 4. Adapting Nepal experience to the Philippines: from food supply to cash income

To determine the wider applicability of the community-mobilization approach, CIP initiated a similar project in southern Philippines in the late 1990s. However, the approach was found to be inappropriate for the Philippines because of the sharp contrasts in agro-ecological and socio-economic settings between the two countries (Table 1). For instance, the technical recommendation for three-year crop rotation was not applicable in the Philippines since Race 1 of the pathogen, which thrives for up to 20 years, was more common in the area. Secondly, the local potato growing communities did not have the same organizational structure, land tenure system and social norms to facilitate group action and decision-making. On the whole, the unsuccessful attempt to transfer the approach from Nepal to the Philippines underscored the context-specific nature of mobilizing communities for potato disease management.

Table 1. Difficulties in adapting the Nepal bacterial wilt management approach to southern Philippines (adapted from Brons and Sister 1998)

Features of IDM approach as used in Nepal

Reasons why inappropriate for the Philippines

3-year rotation Pathogen is Race 1 Community action More culturally and economically

heterogeneous Farmlands are located within geographically demarcated villages

Boundaries for villages and farmlands do not coincide

Farmers’ direct control of land use Complex land tenure arrangements

Compared with Nepal, potato production in the Philippines is primarily market-oriented. Farmers grow the crop along with other high-value vegetables, which are sold through the same fresh-market chains. Thus an important complement to crop management research was a project

64

in 2003, led by the University of the Philippines-Mindanao (UPM), which aimed to improve efficiency of the agribusiness supply chain for small vegetable producers.

Through this latter project, the potential value of marketing innovations — particularly the practice of grading/sorting — was assessed. As reported by Digal (2004), two thirds of farmers practice grading of their vegetables primarily because they get a higher price for carrying out this marketing function. Although grading entails costs, the benefits in terms of higher prices outweigh them. Moreover, grading provides more flexibility for the farmers and traders in terms of meeting the requirements of buyers. It also provides a basis for pricing their products. Thus grading provides benefits to buyers by lowering transaction costs. With grading, the uncertainty or risks of getting low quality vegetables are minimized.

However, there are farmers who continue to produce vegetables without applying value-adding production and post-harvest practices. Most of the farmer’s produce is sold in traditional wet markets where almost all kinds of quality grades are accepted. Thus, farmers continue to produce low quality products because there continues to be a market for these even if profit margins are low. If farmers are to increase income, they must be able to tap markets other than the traditional wet markets. Before this can happen, however, they need to improve the quality of their vegetables to be able to penetrate outlets such as hotels, restaurants and fast food outlets. To improve product quality, policies to improve infrastructure facilities and accessibility to credit need to be in place. Improving infrastructure facilities does not only minimize post-harvest losses, but it also improves accessibility of traders to remote areas in the countryside and therefore improves competition and minimizes monopsonistic power. 5. Linking Indonesian farmers to multiple market chains

Indonesia is Southeast Asia’s largest potato producer. Over half of the country’s total production is in the provinces of West and Central Java. The average yields for potato crops grown in these regions are 10 to 20 tons/ha. These are low by international standards and reflect the suboptimal agronomic management, the unavailability of high quality seed and problems caused by pests and diseases. In 2005, a collaborative project involving CIP was launched to adapt and apply robust seed and crop production, pest management and post-harvest handling systems for potato-Brassica cropping systems (DAFWA, 2006).

The majority of potatoes produced in West and Central Java is sold by smallholder farmers who are highly reliant on the income generated from fresh vegetable sales. Enhancing sustainable livelihoods, therefore, requires not only increased productivity, but also improved farmers’ access to market chains. Since 2007, CIP has initiated efforts for action research to link potato/vegetable farmers with markets, by partnering with the Indonesian Vegetable Research Institute and several NGOs, government agencies, universities and the private commercial sector (CIP, 2006).

Fresh vegetable supply chains are highly reliant on central wholesale markets, which in turn supply urban and peri-urban retail markets. Private companies engaged in the wholesale marketing of fresh vegetables act as intermediaries between farmers and retailers/consumers. The export market is another key destination for fresh vegetables, with products sent to Singapore and Malaysia on an ad hoc basis. In addition, the rise of supermarkets is a major phenomenon in Indonesia (World Bank, 2007), which has reshaped the marketing system for fresh horticultural produce in the country.

Another major supply chain in these provinces involves potato processing and marketing. Large-scale agribusiness companies engage in potato processing through contract arrangements

65

with individual farmers (ACIAR, 2005). Meanwhile home-based enterprises, particularly in West Java, produce a wide range of traditional snack food products through raw materials sourced from local markets/farms.

Overall, potato marketing in Indonesia is characterized by: a) multiple and complex supply/value chains; b) a wide range of chain actors extending from rural to urban centres; and c) diverse types of farmer-actors, according to scale of production and unit of production/ marketing (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Potato market chains in West and Central Java, Indonesia

In an initial participatory appraisal, market chain actors identified the following key constraints on linking farmers to markets (Campilan and Asmunati, 2007): 1. West Java farmers have not been able to provide regular and adequate supply of vegetables

because of prolonged dry and seasonal production. Wholesalers have increasingly sourced vegetables from other parts of Indonesia and internationally.

2. The fresh market is characterized by a long market chain, with farmers disconnected from the main marketing participants through numerous intermediaries. This long chain hinders farmers’ ability to establish relationships with other supply chain partners based on open communication, developing a high degree of trust and better understanding of each other.

3. Although there is a growing export demand, traders have been discouraged from developing this market opportunity because of a lack of capacity to deal in foreign trade and what they perceive as complex government regulations.

4. Farmers have not taken advantage of market opportunities with large-scale and small-scale processors because of a mismatch of their products with the specific requirements of the processor. These include varietal requirements as well as consistency of quantity and quality.

5. Farmers have extremely limited understanding of the broader market, beyond their immediate market environment, coupled with lack of access to information on market trends, pricing and demand.

6. Although farmers have participated in various training and extension support programmes, these focus on technological on-farm improvements. There have been few opportunities to support farmer learning on marketing and entrepreneurship.

7. In general, market-related information and reliable vegetable production statistics are limited in Indonesia. This gap limits informed decision-making on key supply chain partners in the vegetable marketing system of Central and West Java.

66

Currently, the project is facilitating joint learning processes by market chain actors for

introducing three types of innovations to address the above-mentioned constraints (Table 2): 1. Technological innovations — production and post-harvest practices to improve quality and

reduce losses, varieties that meet farmers’ yield criteria and processing companies’ required quality traits.

2. Commercial innovations — high-volume supply of vegetables, off-season supply of vegetables, high-quality and long shelf-life vegetables, chips/processed products made from high-yield locally adapted varieties with good processing traits, novelty products for niche markets.

3. Institutional innovations — marketing agreements that provide more equitable distribution of profits/benefits between farmers and other chain partners, support services to provide marketing information, enhanced farmers’ capacity to comply with product standards and regulations/certification.

Table 2. Innovations for enhancing farmers’ participation in and benefit from potato market chains Market Chains Technological innovations Commercial innovations Institutional innovations

Fresh vegetable market, domestic

-Farmers’ cropping calendar adapted to changing climate (1) -Production and post-harvest practices to improve quality and reduce losses (1)

-High-volume supply of vegetables (1, 5) -Off-season supply of vegetables (1, 5) -High-quality, long shelf-life vegetables (5)

Fresh vegetable market, export

-Production and post-harvest practices to improve quality and reduce losses (1)

-High-volume supply of vegetables (1, 5) -High-quality, long-shelf life vegetables (1, 5) -Regular frequency of delivery (1,5)

Potato processing, through large private companies

-Introducing varieties that meet farmers’ yield criteria and processing companies’ required quality traits (4) -Adopting appropriate practices for seed management and crop health of processing-type varieties

Chips made from high-yield, locally adapted processing-type varieties (4, 5)

Potato processing, through small-scale snackfood enterprises

-Introducing varieties that meet farmers’ yield criteria and snackfood enterprises’ required quality traits (4)

-Developing novelty products for niche markets (4,5)

-Enhanced farmers’ capacity for entrepreneurship and organizational development (2, 3, 4, 6) -Marketing agreements that provide more equitable distribution of profits/benefits between farmers and wholesale companies (2, 7) -Support services to provide marketing information (5) -Developing farmers’ capacity to comply with product standards and regulations/certification (3)

Note: The number after each innovation corresponds to the list of marketing constraints 6. Summary: enhancing rural institutions and markets for pro-poor research and development (R&D)

Potatoes and poverty In Asia, potato cultivation contributes to multiple food security and the livelihood goals of a wide range of actors in agricultural production, marketing and utilization. These range from the food security needs of remote farming households in Nepal’s mountains to the cash-generating opportunities of market-oriented potato producers in Indonesia. With these multiple functions and roles, potatoes play an important role in agricultural development in the region.

67

Potatoes are a key crop for farming households in general, but it is crucial to identify the poorer segments of the farming population and target them as participants and beneficiaries of potato research and development. As the above cases showed, there is a need for the relatively poor farmers to access and use research-generated innovations for improving their potato livelihoods.

Participatory pro-poor R&D For potato research and development to serve the needs of poor farming households, it needs to adapt technological products to the resource-limited conditions and local socio-cultural-economic contexts. In addition, variability in needs, opportunities and conditions require that these innovations need continuous adaptation when introduced from pilot sites to other communities.

Poor farmers pursue potato livelihoods alongside, and often in competition with, other production/marketing actors who have more access to key resources and are favoured by unequal power relations. Research and development interventions are therefore essential to enhance poor farmers’ capacities and resources, while strengthening relationships with other actors for shared benefits. Among others, this requires participatory approaches that are more inclusive - including not only poor farmers but also other actors in relevant production - and utilization-marketing chains.

Rural institutions and markets Successful technological uptake by poor potato farmers requires an enabling environment for potato production-utilization-marketing. In potato production, effective institutions are crucial for multiplying and supplying good-quality seed, and for collective learning-action in managing pests and diseases.

In potato utilization-marketing, effective institutions for financial services and infrastructure support enable poor farmers to participate in multiple market chains. In addition, improved performance of market chains requires key institutional arrangements for building trust and collaboration between poor farmers and other actors (e.g. organizations, formal agreements and policy instrument). References ACIAR. 2005. Notes of a meeting with Indofood Fritolay Makmur on 22 November 2005,

Jakarta, Indonesia. Brons, J. & L. Sister. 1998. Community-based pest management for sustainable vegetable

production. In: Enhancing Biodiversity Conservation and Family Food Security Through Homegardening and Sustainable Field Production of Vegetables. Unpublished project terminal report. CIP-UPWARD, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 1—29.

Campilan, D., 2002. Linking social and technical components of innovation through social learning: the case of potato disease management in Nepal. In: Leeuwis, C. and R. Pyburn (eds.), Wheelbarrows full of frogs, social learning in rural resource management. International Research and Reflections Series. WUR, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Campilan, D. & R. Asmunati. 2007. Informal assessment report on vegetable marketing in West and Central Java, Indonesia. CIP-ESEAP, Bogor, Indonesia.

Campilan, D. & S.R. Ghimere. 1998. Mobilizing communities for integrated disease management: comparing experiences in Nepal, Indonesia and the Philippines. Seminar-Workshop on Planning the Implementation of Farmer Field Schools in South Asia, 2—5 June 1998, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Campilan D, T. L. Lama, S. R. Ghimire & O. Hidalgo. 2006. From piloting to scaling up. LEISA 22(3): 16—17.

68

Chettri, P.B., K.P. Pant, T.L. Lama & D.M. Campilan, 2005. Evaluation of Field-level Outcomes of FFS-Potato ICM in Nepal. Paper presented at the CIP-UPWARD Network Meeting on “Participation and Change: Enhancing Research for Impact” held on 19—21 January 2005 in Hanoi, Viet Nam.

CIP. 2006. Linking vegetable farmers with markets in West and Central Java, Indonesia. ACIAR project proposal. Lima, Peru.

DAFWA. 2006. Optimising the productivity of the potato/Brassica cropping system in Central and West Java. ACIAR project proposal. Perth, Australia.

Digal, L. 2004. Quality grading in the supply chain: the case of vegetables in southern Philippines. Journal of International Food and Agribusiness Marketing, Vol. 16, No. 12.

Ghimere, S. R. & B. K. Dhital, 1998. Community approach to the management of bacterial wilt of potato in the hills of Nepal: a project terminal report. Occasional Paper No. 98/1. LARC, Lumle, Nepal.

Hidalgo, O., D. Campilan & T. Lama, 2001. Strengthening farmer capacity to grow a healthy potato crop in Nepal. In: CIP, Scientist and farmer, partners in research for the 21st Century. 1999-2000. CIP Programme Report. Lima, Peru.

Lama, T., S.P. Dhakal & D. Campilan. 2003. Promoting integrated disease management through farmer field schools in Nepal. In: From Cultivators to Consumers, Participatory Research With Various User Groups. CIP-UPWARD, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 59—67.

World Bank. 2007. Horticultural Producers and Supermarket Development in Indonesia. Report no. 38543-ID. World Bank Country Office, Jakarta, Indonesia.

69

FARMERS FIELD SCHOOLS FOR POTATO INTEGRATED

PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM): EDUCATING ASIAN FARMERS TO GROW HEALTHY AND PROFITABLE POTATO CROPS

Dr Johannes W. Ketelaar ∗ _____________________________________________________________________________ 1. Introduction

Potatoes are predominantly grown by smallholder farmers in Asia, mostly under temperate climatic conditions in highland production areas. The potato is both an important tuber vegetable for local food security as well as a good cash crop for farmers. Production and storage are constrained by a plethora of pest and disease problems, most notably bacterial wilt, late blight, golden cyst nematodes and potato tuber moth. Access to healthy potato tuber seeds and credit is still problematic for most small-scale producers. Substantial investment in research and development, primarily led by the International Potato Center (CIP), has led to the development of effective potato Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies. In order for farmers to master these IPM strategies locally on their own farms, substantial investments in farmer education are needed. 2. FAO’s support for potato IPM farmer education

Recognizing the importance and potential of potatoes for local food security and more profitable farming systems, FAO is actively supporting farmer education initiatives in Asia. The FAO Regional Vegetable IPM Programme, based at the FAO Regional Office for Asia and Pacific in Bangkok, and its national IPM programme counterparts across Asia, are implementing farmer education programmes in countries and production systems as culturally and ecologically diverse as China, Indonesia, Nepal, and Viet Nam. All farmer education training is based on the innovative Farmers Field School (FFS) approach. Potato growers, in groups of about 25 farmers, cultivate a potato crop from seed to harvest and meet on a weekly basis to learn about healthy and profitable potato production and storage. Participatory group discussions led by experienced facilitators, and active experimentation by potato farmers is crucial for knowledge and skill development. Thousands of farmers across Asia have benefited from participation in season-long FFSs and, as a result, are now growing healthier and more profitable potato crops. 3. Innovations and future opportunities and challenges In order to allow more smallholder farmers to capture the benefits of potato IPM training, much more investment in applied R&D and educational programmes is needed. FAO, through its Asia Regional IPM Programme, is supporting action-oriented research and development initiatives, most notably on late blight and leaf miner management as well as the promotion of biofumigation for control of soil-borne diseases. The programme has also actively supported the development of potato IPM training materials. In a joint effort, CIP and FAO published an ∗ Chief Technical Adviser, FAO Inter-Country Programme for IPM in Vegetables in South and South East Asia, c/o FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 39 Phra Atit Road, Banglamphu, Bangkok 10200, Thailand.

70

ecological guide for potato integrated crop management and an associated FFS training manual, the latter full of innovative structured learning exercises that can be employed in training of trainer courses and FFSs. These publications can be downloaded from the following Web sites: www.cipotato.org and www.vegetableipmasia.org. Most importantly, more attention and investment is needed to ensure that more Asian farmers reap the benefits of good quality potato IPM education. There also appears good scope for promotion of potato production as part of rice-based cropping systems in the subtropical lowlands. To commemorate the International Year of the Potato - 2008, the FAO Regional Vegetable IPM Programme, and its associated national IPM programmes across Asia, will put extra emphasis on potato IPM promotion and training this year so as to honour its commitment to support farmer education for healthy and profitable potato production in Asia.

71

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

_____________________________________________________________________________ 1. The potato is the world’s most important tuber vegetable, with a vital but often under-appreciated role in the global food system. It is a staple food that contributes to the energy and nutritional needs of more than a billion people worldwide. Potato cultivation and post-harvest activities constitute an important source of employment and income in rural areas, especially in developing countries. It has a wide range of uses: as a staple food, as a cash crop, as animal feed, and as a source of starch for many industrial uses. The crop is ideally suited to places where land is limited and labour is abundant, conditions that characterize much of the developing world. Moreover, potatoes are a highly productive crop and produce more food per unit area and per unit time than wheat, rice and maize. Potatoes are becoming increasingly important for Asia and the Pacific region, which, like many other parts of the world, is facing enormous challenges today because of soaring food prices. In the light of the above, it is recommended that every effort should be made to realize the full agricultural potential of this crop in the region. 2. Remarkable progress has been made in potato production and productivity levels in certain countries of the region, whereas in other countries progress is limited. The opportunities for further development of the potato industry appear to be very good. However, at the same time the problems to be addressed are considerable. There is, therefore, a need for countries in the region to consider taking appropriate action to address the existing problems to the extent possible. 3. The average yield of potatoes in general in Asia and the Pacific region is below 20 tons/ha compared to the physiological potential of 120 tons/ha and the realized yield of more than 40 tons/ha. There is both a wide intracountry and intercountry yield gap in the region. For example, yields as high as 70 tons/ha have been reported from New Zealand compared to 6.5 tons/ha in Lao People’s Democratic Republic. Similarly, there is wide variation in yield among different regions of bigger countries like China and India. Keeping in view the yield gap and diminishing per capita availability of agricultural land in the region, it is a great challenge to improve the potato yield. This could be achieved through dissemination and adoption of existing technologies, and serious efforts need to be made in this direction. 4. A major constraint in potato production is the lack of suitable varieties. Although considerable progress has been made in this direction by several countries in the region, in many others the progress is very limited. Hence, a strong varietal improvement programme for each country, to identify suitable varieties for specific locations, is needed and it should receive high priority. 5. Quality seed is one of the most important elements in successful potato cultivation. Potato seed is usually the most expensive single input to potato cultivation accounting for 40 to 50 percent of production cost. Shortage of good quality seed is recognized as the most important factor inhibiting potato production. Therefore, availability of quality planting material of improved and desired varieties in adequate quantities is a major issue that needs to be addressed. Although efforts to strengthen the formal seed system are critical, these need to consider effective integration with the informal seed system (private seed sector, progressive farmers, co-operatives, NGOs etc.) also.

72

6. Since potato seed production is a technically challenging enterprise, private participation should be encouraged for production and distribution of quality seed. The private sector should be given some assistance (e.g. in the form of incentives) if needed, for establishing the seed production system. There also has to be an assurance that micro propagation techniques are adopted for the production of quality seeds. Moreover, there should be appropriate institutional mechanisms to monitor the seed multiplication activities at private as well as public farms. This institution should be responsible for maintaining uniform quality parameters and health standards of potato seed and for estimation of the demand/supply situation in the country. 7. There is a need to improve the skills and knowledge of research and extension officers in most of the region’s countries along with the crop management skills of potato growers. This could be achieved by professional development of scientific and extension personnel, on-farm training, seminars, field days, study visits and publications. Moreover, farmer education and demonstration of available technologies in farmers’ fields, particularly in the low income food deficit countries (LIFDCs) is very important. CIP and the FAO Regional Vegetable IPM Programme published good quality training materials in 2006 and these should be put to good use in potato production training of trainers and farmer education programmes. Therefore, efforts in this direction need to be considered. LIFDC countries could be prioritized in case external assistance is needed. 8. Identification of success stories of potato growing in different countries would be useful for replication in other countries of the region. This could be integrated along with a database developed for information through the CIP. 9. There are at least 20 LIFDCs in the region. There exists a major opportunity to introduce potatoes in rotation with cereal crops to increase the availability of potatoes to meet food security. More specifically, potatoes can increase total food production in rice-potato cropping systems and this kind of cropping system could be promoted where possible. 10. The potato crop with early varieties of 80 to 90 days can fit well in various intensive cropping systems. India has already successfully demonstrated this practice through a number of early potato varieties. These Indian varieties could be utilized by other Asian countries having similar agroclimatic conditions. For this purpose, CIP could be entrusted to identify the available early varieties in the region and their suitability to similar agroclimatic conditions. 11. Rice is the most important crop in Asia. However, in marginal areas, rice-based cropping systems have relatively low returns. Improving the current cropping systems to enhance their sustainability to the extent possible, and shifting marginal areas out of rice into other more profitable crops such as potatoes is seen as a solution. Alternatively, flexible cropping systems for upland farmers that feature production of more income elastic goods like potatoes are a means of diversifying their sources of income. 12. Up till now, scientists have not been paying sufficient attention to the growing threat of transboundary pests and diseases. There is a need to be better prepared for future pest and disease threats affecting the productivity of food and income generating crops such as potatoes. Therefore, transboundary research, particularly for emerging diseases and pests, needs to be given priority in the region to ensure an effective biosecurity system. 13. Indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides has resulted in the emergence of more aggressive pests and diseases because of resistance development, residual problems in food and drinking water, and ecological imbalance as a result of the elimination of beneficial

73

microorganisms and insects. Therefore, for sustainability of the potato crop yields, these biotic stresses need to be managed through ecofriendly measures supported by need-based and judicious use of chemicals to achieve high economic returns without disturbing the ecological balance and without causing unnecessary pollution of natural resources. Potato Integrated Pest Management (IPM) has been well researched and proven to be a set of economically viable and environmentally safe key technologies to increase crop productivity. FAO and its associated national IPM programmes have trained thousands of potato growers in season-long FFSs across Asia. This IPM farmer education work needs to continue and be strengthened to allow more potato farmers to reap the benefits of growing healthier and safer potato crops. 14. There is a growing awareness of organically produced food. Organic farming is one of several approaches for sustainable and environmentally friendly agriculture. Potato farmers could have a share of the world organic market, which is growing at the rate of 15 to 20 percent every year. Valuable information on organic potato production has already been developed in China and India. It would be a worthy endeavour to put together information and successful case studies on organic potato production from various countries. Moreover, the national IPM programmes should explore functional linkages with the organic potato production sector so as to allow more farmers to access the demanding and more lucrative organic potato markets. 15. Significant post-harvest losses when handling potatoes is a problem. This is likely the result of a number of factors that include lack of appropriate storage facilities and unsatisfactory handling and packaging systems. Appropriate training on post-harvest handling techniques and storage facilities that would assist in reducing post-harvest losses needs to be carried out. 16. There are diverse potato utilization patterns in the region — from being a staple food to a high-value vegetable and key ingredient in various processed products. As mentioned before, the crop contributes to multiple food security and livelihood goals of the poor. These range from food security needs of farming households in remote mountain regions to cash-generating opportunities of market-oriented potato producers closer to urban centers. Overall, the crop’s livelihood importance cuts across various segments of the region’s poor, thus the notion of a single potato farmer stereotype is inapplicable. It is, therefore, recommended that targeting of research and development interventions be fine-tuned so that these are aimed at particular categories of poor potato farming households. The crop’s distinct livelihood roles in each target group determine the needs and opportunities for enhancing the potato’s contribution to poverty alleviation. In addition, these guide efforts to identify and introduce appropriate technological, socio-institutional and policy innovations. Accordingly, it is strongly recommended that the governments include the promotion of potato crop development in the FAO-Government National Medium Term Priority Framework (NMTPF), as appropriate. 17. In the wake of the liberalization of the global economy, several national and multinational companies involved in marketing of table, seed and processed potatoes have started contract farming in different countries. Contract farming has the potential of reducing the risk and uncertainty in potato price fluctuation through a stable and sustained market. It also contributes to technology transfer by providing new and better farming skills to the contract farmers. Keeping in view the advantages of contract farming, the governments of the region must provide adequate policy support to this system of farming. Adequate safeguard measures need also to be taken to monitor the production activities of these companies so that the farmers are not exploited. This requires capacity development support for poor farmers in enhancing their access to contract growing and similar large-scale market opportunities. 18. The export and import of potatoes mainly takes place within European countries and four other countries, namely Canada, Egypt, Turkey and the United States. The trade among these

74

countries accounts for 80 percent of the global potato trade. Asia’s share in the export and import of potatoes is only 9.8 percent and 11.6 percent, respectively. The countries of Asia and the Pacific region can supply fresh potatoes year round because potatoes are grown throughout the year in one or other part of the region, unlike European countries where potatoes are grown only during the summer period. The poor trade performance of potatoes among the countries of the region can be attributed to several factors such as trade barriers, lack of marketing infrastructure, lack of seed production system and poor market intelligence. A database on potato exports, price, grade standards, phytosanitary standards, processing standards, consumer preferences, etc. needs to be prepared for all importing countries so that such information is readily available to the exporters and importers. 19. A potato cooperative movement could be started in each country involving the growers, self-help groups and development agencies to organize potato growers into national level potato federations. This type of arrangement would provide a network for linking the production activities with storage, distribution and supply to the endusers. These mechanisms for collective action by potato growers, and their coordination with other market chain actors, are crucial to the development of the potato sector in each country. 20. There is limited exchange of knowledge and experiences concerning potato research and development in various countries of the region. National workshops are a possible way of increasing the understanding of the crop in the various countries. These should follow the Regional Workshop on Potatoes held at the FAO regional office in Bangkok, Thailand, on 6 May 2008. Various stakeholders such as research scientists, extension staff and growers could be included in these national workshops. FAO’s Regional IPM Programme will pay special attention to potato production and protection training within the context of ongoing support to national IPM farmer education programmes in the Asian region. The IPM programme will also pay special attention to IYP - 2008 and make available electronic copies of potato IPM training materials on its forthcoming programme Web site (www.vegetableipmasia.org). 21. The information contained in FAO’s Global Information and Early Warning Service’s bimonthly report entitled Crop prospects and food situation could be expanded to include the potato also, since potatoes have already become an increasingly important crop contributing both to food security and income generation for farmers.

75

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

Thailand H.E. Mr Theerachai Saenkaew Deputy Minister for Agriculture and Cooperatives Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Rajdamnern Nok Avenue Bangkok 10200, Thailand Tel: 02-2800193-4 Fax: 02-2800192 Mobile: 081-8734849 081-8423505 E-mail: teerachai@moac.go.th Mr Pinit Korsieporn Deputy Permanent Secretary and Secretary-General, National FAO Committee Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Rajdamnern Nok Avenue Bangkok 10200, Thailand Tel: 02-2815955 Ext. 311, 116 (Operator) 02-2818580 (Direct) Fax: 02-2810697 Mobile: 081-9845911 Ms Metanee Sukontarug Director-General Department of Agriculture (DOA) Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Kasetsart University Campus, Phaholyothin Road, Lat Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand Tel: 02-5799636, 02-9405412 02-5790151—7 Ext. 101 (Operator) Fax: 02-9405528 E-mail: metanee@doa.go.th Mr Sombat H. Phianjaroen Senior Economist Office of Agricultural Economics (OAE) Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Kasetsart University Campus, Phaholyothin Road, Lat Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Tel: 02-5614737 Fax: 02-5790612 E-mail: leear-comd7@oae.go.th

76

Mrs Orasa Dissataporn Director of Vegetable, Flower and Herb Promotion Division Department of Agriculture Extension (DOAE) Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives Kasetsart University Campus Paholyothin Road, Lat-Yao, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900 Thailand Tel: 02-5793542 Fax: 02-5793542 E-mail: orasakul@yahoo.com agriman50@doae.go.th Mrs Pitsawat Buara Senior Scientist Horticulture Research Institute Department of Agriculture Phaholyothin Road, Lat-Yao Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900 Tel: 02-5790583 Ext. 124 Mobile: 081-6417994 Fax: 02-5614667 E-mail: pitsawat-hort@hotmail.com Assoc. Prof. Dr Ed Sarobol Associate Dean for Research and Academic Service Faculty of Agriculture Kasetsart University No. 5 Phaholyothin Road Lat-Yao, Chatuchak Bangkok 10900, Thailand Tel: 02-9428856 (Operator) Mobile: 081-8195097 E-mail: agred@ku.ac.th Assoc. Prof. Dr Kittiphong Huangrak Faculty of AgroIndustry King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Lardkrabang Chalongkrung Road, Lardkrabang Bangkok 10520, Thailand Mobile: 089-1081677 Fax: 02-3264091 E-mail: khkitiph@kmitl.ac.th

77

Embassies Argentina H.E. Mr Felipe Frydman Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary The Embassy of the Republic of Argentina Suite 1601, Glas Haus Building,16th Floor No. 1 Sukhumvit 25, Sukhumvit Road Wattana, Bangkok 10110, Thailand Bhutan H.E. Mr Singye Dorjee Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary The Royal Bhutanese Embassy 375/1 Soi Ratchadanivej, Pracha-Uthit Road Samsen Nok, Huay Kwang Bangkok 10320, Thailand Brazil H.E. Mr Matias Vilhena Minister-Counsellor The Embassy of the Federal Republic of Brazil 34th Floor, Lumpini Tower 1168/101 Rama IV Road, Thungmahamek, Sathorn, Bangkok 10120, Thailand China H.E. Mr Zhang Jiuhuan Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary The Embassy of the People’s Republic of China 57 Rachadapisake Road, Dindaeng Bangkok 10400, Thailand Cuba H.E. Mrs Maria Luisa Fernandez Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary The Embassy of the Republic of Cuba Mela Mansion Apt. 3c No. 5 Sukhumvit 27, Sukhumvit Road Khlong Toey Nuea, Wattana Bangkok 10110, Thailand

78

India H.E. Ms Vijaya Latha Reddy Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and Permanent Representative to ESCAP The Embassy of India 46 Soi Prasarnmitr, Sukhumvit 23, Sukhumvit Road, Bangkok 10110, Thailand Netherlands H.E. Mr Pieter Jozef Theofile Marres Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary The Royal Netherlands Embassy 15 Soi Tonson, Ploenchit Road Lumpini, Pratumwan Bangkok 10330, Thailand Pakistan H.E. Lt Gen. (Retd) Khateer Hasan Khan Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary and Permanent Representative to ESCAP The Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan 31 Soi Nana Nuea, Sukhumvit 3, Sukhumvit Road Bangkok 10110, Thailand Peru H. E. Mr Carlos Velasco Mendiola Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Embassy of the Republic of Peru 16th Floor, Glas Haus Building No. 1, Sukhumvit 25, Sukhumvit Road Bangkok 10110, Thailand Mr Luis Felipe Llosa Second Secretary Embassy of the Republic of Peru 16th floor, Glas Haus Building No. 1, Sukhumvit 25, Sukhumvit Road Bangkok 10110, Thailand Ms Prapavadee Boonchuaykuakool Trade Officer Embassy of the Republic of Peru 16th floor, Glas Haus Building No. 1, Sukhumvit 25, Sukhumvit Road Bangkok 10110, Thailand

79

Mexico Mr Francisco Zamora Third Secretary Commercial and Cultural Affairs The Embassy of the United Mexican States Thai Wah Tower I, 20th Floor 21/60-62 South Sathorn Road Bangkok 10120, Thailand Iran Mr Esmaeil Tekeyh Sadat Counsellor and Deputy Permanent Representative of Iran to ESCAP Embassy of the Islamic Republic of Iran 215 Sukhumvit Soi 49/11, Sukhumvit Road Klongton Nua, Wattana, Bangkok 10110, Thailand Qatar Mr Krissanet Sriprasert Commercial Counsellor Embassy of the State of Qatar 87/1 Witthayu Road Lumpini, Patumwan Bangkok 10330, Thailand Keynote speaker Dr Pamela K. Anderson Director-General International Potato Centre (CIP) Apartato Postal 1558 Lima 12, Peru Tel: (51-1) 3175301 Fax: (51-1) 3175303 E-mail:cip-dg@cgiar.org Experts/Resource persons Dr Fernando N. Ezeta Regional Leader East, Southeast Asia and the Pacific (ESEAP) International Potato Centre (CIP) c/o BALISTA Jl. Tangkuban Perahu No. 517 Lembang, Bandung, Indonesia Tel: +62-22-2785586, Mobile: +62-811113219 E-mail: f.ezeta@cgiar.org

80

Dr H.P. Singh Deputy Director General Horticulture Division Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan – II New Delhi 110012, India Tel: +91-11-25842068 Ext. 1422 E-mail: hpsingh@icar.org.in

hpsingh50@gmail.com Dr S.K. Pandey Director Central Potato Research Institute Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) Shimla – 171001, Himachal Pradesh, India Tel: +91-177-2625182 or 2625073 Fax: +91-177-2624460 E-mail: skpandey.cpri@gmail.com

dircpri@sancharnet.in Dr Kaiyun Xie Liaison Scientist CIP Beijing Liaison Office 12, Zhongguancum South Street Beijing 100081, P.R. China Tel: +86-10-68975504 Mobile: 86-13910821410 Fax: +86-10-68975503 E-mail: k.xie@cgiar.org Dr Fengyi Wang Coordinator of DPRK Potato Project, ESEAP, CIP Training Building in the Campus of Northeast Agricultural University 59 Mucai Street, Xiangfang District Harbin, Heilongjiang 150030, P.R. China Tel: +86-451-55190997 Fax: +86-451-55191717 E-mail: f.wang@cgiar.org Dr Sarath Ilangantileke Regional Leader (Retired) International Potato Center (CIP) c/o Mr. Sarath Weerasooria 28 Talawatugoda Road Kotte, Sri Lanka Tel: Colombo 2862661 Mobile: 0777403469 E-mail: s.ilangantileke@cgiar.org

81

Dr Dindo M. Campilan Social Scientist Impact Enhancement Division International Potato Center (CIP) c/o IRRI, DAPO Box 7777 Metro Manila, Philippines Tel: +63-49-5368185 Fax: +63-49-5361662 E-mail: d.campilan@cgiar.org Dr Johannes W. Ketelaar Chief Technical Adviser FAO Inter-Country Programme for IPM in Vegetables in South and South East Asia c/o FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Banglamphu, Bangkok 10200, Thailand Tel: +66-02-6974274 Fax: +66-02-6974422 E-mail: Vegetable-IPM@fao.org FAO Regional Office, Bangkok, Thailand Dr He Changchui Assistant Director-General and FAO Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Tel: 66-02-6974000 Fax: 66-02-6974445 E-mail: FAO-RAP@fao.org Mr Hiroyuki Konuma Deputy Regional Representative for Asia and the Pacific FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Tel: 66-02-6974000 Fax: 66-02-6974445 E-mail: FAO-RAP@fao.org

82

Mr Hotte Edward Coordinator Regional Operations Branch (RAPR) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Purushottam K. Mudbhary Chief Policy Assistance Branch (RAPP) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Dr Broca Sumiter Policy/Programme Officer Policy Assistance Branch (RAPP) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Dr B.K. Nandi Senior Food and Nutrition Officer Agriculture Department Group (RAPG) Nutrition and consumer Protection Division FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Piao Yongfan Plant Protection Officer Agriculture Department Group (RAPG) Plant Production and Protection Division FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Ralph Houtman Agro Industry Finance Officer Agriculture Department Group (RAPG) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand

83

Mr Niino Yuji Land Management Officer Natural Resources Management and Environment Group (RAPS) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Zhijun Chen Technical Officer (Water Resources Development & Conservation) Natural Resources Management and Environment Group (RAPS) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Dorjee Kinlay Economist Economic and Social Department Group (RAPE) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Kei Kimpara Programming and Planning Officer Management Support Unit (RAPX) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Mr Minas K. Papademetriou Senior Plant Production Officer (Consultant) Agriculture Department Group (RAPG) Plant Production and Protection Division FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Ms Valai Visuthi Secretary Agriculture Department Group (RAPG) Plant Production and Protection Division FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand

84

Ms Truchai Sodsoon Translation Assistant/Secretary Economic and social Department Group (RAPE) FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Ms Nawarat Phayungkij Secretary FAO Inter-Country Programme for IPM in Vegetables in South and South East Asia FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific Maliwan Mansion 39 Phra Atit Road Bangkok 10200, Thailand Observers Dr Prabhat Kumar Senior Research Specialist & Coordinator CSO-CGIAR Pilot Project Agricultural Systems and Engineering School of Environment Resource and Development Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) Km. 42 Paholyothin Highway Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand Tel: 02-5245477 Fax: 02-5246200 E-mail: pkpm@ait.asia Ms Abha Mishra PhD Student Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) Km. 42 Paholyothin Highway Klong Luang, Pathumthani 12120, Thailand Tel: 02-5245477 Fax: 02-5246200