World Cultures Notes

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World Cultures: Modern Israel Dave Berman

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January 18, 2006

1882 1903 First Aliyah

1904 1914 Second Aliyah

History of Palestine

Part of Ottoman empire in the 19th century British and French defeated Ottomans during First World War,

French occupied present-day Syria and Lebanon.

England occupied Jordan, Egypt and present-day Israel.

British created territory and state in Iraq, then created an

administration in Palestine. Had to decide what to do with the

territory between the Jordan River and Iraq. Called it a separate

entity in the Trans-Jordan area, Jordan. Said the same group

would rule it.

Palestine had 700,000 Arabs, very few Christians. Population of Christians

had been shrinking down to around 2%. Small minority in Palestine

historically. Various churches in Palestine are big landowners (still today).

Large majority of the 700,000 Arabs were Muslim.

Palestine had a Jewish population of between 50,000 and 70,000 people.

Most of the Jews resident in Palestine didnt have Turkish citizenship. Most

came from Eastern Europe, were Russian citizens. Many people left

Palestine during WWI, returned afterwards. By the end of WWI, the Jewish

population of Palestine reached 80,000 or 12% of the overall population. Biblically, Palestine had been the Jewish homeland. Majority

persisted until the 12th century, with the crusades.

Jews dispersed afterwards from most areas areas of continuous

occupation since Roman times are very rare.

Most of the Jews moved in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries for

religious reasons. Based in Jerusalem, Hevron, Teveria, and Tsfat

(four holy cities).

In 1880s, as Jewish situation in Eastern Europe was crumbling, some people

decided that Jews should move to the homeland of Palestine. Sent only

small #s of Jews to Palestine, who became farming communities

(pioneering) instead of religious communities. Most European Jews didnt

farm the land.

Small community, supported by benefactors but not huge.

Palestine enters the spotlight because of British actions during WWI.


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British in Palestine wanted to strengthen ties to Jews around the

world.

o British were afraid they would lose their socialist allies.

o British believed Jewish socialists had influence, so they gave

Jews an idea they wanted, which was supporting the Jewishhomeland in Palestine.

o Also thought that Jews had connections to banks in New York,

so wanted to improve standing among Jews in NY by issuing a

declaration in favor of a Jewish homeland.

Balfour declaration

o When we occupy Palestine and displace the Turks, we will

look with favor on the establishment of a Jewish home in

Palestine, and will help as long as nothing is done to hurt

current occupants or Jews around the world.

o Promised to create a National home, not a Jewish state. Not

sure what they meant by it, wanted some social autonomy

and political autonomy, but it was very far from a state.

o Turks had always opposed Jewish settlement in Palestine, so

if British did it they would allow Jews to come and have a

national time.

1918 British come in; defeat Turks, greeted well by Jews in

Palestine. Jewish community of Palestine Yishuv

Once British were in Palestine, what were they going to do? They

were concerned to stay in Palestine for one important reason: Suez

Canal was a strategic artery of the British Empire. They had the

largest shipping fleet, Navy.

Had India as well, 450 million, source of cheap labor, soldiers, and

market for British goods. Without India, Britain would lose the

empire. Without the Suez Canal, British couldnt effectively

communicate with India.

Russia was a threat to India, and if they couldve had access to

Mediterranean through Dardanelles, they would lose India.

Second great colonial power they were concerned about French.

French took the initiative to build Suez Canal, British seized it.


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Occupied Egypt in 1882, without Frances approval. British didnt

want the French to go any closer.

Those are the only two reasons for England to be there. The only thing

going for Palestine is position.

Palestine was given to British not as colony but mandate. Colony was property of the country that occupied it.

Mandate was given by the international community (League of

Nations) to look after a territory for a limited amount of time, with

the aim of bringing the countries to independence as soon as

possible. Had to report regularly of the progress.

Realistically, French and British could do what they wanted everywhere,

despite the fact that it was a mandate.

British get to Palestine, but by 1920 they establish civilian officers there.

First head, high commissioner, was Herbert Samuel, prominent British Jew.

Hoped Jews would come, invest, and everyone would benefit.

Arabs would see that their land was protected, they would be ok

with it, and would let Palestine develop.

Does develop, standard of living of Arabs in the 1930s was significantly

higher than in neighboring countries. They made it clear from the

beginning, however, that they opposed Jewish presence and immigration in

Palestine. They never realized it was in their best interest. 1920, 1921

Arab riots against Jews, Jewish immigration.Jewish national home began to take off, especially after Jewish situation in

E. Europe went down. Lots of anti-Semitism. 1924 America introduced

the quota system; Jews couldnt as easily get to the US. Began to move to

Palestine.

1933 Nazis came to power, Jews needed to get out.

1935 Jewish immigration had grown to 65,000 Jews per year. They

thought that Jews immigration would keep increasing, and eventually Arabs

would become minority.

1936 Arab revolt (similar to Intifada). Commission was led by Lord Peel to

see what the revolt was about. It was a Royal commission of inquiry

would be hard for government to reject the recommendations. Studied the

policy, wrote a very critical report. Said that the idea was good but British

administered poorly. Only way to solve was to divide Jews and Arabs.


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370,000 Jews and close to 1 million Arabs. This is one of the things that

went wrong Jewish immigration, small degree of Arab immigration.

Competition between Jews and Arabs (economic etc.) became problematic.

Field commission said that country should be divided partition. Submitted

summer 1937, British government adopted as official policy. Becomesofficial policy in July.

New strategic political situation developing in the world before, Britain was

secure in England. 1935 Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, by March had invaded

the capital (against LON approval). LON realized they couldnt prevent it.

Italians had the strongest navy in the Mediterranean, England wasnt there.

It had a small navy there, based in Alexandria, but England had no air

protection.

British realized they needed to arm and find allies. Japan, Germany and

Italy were becoming problems. They could only defend their interest in 2 /

3. Chose British bases in the far E (Singapore, to defend India).

Try to cooperate with France (army in Syria), but England also began to

cultivate relationships with independent Arab nations. Four Arab nations:

Iraq

Saudi Arabia

Egypt

Yemen

Arab nations said they dont agree to partitioning, so Britain looked for away to back off to partition decision. Cancels the idea in 1938.

Britain needs a new policy in Palestine.

St James Conference 1939 Brought Jews and Arabs together in England,

tried to get a policy together that they agree with.

British attempts to negotiate didnt have chances of success, so they evolved

a policy that thought was reasonable and offered a chance of survival to

Palestine.

Questions

What kind of state? When?

Should Jews immigrate to Palestine? If so, how many?

Land sales wanted to publicly ban land sale from Arabs to Jews.

Jews desperately wanted immigration. Why? Hitler had occupied Austria,

about to take over Czechoslovakia, most Jews had nowhere to go.

Arabs wanted an independent state with an Arab majority.


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One morning, a secretary took something meant for Arabs and gave it to the

Jews. Jews realized that they werent being negotiated fairly, left.

British employed compromise policy White Paper of 1939 published in May

1939. White papers used for announcement of official policy. White paper

was a dramatic reversal of British policy. By May 1939, 400,000 Jews inPalestine.

Said that this was the Jewish home promised in Balfour declaration,

no more immigration. Jewish immigration would continue at a rate

of 10,000 Jews per year and 25,000 visas over a five-year period.

After 75,000 Jews, it would stop.

Land provisions? Palestinian leadership didnt want land sales to

continue. Three sorts of territory:

o Jews majority sell land to Jews

o Jews minority cant sell land to Jews.

o Equal depends on high commissioner.

England said Palestine would become independent state with large

Arab majority over the next 10 years.

Secret of the White Paper: British said, We promise independence

in 10 years, have a constitutional conference in 5 years. There will

be a conference to decide what kind of government there would be.

They said that if Arabs would allow a certain continued Jewish

immigration, Jews would allow Arabs to have a bi-national statewith a large Arab majority.

Published May 1939, almost lost this vote because many members said this

was a betrayal of the Jews. Passed, became government policy.

January 23, 2006

Lecture

By 1939, after the Arab revolt had been repressed, there were 450,000 Jews

in Palestine. Almost 1,200,000 Arabs.

Both populations had grown dramatically under British mandate. Jews had

grown 5x, Arabs doubled. Health services, government, standards of living

improved. Both communities had a high birthrate, immigration (Jews grew

by immigration, Arabs grew by birthrate).

Pressure between the two communities on available land began to grow. In

the 1930s, agricultural technologies werent as advanced, they needed more

land per produce unit.


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Most dramatic change that took place in the 1930s was Britains strategic

position: earlier, they had wanted to control Israel because of Suez Canal.

By the late 1930s, Britains strategic calculations had changed. With the

rise of fascist Italy, Germany, and newly Militaristic Japan, England realized

they didnt have enough forces. Three areas: N sea

Middle east

Asia Far East

Britain decided that the only area it could afford to give up and not to invest

resources in was the Middle East. British policy tries to form an alliance to

countries that would remain neutral. It was basically Balkan countries and

the four Arab independent states (Egypt, Saudi, Iraq, Yemen).

Britain published the white paper. Three concessions:

Limited Jewish immigration to 75,000 per year

5 years + 5 years

Land Transfer.

Published May 1939, considered to be a major disaster for Jews in Palestine.

On one hand, Jews had to be loyal to Britain because Britain was fighting

against Hitler. On the other hand, the Jews needed to find a solution to the

refugees escaping Nazi Germany. Britain controlled the legal immigration,

but the Jewish community encourages illegal immigration. People get onto

boats in Europe (particularly Romania, Yugoslavia, and Greece). Britishdidnt know the boat existed unless they saw it. Furthermore, territorial

waters extended 3 miles from the coast. If a boat got to the shore, the

people would disappear. Boats werent fast enough to catch before landing.

In 1939, 20,000 Jews come to Palestine illegally. If the Jews saw the British

patrol boats patrolling, everyone would throw their passports out so British

wouldnt know how to send them back. Refugee camps overflowed, they let

them go. British start to plan ways to deter Jews coming into Palestine.

British create mandate in cooperation with the Jews. By the time WWII

starts, British are not on good relationships with Jews. British enter war

right on the tail of Arab revolt and before Jewish revolt.

Most crucial thing that alienated Jews from Britain was the restriction on

immigration when the Jews desperately needed somewhere else to go.


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They asked all the countries where the boats were coming from to stop Jews

from getting onto boats. British were trying to stop Jews from leaving

Europe.

November 1940 British captured 3 boatloads of Jews coming to Palestine,

were going to deport them to an island off Africa. Before the boat couldleave Palestine, Jewish underground decided to cripple the boat so it couldnt

leave. It was called the Patria. The boat was sunk in Haifa harbor. 270

refugees, British and Jewish police were killed.

Deporting Jews wasnt practical.

When war broke out in Sept 1939 with Germany vs. Britain and France, it

becomes harder to find refugee boats. Sailing was dangerous in the winter

of 1939, and illegal immigration almost stopped. British believed they had

blocked the refugee traffic.

Late 1941 Holocaust had started, a boatload of refugees sailed down the

Bosporus in a broken-down freighter, got to Turkey but stopped. Turks said

that if boat wasnt allowed to go into Palestine, they were going to send

them back to Europe. At the last moment, British said they would allow

children under age 16 because chances they would be Nazi spies was slim.

Turks dragged the boat into the sea, it was sunk by enemy action. Everyone

thought it was sunk by German action, but later turns out it was Russian.

Feb. 1942 Boat was called Struma, 660 refugees, all but one, drowned.

Turning point with British stance on immigration. British people wereoutraged. After Spring 1942, any refugee boats that could get to Palestine

could stay. However, Germans closed borders in Oct 1941.

By the end of WWII, of the 75,000 immigration papers allowed to

be given out, 20,000 were unused. When the world found out what

happened in the Holocaust, people were outraged at British policy.

Restriction of land sales this was unimportant during the war

because nobody had money.

Constitutional provisions this became an issue. Arabs wanted

these, there had been no progress whatsoever. One year after the

White Paper, Churchill came into office. He disagreed with the

white paper, said frequently that he supported a Jewish state. He

blocked any progress on constitutional provisions. He said that if

they set Palestine on a step towards independence, it couldnt be

stopped.


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May 1945 War is over, Britain is ruling the middle east but its policy had

not worked. Jews of Palestine looked to Britain as if it had hurt Jewish

survival. Various Jewish military organizations begin to struggle against the

British. They start small, but British begin having a Jewish revolt on their

hands.Second problem Jewish communities of almost all of Europe had either

been completely destroyed or overturned. In Eastern and Central Europe,

this was particularly true. Most Jews who survived found refuge Eastwards.

After the war, come back to their destroyed homes and communities, and

they continue moving westward where US, Britain, France, Russia occupied

and controlled Germany. Divided up Germany, most of the Jewish refugees

concentrated in the American zones of occupation. That is the moment in

history where America connects to the Jewish problem in Europe or the

middle east. The problem of the DPs (displaced persons) becomes one of

Americas major concerns with regard to rebuilding Germany. Amongst

these DPs was a small % of Jews liberated from Camps, who remained in DP

camps because they had nowhere else to go.

By the summer of 1945, that number had shrunk to 50,000 people.

From 1946 on, Jews who found refuge in Russia moved Westward from their

former homes, moved to the American area of Germany. American Jewish

organizations brought help to the area. By 1947, almost 250,000 refugees

in DP camps. What are they supposed to do? The numbers are growing,British are in Palestine with no policy and America has a growing Jewish

problem. British said they would take 1500 Jews a month. In the summer

of 1945, Churchill loses the elections and a Labor government comes in.

Prime Minister Clement Atley and his foreign Minister Ernst Bevin. They

freeze foreign policy, decide they want to establish a bi-national state in

Palestine (their pre-war stance). Americans ask British to release 100,000

certificates for people in DP camps.

British were in a tough economic state, they said that they couldnt afford to

do that. They said to carry part of the burden, invite the Americans to

create an Anglo-American committee of inquiry. It was formed with 6

Americans and 6 British. They talk to the people in the camps, the Jews, the

Arabs, and they made a recommendation.

Before the committee was established, Americans said that British must do

whatever the committee recommends as long as its unanimous.


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Unanimous votes for British releasing 100,000 immigration visas. Americans

were prepared to close the camps and go home. British put strings there

though.

British start a diplomatic withdrawal from their committee. American

government in Europe says British promised something but didnt do it, andtherefore they should just let Jews go to Palestine. 22,000 succeeded out of

72,000. Those who got there were deported to a camp in Cyprus.

October 1946 President Truman makes it worse for British by saying that

America favors the idea of partition. British government backed off the idea

in favor of a bi-national state.

American Jews strongly supported creating a Jewish state in Palestine.

July 1946 Jewish underground (Etzel + Lechi) blew up one of the British

headquarters in Palestine (King David Hotel), 92 died. Railroads blocked

etc.

Feb 1947 British give up. Cant find a solution. Want to go back to the

UN, say, Either allow us to get really tough or you take the problem back.

Its not clear what their motives were when they turned to the UN.

In a debate in the spring of 1947, UN sends a committee of inquiry.

UNSCOP (United Nations Special Committee on Palestine). Reaches the

same conclusion British did in 1930s, America did in 1946.

Recommendation came to Britain in November 29th, 1947, gave a 2/3

majority. Two states would be created within 6 months in the future.What happens between November 1947 and May 1948 (when Israel was

created)? Why didnt the Palestinians create a state?

Arabs opposed the partition decision.

Arabs opposed creation of a Jewish state.

After the partition vote, fighting breaks out between Jews and

Arabs in Palestine. Turns into a civil war between Jews and Arabs.

For the first four months (Dec 1947 March 1948), looked like

Arabs would defeat Jews before they had a chance to create a

Jewish state.

To make matters worse, all surrounding Arab countries (Syria,

Jordan, Iraq, Saudi Arabia) said they would invade if Jews created

their state. Palestinian armed forces had most of the main roads in

Palestine.


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Didnt want to give an excuse to the Russians to send their forces

to the Middle East.

Jews wanted to create a Jewish state, Arabs wanted Arab state in

all of Palestine. Neither side wanted the UN to run Palestine.

March 1948 Jewish armed forces in Palestine, the largest of whichwas the Hagana (others were called Etzel, Irgun and the Lehi, Stern

Gang[Palmach]). Forces were 40,000 men strong. These men

were organized to defend individual settlements. March 1948

new policy, called Plan D. Reorganized forces on a national level.

In two months, Palestine will be divided and there will be borders to

the Jewish state. They said they need to destroy the opposition.

This is the beginning of one of the big tragedies.

At about this time (Nov/Dec +), Arabs start to leave Palestine. Rich

Arabs who have the money leave the area. Included professionals,

lawyers and doctors. Palestinian society begins to collapse on itself.

British are getting ready to withdraw, cant go to Jewish hospital,

and no Arab doctors were still there. They were thinking that it

would be a good idea for all of them to just leave. Fighting that

continues is a larger contributor. April 8 9, 1948, there was a

tragedy in a village near Jerusalem called Deir Yassin. It was

attacked by the Etzel and Lehi, large number of Arabs (women and

children as well) were killed. According to the red cross, 243people were killed. In truth, real number was half that many. Red

cross made a mistake by broadcasting these figures because panic

is created. Lots of Palestinian refugees move out.

Middle 1948 there were 250,000 Palestinian refugees. Leaders of

the population apologized for massacre, said it wouldnt happen

again (which it did). In the process of gaining control, if an Arab

village opposed Jewish forces they sent the people away and

destroyed the village.

Arabs argued that Plan D was supposed to expel all Arabs. Thats not the

governments policy at all then. They run internal investigations as to why

the Arabs are leaving. There were instances of violence and fighting, and

its not surprising that people left.

For many years, Israeli historians said that Arabs left because they were told

to do so. Theres no proof.


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1/3 of refugee problems didnt want to leave their homes, said they would

just leave and go a few miles. Happened all along the present-day West

Bank. Found themselves on the other side of the border.

May 15, 1948 Israel declares independence, begins the war with the Arab

states. In the course of that fighting, which continues until beginning of1949, there was a lot more bloodshed. War became much more serious,

many more Palestinian Arabs became refugees.

Spring 1949 Israel negotiated cease-fire (armistice) agreements with most

of them (except Iraqis). Its not a permanent peace agreement, just agreed

to stop fighting. At the time, 750,000 Arabs from the area that was Israel

had become refugees (out of 900,000 Arabs). Jewish state had 650,000

Jewish citizens and 150,000 Arabs. Jewish population grows once doors are

open.

Why is only one state created?

Arab world didnt want one.

Israel didnt want one either.

West Bank was supposed to be part of Palestine. It was occupied

by Jordanian Army (Arab Legion). Abdullah didnt want

independent state there, said it would undermine his control. He

stays in the area.

1952 West Bank becomes a part of Jordan. Only England and

Pakistan recognized that annexation. Large number of the refugees were in the area. Many people

(350,000) moved from Israel to the West Bank in the fighting of

1947 1948. 150,000 - 200,000 move into present-day Gaza.

Some go to Syria and Lebanon as well.

Gaza occupied by the Egyptian army, they blocked the creation of a

Palestinian state in Gaza. There was no peace agreement signed

between Israel and Arabs.

When the UN determined that partition would come into effect, Jews

declared a Jewish state in their area.

January 24, 2006

Recitation

TA is Josh Teplitsky Email [email protected].

Look at the Balfour Declaration Issued Nov 2, 1917. Talked about a

Jewish right to a national home in Palestine. Why?


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Russian Jews

US Banking American Jews control American markets

Suez Canal

Became the subject of debate for thirty years about what it meant, what was

promised, who had rights, and what the rights of the people were.Balfour declaration no promise for creation of a Jewish home in Palestine.

January 25, 2006

Lecture

Israel had a population of 650,000 Jews in 1948 with a remaining Arab

population of 150,000. Within the next three years, population doubled.

From 1948 1951, Israel absorbed 681,000 immigrants.

Changing demographics:

The Yishuv was mostly comprised of Ashkenaz Jews.

of the population were Ashkenaz.

Some Sfardim had been in the holy land for centuries.

Ashkenaz Jews speak Yiddish mostly German with a little bit

Hebrew. Written with the Hebrew alphabet. It was the common

language of the Jews of Europe.

Jews of Balkans spoke Ladino, a Spanish-derived language.

When this largely Ashkenazi community achieves independence, Israel

becomes a state and opens up it gates to Jews who quickly needed to

migrate. Immigration was a center to the Jewish state. As soon as it getsindependence, it throws open its doors.

The community most people assumed would go to Israel were the Holocaust

survivors. The American, British , French and Russian armies move into

Germany and uncover more camps. Allies liberate hundreds of thousands of

prisoners, amongst whom there were 70,000 Jewish survivors of the

Holocaust. Theyre stuck. Very few wanted to live in Germany or Poland.

Months and years later, there were tens of thousands of Jews living in DP

camps.

Jews who fled into the USSR during WWII they leave (almost 200,000)

come back to Poland, but their communities are destroyed and their homes

are occupied. Most move Westward.

We went over the German division (see last lecture).

200,000 refugees in DP camps waiting to migrate, but nobody wanted them.

Even if they had a place to go, many said they wanted to go to Palestine,


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into a Jewish state. Theyre often portrayed to super-Zionists, a partially

accurate portrayal. Only 2/3 of the people move onto the boat, the rest

move to other countries. 120,000 DPs make their way back to Israel, and

their immigration was considered an urgent task.

People werent sympathetic to Holocaust survivors in the years following theHolocaust. People didnt know what happened in the Holocaust.

Jewish community in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia had 50,000 Jews. These Jews

survived and werent sent to the gas chambers, but suffered. Had to work in

the countryside. When the war was over, many of these people had no

homes. In 1949, almost all of Bulgaria goes to Israel. This adds 50,000

Jews.

Yemenite Jews 50,000 Jews there as well. Almost all of them left Yemen

to go to Israel. They saw that Israel wasnt an ideological question but

purely religious.

What about North African communities?

Germans had been there in 1941 1942

Italians ruled Libya.

French, who controlled Morocco and Algeria.

Three disruptions for N. African Jews:

Vichy French adopted anti-Semitic policies, which destroyed the

lives of Jews in North Africa.

People began to see an Arab national movement for Tunisia,Algeria. Jews caught in the struggle between Arabs and French.

Arabs were also hostile to the Jews just as much as the French.

Arab-Israeli conflict Arabs lost the war in the Middle East, and

Arabs in N. Africa were mad at Jews. When the gates are opened,

many Jews begin to leave.

23,000 Jews (almost all of Libya) leave in 1951. In Egypt, almost of

Jewish community leaves. Large parts of Syrian and Lebanon communities

leave.

33,000 Turkish Jews leave.

Jews of Eastern Europe came to Israel out of need, and didnt share the

enthusiasm that the Yeshuv Jews built. They were primarily religious (the

Labor movement) and the Jews in this period of mass immigration are

profoundly religious Jews.


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Lots of the country wasnt ready. Schools, hospitals, houses didnt really

exist. There was one source of houses readily available, particularly the

housing in urban Arab areas. That was taken over by the first wave of

immigrants.

Israel begins to build tent cities to keep all the immigrants. The governmenthad to plan cities in the areas which needed to be populated by Jews in

order to make them a permanent part of Israel. Most Jews lived in the

middle or north. Beer Sheva begins to grow. Dimona is created, Yerucham,

Shterot.

Iraqi Jews had been there since before Roman times. Some were in Basra,

some were in the North, and Baghdad was almost a Jewish city. Jews in

Iraq were like Jews in Germany leaders of their societies in every respect.

Events took place a year and a half after Israels independence that

destroyed their community. Iraq lost badly in 1948 to Israel, begin to take

it out on the Jews in Baghdad. Jews move to Persia, Iran.

Prime Minister of Iraq Nuri Said. Said somes up with a dramatic

suggestion wants to encourage a population transfer. There are

Palestinian refugees in West Bank, Gaza. They encourage settling of

refugees in Iraq, in exchange for which the Iraqi Jews would be kicked out.

Israeli government didnt agree, because they didnt want to conspire with

Iraq to kick out Jews. Some historians say that Israel conspired with Iraq,

but Prof. Zweig strongly discourages that view.March 1950 Said brings to the Iraqi parliament a right for any Jew who

wants to leave. The intention was to get Jews to move to Israel. There was

a deal whereby Jews took planes to Israel from Iraq. Many Iraqi Jews

register that they wanted to leave. Said passes a second idea that say that

when they give up their citizenship, they give up their property as well.

113,000 Iraqi Jews left for Israel, and were allowed to take $140 in cash and

2 suitcases.

This was a wealthy, established community with many professionals who

suddenly become impoverished refugees. Towards the end of the mass

migration (1951), there are no houses (tents only), no employment.

Making Aliyah meant a lower status for Jews from rich areas like Germany

and Iraq. Israel, once a homogeneous society, is now a melting pot.


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By 1951, Israel was 1.5 million citizens who come from all corners, speak

many languages. Most people werent around for the struggle with the

British.

The Israeli economy is underdeveloped, largely agricultural. It was difficult

to build an economy immediately after a war. 1% of the population died inthe war of independence. Whatever industry existed was based on war

production. Most of this changes when Israel is independent. However, this

was a period of shortages (tzena) and rationing.

Ben Gurion had the policy of building up the state institutions and forgetting

the political arguments. He said they want people to respect the police, pay

their taxes, and respect the Knesset.

Wanted people to work off the same educational system.

However, the religious right didnt want to accept the educational system in

Israel. They created two educational systems state secular and state

religious. What should you provide the new immigrants?

Ben Gurions government was in favor of overenthusiastic modernization.

The religious parties leave the government and force new elections based

upon religious education.

Mass immigration comes to an end in 1952, but is resumed a few years

later, particularly because the Jews of Romania and Morocco come.

It had always been a principle of Israel that Jews would be allowed to come.

People came to Israel with diseases, and Israel was prepared to accept all ofthe people who came (especially TB).

They doubted that they did the right thing, saying they should bring the

young people first and then later bring the old people. In 1954, they

resume immigration but with selection. Sick and old would be allowed to

come, but they dont. Resentment created because of this. There was

rioting as a result of that, in a poor neighborhood in Haifa called Wadi Salib.

The riots in July 1959 are considered to be a turning point in the relations

between Ashkenazi and Sefardi Jews in Israel.

January 30, 2006

Lecture

Creation of the constitutional system in Israel:

Three things happen in 1948 and all happen at the same time. They dont

have enough time to discuss the specific government system or model.


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In November 1947, the UN decides to partition Palestine, calls on the Jewish

and Arab states to create constitutional governments and have a

constitutional assembly by 1 October 1948. No Palestinian state evolved,

but the Jewish state makes an attempt to meet this deadline.

From November 1947 until May 1948, the leaders of the Jewish communityin Palestine create a committee to talk about making a state. They talk

about civil service, who will be judges, and the financial system. By the time

Israel is created, all of the stuff is already worked out. In terms of the formal

structure, there will be agreement, but in terms of the detailed underlying

principles there was argument. They wanted to know what role religion and

democracy would play in the state. They needed a declaration if

independence.

They create a legal document, and want the politicians to meet. Those stuck

in Jerusalem cant get to Tel Aviv to discuss. The document is scrapped at

the very last moment. On May 12, Israels future foreign minister, Moshe

Sharett, returns from Washington with a message from the US: it said,

dont declare independence, because the Arabs will beat you and the US

wont come and save you. The US wants you to wait, and not to rush.

Sharett returns to Palestine, delivers the message. They decided to declare

independence without waiting. At that moment, the document that Sharett

had planned to be the declaration of independence is rewritten completely.

Its given to David Ben-Gurion, and he re-writes it to its current form. Israelwas supposed to have a constitution. The Jews in Palestine had great

respect for British, which lack a constitution (they used precedent and

tradition). Israel liked the parliamentary system instead of the Presidential

system, so the parliament would be elected to then select the prime

minister. They would modify it to deal with the traditions of the Zionist

movement, whereby you vote for a party and not a local representative.

Until two days before, Israel couldve been called Israel or Zion. Zion was

considered less acceptable was that it has religious implications which would

create a problem for non-Jewish minorities.

First thing Ben-Gurion does is remove legal statement, says Israels links to

Jewish people and Jews links to the land of Israel. It was the birthplace of

the Jewish people. He mentions the bible, affixes it to the history book of

the Jewish people rather than G-d. He then wrote an interpretation of


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Jewish history linking Jews to the land. Its a dramatic interpretation of

Jewish history.

Refers to the benefits of Jewish settlement. How do they justify the Balfour

declaration? Jews will bring progress and modernity, and everyone (including

Arabs) will benefit.Mentions WWII and the holocaust, and then says that the Jews in Palestine

were an allied nation and fought against the Nazis. 12,000 Jewish soldiers

joined British army to fight.

Heres something important:

THE STATE OF ISRAEL will be open for Jewish immigration and for the

Ingathering of the Exiles; it will foster the development of the country for the

benefit of all its inhabitants; it will be based on freedom, justice and peace as

envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social

and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex; it

will guarantee freedom of religion, conscience, language, education and

culture; it will safeguard the Holy Places of all religions; and it will be faithful to

the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.

This paragraph has become the basis for an Israeli declaration of human

rights. This document is famous and important because of the declaration

and stances that it takes. Israel will be created as a Jewish state. Promises

Arabs full and equal rights (in Knesset as well). Doesnt call for negation of

Diaspora or mass Aliyah, just calls for support from Diaspora.Rock of Israel alludes to protection of G-d, but not there explicitly. No

reference to Israel being a state of Jewish law. No mention of borders, so

its clear that the borders are going to be determined by the fighting. This

was gutsy, because if they thought they would lose than they shouldve set

specific final borders. They expected to come out of the battle with the

other end of the UN part.

British Mandate ended May 14 15 at midnight (Shabbat). Couldnt sign it

on Shabbat, because its against halacha. It was held on May 14 at 4PM.

That same day, the Jewish communities in an area around Jerusalem called

Gush Etzion fell, many were killed and many had been taken into Jordan.

Ben Gurion has taken a bold step by not mentioning borders. Well discuss

in greater detail the implications of Israel being a Jewish state and one of

equal rights for all.


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Would Shabbat be the day of rest? Each community would have its

own day of rest, but Jewish day of rest was official. Government

doesnt operate, shops not open. What about public transportation?

It would be a major annoyance for secular Jews. Decision for

communities with large populations of religious Jews, they wouldnot have transportation, but there would be in communities that are

secular.

Food would be kosher in government institutions army, schools,

police force, etc.

What would happen to the laws associated with birth, death,

marriage and divorce? Use Millet system, say that you can only do

stuff in your own religious community. You have to get married

according to the laws of your own religion. Judaism is strict.

Allowed the Rabbis, Priests and Caliphs to control religious law.

There are public religious cemeteries and theres no technical civil

marriages.

Elections were held in Israel not on 1 Oct 1948 (because of fighting) but

were held in early Jan 1949. Electoral pattern created in 1949 have

characterized Israel for the next ~30 years.

120 people in the Knesset, elections are supposed to be every 4 years but

average is 3 years. No party in Israel has had a majority, but coalitions

have. The largest party is invited to form a coalition. Calls other partiesclose to him, invites them to join a government. They can join with certain

conditions (mostly education system, religion in public life etc). Ruling party

from 1949 1977 was the Labor Party (Mapai) was Ben-Gurions party.

Smaller breakaway parties closer to the farmers, further to the L, but

theyve typically aligned with Mapai. One is called Achdut HaAvodah.

1949 - Mapai received 46 votes, parties to the L got 19 votes. Ben-Gurion

thought it important that he brings in the religious parties. First election

formed one party, but there are important streams:

National religious party

Agudat Yisrael

Received 16 seats.

To the R Likud. Before it changed its name, it was called the Herut. They

were nationalistic, had strong views of Israeli borders. Should include


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everything set out plus the territory to the E of the Jordan river (Jordan).

Received 14

Mapam were the communists there were some people who said that the

Jews should have a binational state, with one country. Got 4 votes.

Arabs got 2.Parties of the center altogether, they had 19 seats as well.

Agudat Yisrael-

Created in Poland between World Wars represent the interest of

the Charedim.

Have a distant relationship with Israel, participate in elections but

have, at times, becomes deputy ministers but not ministers. Dont

consider themselves a Zionist party.

People whose lives were devoted to religious service arent called

up to military service. In the original agreements between Ben-

Gurion and the religious party, 1,000 of the best students would get

waivers. They want to have that expanded. In the last year, the #

of people who received a waiver was around 40,000.

Originally called the Mizrachi party.

Originally, the Herut party merged with the General Zionists, the center, to

form the Likud.

January 31, 2006

Recitation

To what rights does the document appeal?

Natural Right

o Balfour declaration recognized Jews as a nation

o That gave them a natural right to independence

Historic Right

o Jews formed in Israel

o Jews lived and aspired to control Israel

International Law

o UN

o Balfour declaration

Human Right similar to natural right.

American declaration


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o Goes to a lot of pains to lay out a new political order. Israel

doesnt do that because they assume that its done similar to

the American system.

o Implicit references to G-d and religious right

February 1, 2006Lecture

Jewish state, going to seek peace and be open to all the Jews in the world

but nonetheless be willing to stand up for itself.

In practice, is this contradictory?

Ben-Gurion stated that Israel will be open to all Jews in the world. This is

deeply-rooted in modern Israeli conscience. Israel was born out of a conflict

with the British over immigration, so the right of Jews to live in Israel under

British or Israeli government is a basic principle. This is what Zionism is all

about Israel is the one place Jews will always be able to find refuge.

The struggle for statehood takes place in the 1930s and 1940s in the

shadow of the Nazi powers in Germany as well as other anti-Semitic

regimes. Poland, Romania and Hungary turned anti-Jewish.

When Ben-Gurion says that Israel would be open to all Jews, he was being

very serious.

Mass immigration Jews begin to flow in from everywhere, and suddenly

people begin to realize its not that easy. They want to know what the

definition of a Jew is. One basic definition, even the most legalisticinterpreters, states that one is Jewish if its matrilineal. For the bulk of the

people who came to Israel, there was no big set of rules. However, by

1950, they realized that they needed to regulate, by law, the definition of

who is a Jew.

They say if youre enough Jewish to have been persecuted once, then you

can come to Israel as a Jew even if youre not Jewish technically.

Nazi definition came from one of the Nuremberg laws any of four

grandparents are Jewish, youre Jewish. Israel used the same definition and

called it the Law of Return. Debated and passed by Knesset in July 1950.

Half a dozen European countries give special privileges to people who came

from the country theyre immigrating to.

The problem that the Israeli law has faced is saying whos entitled to return.

Since the 1970s, there has been a significant migration of Jews from Russia,

some of whom havent been Jews for two generations. Since the beginning


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of the 20th century, the Christian population in Palestine / Israel has been

declining. With Russian immigrants in the 1980s, 30% of the Russians

coming to Israel have Jewish ancestors but are Christians.

Most famous case with regard to the Law of Return Brother Daniel. Active

in Zionist movement, born in a town right near Auschwitz. Managed to savehimself, gets caught in the ghetto in Lithuania. Acts as a translator for the

Germans, hear that they intend to kill Germans in a ghetto. Steals weapons,

gives them to ghetto fighters, and hid in a monastery. Converts.

Goes to live in Israel under the Law of Return. Government in the 1950s

says, Something wrong here! Claims Israeli citizenship under the law of

return. Israel says hes a priest, cant come to Israel claiming hes a Jew.

The Rabbinate in Israel say that hes really a Jew, even though he may think

hes a priest.

The case goes to the Israeli supreme court, in 1962 they say its absurd. He

has denied his Jewishness and as such is not allowed to go to return.

However, hes lived long enough legally in Israel so therefore he can become

a citizen.

Another case a guy named Shalit. Married a woman from Thailand, but

wanted his kids registered as Jews on their national ID card. Its got a thing

on the ID card called nationality. Its not religion. He wanted his kids to be

registered as Jewish. He said theyre part of Jewish culture, speak Hebrew,

and ministry of the interior refused to define them as Jews because motherwasnt Jewish and didnt want to convert.

Supreme court says you are what you say you are, and the ministry of the

interior cant define you as something. That doesnt mean anything

anymore.

Immediately the question is raised of Karaites people who stemmed off

Judaism but havent accepted the full Jewish religion as we know it today.

There are small communities in Eastern Europe and a large community in

North Africa. Are they Jewish? Many cooperated with Nazis in helping Nazis

find Jews. Karaites in Egypt were supporting the state, but some werent.

Indian Jews called Bnai Yisrael Indian Jews, look like Indians but maintain

Jewish practices. Probably came from Yemen, certainly divorced from

mainstream Jewish life. They come to Israel in the 1950s, and what will

happen with Rabbis? They settle, the problem is ignored. Rabbis dont

make an issue out of it.


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Ethiopian Jews called Beta Israel or Falashas (Barry calls them Falafels).

Theyre much larger, originally thought to be around 30,000 people. They

lived in Ethiopia, a Christian country, and Jews were persecuted. They dont

have the Torah, dont know Hebrew, but keep Niddah Halachot and Shabbat.

Keep other Jewish religious practices, but lack some of the core stuff. Youask them to convert formerly once theyve come to Israel, but that became

a political hot potato. Why should they have to convert when others wouldnt

have to? One of the leading Moroccan Rabbis, Rabbi Ovadiah Yosef, decided

they were Jews. No other Rabbis would contradict them. In the 1970s

(1973), 30,000 Jews had an airlift from Ethiopia to Israel, and it still

continues to this day.

A citizenship law that contains these laws creates these problems.

Lansky was a criminal, wanted to use his Jewish status to move to Israel.

He was sent back to the US.

Israels relationship to the rest of the Jewish world:

Ben-Gurion also mentions relations with the rest of the Jewish world

o Discusses ingathering of exiles

o Expression of a term that was a favorite term in Zionist

thinking, called negation of the Diaspora. When people were

talking about creating a Jewish state, they said that Jewish

dispersal was a result of Jews being exiled, and how Jews

should come back. Diaspora wasnt a healthy state.o 95% of the Jewish world didnt agree with the description of

their life as exile. However, they always saw Israel as a

solution for other Jews, not them. Life in the Diaspora wasnt

considered to be a negative thing or exile. Even at the height

of Jewish independence, however, to suggest that only Israel

is the heart of the Jewish world is incorrect.

Relations between Israel and Jews in the rest of the world 1948

and thereafter its valued a lot. Its valued for financial support,

because the Jewish community in America and other places outside

of Israel supported Israel during its fight for independence in a very

serious way. The Jews in America purchased weapons during the

war of independence, raised $130 million (about $1 billion today).


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Also in human terms, Israeli government wants ties to Jews in

America, the largest concentration of Jews in the world until Israel

took that title over.

After the state is created, they want relations with the Jews despite

the fact that weve talked about negation of the Diaspora. Who inthe Diaspora do you support? The leading American Zionist was a

reform Rabbi from Cleveland by the name of Abba Hillel Silver.

Ben-Gurion says that if we work with America through the Zionist

party, we then strengthen the religious Zionist party. He instead

forms relationships with anti-Zionist or neutral Zionists in America.

He chooses to work with the American Jewish Committee, created

by a group of leading New York Jews. It wasnt elected or

democratic, it was elite and it fought for Jewish rights. When it was

born in 1906, it fought for an interpretation of Jews in America as

American Jews rather than Jewish Americans. AJC says that if they

want to work with Israel, they say that American Jews arent in

exile and dont need refuge in Israel. They owe no loyalty.

The head of the AJC was Jacob Blaustein (invented high-octane gas,

gas pump). Formed AMOCO. He was very wealthy, Ben-Gurion

negotiates a deal with him.

February 6, 2006

What were Israels relations with Germany so recently after WWII? Whatabout relationships with the Holocaust and survivors?

In Palestine there was concern that people would express

disappointment that more hadnt been done to save them.

Why did so many die and these people were still alive? Were they

really Nazi collaborators?

Would these people really Zionists? How many of them actually

wanted to go to Israel?

These concerns transpired quickly. Within 1 month to 6 weeks, survivors

began to express their opinions that they wanted to go to Palestine. They

supported the idea of a Jewish state and wanted to participate in it (this is

controversial). 2/3 of the survivors end up going to Palestine or later Israel.

They had other alternatives, but nonetheless moved to Israel.

Kasztner He was a Hungarian Jew. Hungarians were allies of

Germany, didnt take over until 1944, when the majority were sent


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to the gas chambers. The Jewish community formed an

underground rescue group, sometimes negotiated with the

government to help keep people in Hungary. He was the #2 man,

helped by dealing with the Germans. Realized the war was over,

wanted to delay the killing of Jews until the war would be over.Negotiates with a German official, and Becher (Nazi official) is

responsible for the fact that deportation stopped to Auschwitz from

Budapest. One of the main reasons is Kasztners bribing.

1600 people were put on a train, this train was supposed to go to

Switzerland. Train is kept in Bergen-Belsen for 6 months, then

went to Switzerland.

Perhaps the leaders of the Jewish community, including Mapai

(leaders of the Left, Labor party) didnt do enough. Kasztner gets

to Israel, people didnt understand one thing. Becher gave back the

money that he paid as a bribe, and Kasztner testified for Becher in

the Nuremberg trials. In a trail in Jan 1954, someone accused

Kasztner of selling out to the Nazis. He was a pretty big guy in the

Israeli government. They take the guy who accuses him is brought

to trial for libel, and its the first trial with the issues of the

holocaust.

The Herut party accused the Mapai party of not doing enough and

leads the trial against Kasztner. After 18 months of trial, the trial isawarded to Kasztner and the other guy is fined $1. Basically, the

other guy got most of it right but missed a detail or two. Its very

embarrassing for the Mapai party.

Years later its put up for appeal, but before the appeal trial he was

assassinated by a holocaust survivor. This was a party war

between the government, Mapai, and their main opposition, Herut.

Next big trial is the Eichmann trial, to be discussed later.

What would Israels relations to the Germans be after WWII?

Germany was occupied until 1951, when they slowly returned serenity and

control to the Germans. The allies then charged Germany with reparations,

a payment that a company has to make if it wages an aggressive war and it

loses. Germany would have to pay for the damage it does. Its $200 billion

for Russian damages, basically its a large amount of $. They took

everything that moved back to Russia. The US and Britain wouldnt charge


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because they were rebuilding. Holland, France, Denmark, Norway charged.

Israel didnt exist, however, and even though Jews had suffered more than

any other community the Jews couldnt present a bill to Germany.

Germans had to give back all of the real estate they had stolen from the

Jews and all the real estate stolen from Jewish communities, but what aboutthe damage? 500,000 people between 1933 and 1951 who were refugees of

Nazism, rehabilitated by Jews in Israel. Israel sent a letter in March 1951 to

the allied powers saying that they believe Germany owes reparations.

Russians and French dont answer, British and American insist that Israel

talks to Germans directly. Israel doesnt want to talk to Germany

separately. In international meetings, however, Israelis didnt want to sit at

the same table as the Germans because Germany didnt take responsibility

for the Holocaust. Things have changed. As far as Germanys concerned,

Hitler was an Austrian and none of the German citizens knew.

Secret talks held during 1951 between representatives of the Jewish world

and the German government to try to define an acceptable statement of

responsibility. 27 September 1951 - They reached this statement with the

chancellor of Germany, who was himself an anti-Nazi by the name of Konrad

Adenauer. Statement made in the Bundestag, the German political head

location. He said that Germany was responsible for terrible crimes

committed in the name of the German people. He invited representatives of

Israel and the worldwide Jewish community to negotiate reparations.Israels claim for reparations was based on the moral principle that the

Germans killed 6 million Jews and stole their property. They were worried

about the attitudes of the Diaspora.

They might not support full reparations, saying some American

Jews hurt.

Israel was in the most need financially.

1948 1952 Period of very scarce money in Israel. Shell oil company said

in 1951 that it would only take cash from Israel.

Jewish organizations accepted that the greatest area of need was Israel, and

therefore Israel would have priority. Israel says it has cost $3000 per head

to bring them in and assimilate. Thats a grand total of $1.5 billion.

Russians occupy east Germany, and they say that the claims are

invalid. West Germany (72% of territory) negotiated with them.

Germany says they cant afford to pay $1.5 billion, but can


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negotiate $1 billion. They say they owe $720 million, and rest

needs to come from the east Germans. Negotiations were held

during 1952 in Holland, in a place called Wassenaar.

Is it moral for Israel to negotiate with Germany at all? Right wing

(Herut) and left (Mapai) both insist against taking German money,saying its dirty. Had a slight majority.

Germans offer to pay in German industrial goods. Paid to Israel by German-

made ships, railway system, and German power station. Said they would

pay over the course of 12 years. Started 1954, concluded in 1966. In the

course of that time, German industry manufactured stuff that was very

valuable for Israel.

Jewish organizations negotiate with Germans as well.

Negotiate German payments of compensation to original, individual

survivors. The payment to individuals is called indemnification.

People thought the Germans wouldnt honor their commitments,

but they did. They increased the amount of payments made. In

September 1952 (signed in Luxembourg), they want to sign their

settlement with the Jews at 7:30 AM, their first international

signing. They thought that the payment to Israel and Diaspora, as

well as indemnification, would cost them $5 billion. Really cost

them close to $80 billion.

Payment to Diaspora they said they would send the stuff toIsrael, and Israel would give the Diaspora the value of the money in

cash. At this time, the Jews were attempting to raise money for

Israel. They took some of the money collected for Israel, gave it

back to America.

2 long-term consequences:

This operation becomes possible because of the close connection

between Israel and Diaspora organizations, and acceptance of

German goods for cash brings the Israeli government even closer.

The agreement signed in 1950 with Blaustein is turned into a

functional relationship.

Reparations were not a payment that led to a moral settlement it

was only a material deal. In real life, the fact that the Germans

were honorable in their payments made Israel-German relations

closer. Adenauer, German Chancellor, visited Israel. In 1965,


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Israel and Germany recognize each other, switch ambassadors.

Become allies.

Israeli foreign relations

When the Cold War begins, people dont know whether or not it will

be with the East or the West. They know that Israel has recentlyobtained its independence, and was a decolonized state. People

wanted Israel to be part of the nonaligned world. Others thought

Israel should be identified with communist Russia. The parties of

the L, particularly Mapam, supported the Soviet experiment.

Russians did a lot of the fighting in Europe to liberate, so there

were lots of people in Israel who were fans of Russia.

February 7, 2006

Recitation

Paper due 4/4/06.

Review of yesterday

Setting up the Ben-Gurion Blaustein exchange.

Take a look at the Blaustein Ben-Gurion exchange.

February 8th, 2006

Lecture

Foreign policy

Countries got their independence in a country that was the US and

Britain on one hand and USSR on the other. Israel had a verydifficult decision.

In the first elections in 1949, Mapai said that Israel should be

among the nonaligned countries. Problem both to the L and the R

people who belonged to the Labor party saw Russia as a model.

These parties were Mapam and Ahdut Haavodah (socialist party

made up heavily of kibbutzniks, closely tied to the land. Very much

a party of R when deciding Israels borders.)

1948 1950: these two parties call for closer parties to the USSR.

Communist party of Israel Maki. On the R, all of the parties

calling for closer relations with the US. Mapai tries to compromise.

Why doesnt Mapai deal closely with the US?

US liberated camps, but Russia was the country fighting in Europe

on the ground before D-Day.

USSR had played a big part in the partition idea in the UN in 1947.


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Most of the leaders of the Yishuv came from eastern Europe. It was

the source of Ashkenazi culture on which Israel was founded. 2 3

million Jews were in Russia, Romania, and Hungary. Israel wanted

to maintain its lines of communications to those people, to let the

Soviet Jews come and live in Israel. This is among the largestDiaspora population outside the US and Israel. Theyre big

potential immigrants.

US and Britain werent so friendly with Israel within the first few

years they really tried to cultivate relations with the Arab states.

However, from 1950 - 1953, Russias policy to Jews in USSR changes for

the worse. Jewish intellectuals arrested, doctors plot (Stalin accused 9

doctors of poisoning him). They repressed Jewish identity. Why?

Beginning of Israels relations with the Soviet union in 1949,

Golda Meir appointed as Israels first ambassador to the USSR. She

gets to Moscow in September, October the high holidays go to the

main shul in Moscow.

Expect to be welcomed, but tens of thousands of Jews from all over

mobbed the synagogue to see Israels new representatives.

Russian police had to close police, turned into a Jewish nationality

rally. Russians got cautious.

We suspect that this is a turning point.

1950 cold war becomes more serious. Civil war in Korea begins,US convinces the UN to support the S. After long discussions,

Israel votes with the US in the UN, doesnt send troops but send

medical supplies and food. Russia recognized Israel as a Western

power. 1950 USSR breaks off diplomatic ties with Israel.

Stalin dies in 1953 a few years later Nikita Khrushchev (1956),

the new head, tells the communist party in a secret meeting about

the crimes Stalin committed and of how many Soviets died for

Stalin. CIA wanted to get a copy of the speech, couldnt but Israel

did.

Seemed like a strategic alliance, but wasnt really. Was a serious internal

debate. There were no borders here, only armistice lines. They were

temporary borders until peace could be arranged. In the first years of

Israel, there were attempts to communicate with Arab states. It wasnt a

steel wall.


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Meeting between Jordan and Israel for peace held in Summer spring

1949 in Lausanne, Switzerland. Jordan wanted back the West Bank, Israel

rejected that offer. There were 720,000 750,000 refugees who left Israel

after 1948, most of whom had gone to the west bank. 350,000 were in the

west bank, 250,000 were in Gaza. 100,000 were in Lebanon and 60,000 inSyria.

Israel had absorbed 150,000 from holocaust and 200,000 from Europe.

Israel said that they would block the resettlement of the refugees, when the

UN established an administration to deal with making work, called it the

UNRWA (United Nations Relief and Work Administration). In the west bank,

the residents can work but in other communities they cant.

Palestinians blamed the Arab nations for losing the war with Israel in 1948.

Theres a lot of reaction to the failure of the Arab states in 1948. Syria had

a coup detat in 1949, in Syria 1952, in Jordan Abdullah is assassinated

1951.

Abdullah wanted access to the Mediterranean, dividing Israel into two. In

the course of the talks, Israel turns down the offer but gives them the right

to use a highway.

Syria regime changes 1949, General Zaim comes to power. Offers to

settle 1/3 of the refugees in Syria on the condition that Israel gives up half

of the sea of Galilee and control of the Jordan River. Israel gets water from

the Galilee. Zaim also wants territories that were demilitarized zones (theGolan). Theres another DMZ around Jerusalem.

In the first years after Israels independence, the # of border incursions is

10,000 to 15,000 per year, a very high number. Most of the time, its

farmers going to take property or crops. During this period, there were an

average of 200 deaths and many military deaths as well, due to people

trying to stop incursions.

Israeli government wants to know how to make this into a real border.

Theres also an infiltration of Palestinian refugees, as many as 10,000

people, who were arrested and expelled. Argument in the government is

how to respond to this situation. You can be tough, you can shoot people

who cross illegally. Increasingly, Israel adopts a retaliation policy. Every

time Arabs kill an Israeli on Israels side, the Israelis hit people on the Arab

side. The idea was to get the governments of the neighboring nations up-

to-date and pursuing crossers.


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Another explanation for Israels policy of retaliation in Fall 1948 Israel had

to decide between the West Bank and the Negev. Israel would guarantee

that it controls the Negev. There were groups in Israel, esp, Ahdut

HaAvodah saying that the West Bank should belong to Israel, and that the

borders should be corrected.Unit 101 created commando unit, commanding officer was Sharon, created

to conduct policy of retaliation. Policy goes wrong, in Oct 1953. In an

incursion into a Jordanian village called Qibya, 60 Jordanians were killed.

Unit 101 was disbanded.

Ben-Gurion is prime minister, the leader of his foreign ministry is Moshe

Sharett. There are also the army intelligence groups who support an activist

policy, meaning that they support going into neighboring countries.

1954 1955 armed border countries cross borders to attack Israeli

farmers. Escalate violence until 1955 1956, when Israel went into Gaza

and hit army bases.

King Farouk was deposed in 1952 by a group of generals headed by Naguib.

In 1954, hes deposed by Nasser. He is a stronger leader, what really

interests him in Britain. British control the Suez canal. This is great

because the British is a buffer. However, it becomes a problem because if

Britain is kicked out than the Egyptians have a problem.

Summer 1955 Nasser signs an arms deal with Czechoslovakia means

hes being supplied by the USSR. Israel doesnt have a serious armsindustry or an arms supplier. They have the option to destroy the Egyptian

army before they become too strong.

April 1956 border crossing where a young guard was killed (name was

Rotenberg. Speech given at funeral was famous). Chief of staff of army in

1956 was Moshe Dayan. Becomes chief of staff in 1953, later minister of

defense. He is Mr. security in Israel. Gave a eulogy for Rotenberg in Israel,

sets up the dilemmas of the time.

A whole new issue in Israel Dec. 1953 Ben Gurion retires from the

government. Goes back to his Kibbutz in the middle of the Negev. Things

start to go wrong within the government. Hes replaced by Sharett. Ben-

Gurion was in charge of military. Sharett isnt, so Pinchas Lavon becomes

minister of defense. Worried that the new government of Nasser was

getting strong, did something called the Lavon affair (Esek Bish). It was an

attempt to make Nassers relations with the rest of the world worse than


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before. They fought, agents bombs went off. Most of the agents were

Egyptian Jews. This hurt relations between remaining Jews in Egypt and the

Egyptian government, because they were suspected of being Israeli agents.

Lavon fired.

Feb 1955, Ben-Gurion comes back to the government as prime minister.Only significant in the national politics of Israel. Hes prepared to go to war

but not to use dirty tricks. Also an attempt to break blockade of Israel by

Egypt. Nasser stops boats from going up the Suez canal to Israel. They

wont let other countries trade with Israel. Wont let planes fly across the

Arab nations. Israel tests a blockade, sends a boat called the Bat Galim in

Sept 1954. Theyre treated poorly.

In 1955, Nasser gets weapons from the eastern bloc. The only reason he

needs the arms is to attack Israel to undo the humiliation from 1948.

February 13, 2006

Lecture

Security situation on the borders and the economic embargo as well as the

closure to the sea from the south strengthened the hands of the activists in

the border dispute. Its Ben-Gurion and his chief of staff Moshe Dayan

against Moshe Sharett.

War of 1956 War against Israel and Egypt, conflict between the two main

camps in Israel. Leads to the defeat of the moderates but the complete

bankruptcy of the militarist / activist area.Ben-Gurion stepped aside from the government in December 1953. Retires,

returns in 1955. Moshe Sharett, prime minister when Ben-Gurion takes a

break, reverts to foreign minister.

Egypt signs a large arm deal with the Soviet Union in Summer 1955. Arms

would be integrated over the next 12 months. As far as activists were

concerned (Dayan was as well, as the head of the chief of staff), Israel had

to prevent Egypt from becoming too strong. Dayan wanted to invade Egypt

preemptively, a policy that was rejected in 1955.

If Israel wouldnt start a war, they would respond to border incursions with

massive force, provoking Egypt into a war which they would lose. This was

not a policy that the government fully debates. Its a policy that Dayan

pursues and convinces his boss to adopt. Ben-Gurion is the most important

figure in Israeli politics in the 1950s. Ben-Gurion was, however, jealous of

the Dayan figure. Dayan was young, Israeli-born, etc. He listened to


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Dayan. Organized incursions across the border which threatened to

destabilize the middle east.

1955 Israel couldnt get weapons from anyone, so they decide it would be

a good idea to convince the US to get arms. Dayan didnt think it was a

good idea. There were provocations from the South and arabs in Gaza, butalso in the North and Syria. According to armistice agreements in 1948, all

of the Galilee was Israel. The borderline was 10 meters from the waters

edge. Israeli fishermen on the Galilee were fired upon by the Syrians. In

December 1955, when Sharett is in Washington trying to get Israel

weapons, Dayan made a military retaliation. They killed 60 Syrians and

captured 30.

In the internal war between moderates and activists, they believe that Israel

will never get American arms and must act against Egypt as soon as

possible. Ben-Gurion was also minister of Defense, so he controlled two

votes.

At the same time, there was an American attempt (the Anderson mission)

that went on from Dec 1955 to March 1956 to bring together Israeli and

Egyptian government. Wanted Ben-Gurion to negotiate directly with Nasser.

Egypt wanted to connect Egypt and Jordan and to accept back Palestinian

refugees or paying back compensation. Israel said they would accept a

small amount, would pay the rest compensation, and traffic stuff from Egypt

to Jordan. Really wanted to meet with Nasser, but he refuses. TheAnderson mission fails. Negotiations come to nothing at this period.

At the same time, Israel develops connections with someone new in the

middle east France. June 1956, Sharett says he disagrees with the

policies and resigns. Golda Meir takes over as foreign minister in 6/1956.

Foreign minister is now significantly weakened.

France ties begin in 1956. What is Frances interest in the middle east? All

they wanted was Algeria. In Algeria there had been a war between French

army and Algerian nationalists, called the FLN, in Algeria. France would do

anything to beat the Algerians, including supporting the people who go

against Nasser. Nasser supports the Algerians, and hes a symbol of new

Arab nationalism, called pan-Arabism. We begin to get the start of an

alliance.

June 1956 right after American government says no to arms, French

government says it will supply arms. This is serious: all France wanted to do


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is strengthen Nasser, so he was threatened and couldnt intervene in Algeria.

Alliance lasted for 11 years, becomes the basis of Israeli policy before US

and Israel are allies. Two things come out of this alliance:

Cooperation against Nasser and the supply of weapons to Israel

Start of Israels nuclear program France was the only majorcountry not to have nuclear power. It needed technologies that

Israeli scientists had. Israel needed French expertise in making

nuclear power. Israel begins a secret alliance to develop a nuclear

reactor in Dimona.

In July 1956, Nasser makes a dramatic step that changes everything he

nationalizes the Suez canal. On July 26, 1956, he nationalizes it. Mindset of

the 1950s Britain had been a huge colonial power, but were losing power

as a result of WWII and losing the colonial powers. For prime minister Eden

of England, the nationalization of the Suez was bad because it was owned by

British stockholders. This was the beginning of the third world taking control

of its assets that the west controlled. Britain saw taking the Suez Canal as

really bad, and the conservatives in Britain wanted to punish.

The French considered that a great time to destroy Nasser with British

cooperation. Slowly, Israel and French work for cooperation against Nasser

and British come abroad on these plans. France wanted Israel to attack

Egypt thru the Sinai desert, and France and Britain would intervene to

protect the Israelis and keep them separate. They said that once Israel hadthe Suez Canal, Nasser would be off the throne.

Shimon Peres was a young man involved in Israeli politics as the director

general in the ministry of defense. He had been Ben-Gurions assistant, and

Ben-Gurion knew he was capable. Peres connects with French officials,

becomes a spearhead in the pro-France move in Israel. Peres wants to get

Frances backing. There were a set of secret meetings from late September

to late October 1956. Ben-Gurion travels to France in a meeting called the

Sevres, outside Paris. Says that he wants French to come in as

peacemakers, dont want to be called making a war. British agree.

Israeli paratroopers go and parachute into the Mitla Pass, take it to weaken

Egyptian army. Within an unexpectedly short time, Israel defeated

Egyptians in Sinai. Disrupts the plan, British expect it to take a lot longer.

French and British send paratroopers saying they were going to keep the

peace. Israel retreated, English and French seize the Suez canal.


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It was supposed to be Nassers downfall contrarily, he was the hero of the

Arab world because he stood up to the imperialists (British, French and

Israelis). November 8 Russia threatens to use nuclear weapons against

Israel if Israel doesnt withdraw from Sinai immediately. This activism policy

meets with an international reality the big guns were in the US and Russia,and US was really pissed. Eisenhower said that if Israel doesnt leave Suez,

the US wont stop Israel from being erased from the UN. November 9

Israel decides to leave but do it slowly. Going to war might have been

justified.

Three things happen before it withdraws from Sinai in March 1957:

UN troops in Gaza

UN troops in Straits of Tiran Egyptians had been blocking shipping

to Eliat. UN wants to stop it.

If the Egyptians ever blockade them again, the US will see it as

Casus Belli, a legitimate cause to go to war.

There can be no military solution to the middle east conflict. This become

evident in 1957.

New personality in the Israeli diplomat team Abba Eban. Brilliant

spokesman in the UN. Born in England, educated in Oxford, best defense in

the UN of Israeli policy.

Most important consequence of all all attempts to reach a peace

settlement between Israel and the Arab states were all on hold. Nasser wasthe hero of the Arab world, has survived French-British-Israeli war, and even

though Israel achieved their victory they didnt win the overall objectives.

Israeli historians consider the war foolish and unnecessary, and without

lasting conclusions.

February 14, 2006

Recitation

We answered questions after reading some of Nassers stuff.

Question 1 Nasser as Pan-Arab ideologue

o It seems as if Nasser speaks of the nations surrounding Israel

as one nation rather than a separate set of degenerate and

fragmented people. He speaks of the UAR, the United Arab

Republic, which united Syria and Egypt. He also mentioned

how the Arab nations should unite to fight against what


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happened in 1948, fight against Palestine, and fight against

the leadership of imperialist nations who support Israel.

Question 2 Nasser as a leader of a nation stinging from the

military action in 1956

o First and most obvious proof is the imperialism that standsbehind Israel thats discussed in the August 11th speech. He

refers to them as imperialists. He could be referring to the

countries with colonies now, the colonies being Algeria and

the Suez Canal region. Also in his October 18, 1960 speech

he mentions the shackles of colonialist agents and colonialism

in general, mentioning a sentence later that the armed forces

are not yet at full strength. He also assures the people that

hes got a plan for Israeli aggression he wasnt that

prepared in 1956.

Question 3 Nasser as pandering to the Arab Street

o Relies heavily on animosity towards Zionists and imperialists.

By claiming the liberation of Palestine, he attains great dislike

for Israel. Changes his tone depending on the situation.

Discusses Arab unity. Talks to Arab youth, changes his tone

while doing so.

February 15, 2006

Look at one of the social experiments in Israel called a Kibbutz. Its acollective enterprise.

This is going to be a social revolution as well as a national

movement. Everyone was committed to some degree or another to

a social revolution.

Sharing what they had made a lot of sense. Jewish farmers had to

live together in protective settlements together in order to live and

survive.

First Kibbutz is an experiment, its in the north above the Sea of Galilee.

Called Degaina and forms in 1909. Kibbutzim become the focus of

agricultural settlement. Evolve their practical nature. Average community

is 300 700, but there are some that are twice as big. They own all the

property, and once upon a time when the kibbutz ideology was pure, they

did all the work themselves instead of hiring labor.


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In order to provide employment, they wanted to employ Jews rather than

Arabs. This distinguishes colonial settlements from Israel they used native

labor, and in Israel the land was rebuilt by Jewish sweat and blood.

Everything was owned in common. They didnt have resources. Rather than

everyone having a kitchen, there was 1 collective kitchen. Kids would growup in a separate area. The idea was to free a woman from cooking,

cleaning, and childrearing. They circulated jobs so that there was no one

person who was boss.

Kibbutz becomes the proud symbol of Zionism. The PR in Israel in the

beginning was all for the Kibbutzim. They became stronger and played a

more increasing role in the economy and agricultural production. Many of

the early political leaders of Israel were residents of Kibbutzim. Ben-Gurion,

often critical of kibbutzim, retired there after his escape from politics.

Most leaders of the Jewish underground (Palmach, elite units of the Yishuv

against the British and Arabs) lived in the Kibbutzim and trained there. In

1938, 135 Kibbutzim spread around the country and there were 58,000

kibbutz residents. 8.12% of population were kibbutz residents. It became a

unique social experiment.

The role of the kibbutz and its nature is transformed when Israel becomes

independent. Israels population doubles in the first few years because of

the mass immigration of Jews from Arab countries. Werent interested in

ideological arguments, didnt care about socialism. Government got them tolive on farms, but called a Moshav. They are private farms, but expensive

equipment is shared. Market collectively, but every family lives together as

a traditional farming family. Most new immigrants lived on moshavim

established around the country. In 1948, twice as many kibbutzim as

moshavim. By 1965, there were more kibbutzim and kibbutzim had grown

slowly. There were 270 kibbutzim in Israel, with a total population of

81,000 , 3.5%). However, in moshavim there were 367, with total of

124,000 inhabitants. Collectivist kibbutz was against the moshav network.

In the 1960s, the government favors kibbutzim. Most of the kibbutzim were

populated by Ashkenazi Jews or their kids. Most Moshavim were an area

from Eastern countries, North Africa, and Arab countries. Kibbutz movement

faces a major crisis after the creation of the state. With the creation of a

Palestinian refugee problem, there was a question of what would happen to

farming land. Most of the land that they found was given to the kibbutzim.


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The government gives it to them so that they could farm. However, they

didnt have the manpower so they hired outside labor.

Problems:

Israel identified with the Western thinkers and with democracy.

They supported America and wanted to depose the USSR, but manyfrom the kibbutzim identified with Stalin. There was a major

alignment in 1951 where 2 major kibbutz movements are formed:

o Kibbutz HaMeuhad of kibbutzim, identified with Mapai

o Kibbutz Artzi identified with Mapam, the left, and

sympathized with Russia.

o Smaller movement represents those who are religious

Kibbutz Dati movement. Thats a pretty small movement.

You cant run a factory with a circulation of labor like farming.

Kibbutz has to take some people to change them and send them to

school to learn. Modernity challenges the nature of the society

within the kibbutz.

Third challenge comes from an unusual source: many of the

holocaust survivors lived on kibbutzim, many are beginning to get

separate independent incomes from outside the kibbutz as a result

of German reparations. Who does it belong to?

o Theoretically, it belongs to the kibbutz.

o The members of the kibbutzim didnt feel that was right, theywere thinking that it would be gone if they or their kids left.

They should keep it in escrow.

o The people who got the money can afford luxuries, dont have

to do everything together.

Agriculture declines in Israel

Israel has a problem with water, they want to build desalination

plants. As much as 10 15% comes from desalination.

When you have to pay a lot for water, not all crops are worth

producing. Cotton has almost been abandoned in Israel as a field

crop because it soaks up water. The one product always identified

with Israel is citrus. Israel is famous for its Jafa oranges. Today,

citrus fields are being destroyed in favor of semiconductor factories.

1977 Menachem Begin elected as Israels PM. This was a political

earthquake. Even before the creation of the state, the labor movement had


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controlled Israel. The Likud had always been excluded from government.

Its a right-wing political party, believes in private ownership and privatizing

government. No different than Thatcher in England. Kibbutzim had become

economically prosperous. By 1970s, standard of living in Kibbutz was higher

than standard in average household. Partially a result of tax consequences.They had a higher standard of living than moshavim. Most of the Sefardi

Jews voted Likud. Kibbutz was part of the labor movement. Moshavim

thought that Kibbutz had not shared benefits of hired labor.

In the 1960s, Israel suffered from hyperinflation. They made speculative

investments and inflationary profits on the stock exchange. Stock exchange

crashed, government revalued currency, and speculative profits

disappeared. Most kibbutzim were in heavy debt. Late 1980s and early

1990s most kibbutzim renegotiated their economic position in deals with

the government and went bankrupt. 1949 1951 the land given to the

kibbutzim was valuable, so what was once agricultural land could be urban.

In 2001, there were 118,000 Israelis living on a kibbutz, accounting fo

Documents

World Cultures Notes