Writing Arguments. Elements of Argument Thesis Thesis Thesis Body Body Body Counterargument Counterargument Counterargument Organizing Organizing Organizing

Writing ArgumentsWriting Arguments

Elements of ArgumentElements of Argument

ThesisThesis BodyBody CounterargumentCounterargument OrganizingOrganizing ChecklistChecklist

Index Thesis Body/CSW Counter Organizing Checklist

Writing is the act of saying . . . listen to me, see it my way, change your mind.

—Joan Didion journalist

To argue:To argue:

Take a stand.Take a stand. Make your case:Make your case:

• present evidence present evidence • support it with CSWsupport it with CSW

((CClaim—laim—SSupport—upport—WWarrant)arrant)

Acknowledge your opponent’s viewAcknowledge your opponent’s viewand counterargue.and counterargue.

Overview

Take a standTake a stand

A A thesisthesis is a statement that others may is a statement that others may agree or disagree with.agree or disagree with.

Take a Stand

Fact vs. ThesisFact vs. Thesis

FactFact (not arguable): (not arguable): Hybrid cars use less gasoline than Hybrid cars use less gasoline than traditional cars.traditional cars.

Take a Stand

Fact vs. ThesisFact vs. Thesis

Fact Fact (not arguable):(not arguable):Hybrid cars use less gasoline than traditional Hybrid cars use less gasoline than traditional cars.cars.

ThesisThesis (arguable): (arguable): The federal government should The federal government should encourage the development of alternative encourage the development of alternative fuels.fuels.

Take a Stand

Developing a ThesisDeveloping a Thesis

Possible thesisPossible thesis This paper will describe a V-chip and This paper will describe a V-chip and

examine the uses of the V-chip in examine the uses of the V-chip in American-made television sets. American-made television sets.

Your reaction?Your reaction?

Take a Stand

Yawn.Yawn. Why should I read this?Why should I read this?


Parents, often too busy to watch Parents, often too busy to watch television with their families, can use the V-chip television with their families, can use the V-chip to monitor their children’s viewing habits.to monitor their children’s viewing habits.

Take a Stand

Hmm.Hmm. And this matters because….?And this matters because….?


The most important feature of the family television is not the The most important feature of the family television is not the big screen or the remote control: it is the V-chip, which helps big screen or the remote control: it is the V-chip, which helps parents monitor what their children watch.parents monitor what their children watch.

Take a Stand

So So that’sthat’s what you’re trying to prove…and it matters because it protects children. what you’re trying to prove…and it matters because it protects children.

Toulmin Arguments: CSWToulmin Arguments: CSW

ClaimClaim

SupportSupport

WarrantWarrant


Toulmin Arguments: Toulmin Arguments: CCSWSW

CLAIMCLAIM—point you’re trying to prove—point you’re trying to prove What point is the paper trying to make?What point is the paper trying to make? What belief or opinion is the author What belief or opinion is the author

defending?defending?

Support

Toulmin Arguments: CToulmin Arguments: CSSWW

SUPPORTSUPPORT—evidence for the claim—evidence for the claim Why should readers believe the claim?Why should readers believe the claim? What proof is given?What proof is given?

Support

Toulmin Arguments: CSToulmin Arguments: CSWW

WARRANTWARRANT—explains how/why —explains how/why

the evidence proves the pointthe evidence proves the point• How are the claim and the evidence How are the claim and the evidence

related?related?• What does this evidence prove?What does this evidence prove?

Support

Example of Toulmin argumentExample of Toulmin argument

ClaimClaim—McDonald’s built a fast-food empire by —McDonald’s built a fast-food empire by delivering the same experience in every store, delivering the same experience in every store, whether it’s in Albuquerque or Akron.whether it’s in Albuquerque or Akron.

SupportSupport—Each job is broken down —Each job is broken down into routines. For example, into routines. For example, diagrams show exactly where to diagrams show exactly where to place each pickle on a burger.place each pickle on a burger.

WarrantWarrant—This routinization ensures that —This routinization ensures that hamburgers are built and served the same way hamburgers are built and served the same way at all McDonald’s franchises.at all McDonald’s franchises.

Wait! I’ve had burgers that Wait! I’ve had burgers that didn’t have a pickle in every bite!didn’t have a pickle in every bite!

Example of Toulmin argumentExample of Toulmin argument

WarrantWarrant—This routinization ensures that —This routinization ensures that hamburgers are built and served the same way hamburgers are built and served the same way at all McDonald’s franchises.at all McDonald’s franchises.

Your readers will also be thinking Your readers will also be thinking of objections.of objections.

Good writers anticipate and answer Good writers anticipate and answer readers’ objections.readers’ objections.

Not in my experience!Not in my experience!

Counterarguments are one way to meet Counterarguments are one way to meet objections.objections.

Why a warrant?Why a warrant?

Evidence doesn’t speak for itself.Evidence doesn’t speak for itself.

Support

Why a warrant?Why a warrant?

The same fact may be given two different The same fact may be given two different interpretations:interpretations:

McDonald’s jobs are broken down into McDonald’s jobs are broken down into standardized routines.standardized routines.

Jim: Jim: Boring!!!!Boring!!!!

Dwight: Dwight: Clear path to advancementClear path to advancement

Support

TiVO: yes!TiVO: yes!

For the last fifteen years, television and For the last fifteen years, television and radio advertising has become so radio advertising has become so overblown, so in-your-face, and so LOUD, overblown, so in-your-face, and so LOUD, that my senses have revolted.that my senses have revolted.

Support

That’s why I like the TiVo box my father That’s why I like the TiVo box my father has—I can watch and record my favorite has—I can watch and record my favorite shows and zap through the commercials. shows and zap through the commercials. Heaven.Heaven.

——Brian EvankovichBrian Evankovich

Magic City Morning StarMagic City Morning Star

TiVO: no!TiVO: no!

. Turner Broadcasting CEO Jaime Kellner . Turner Broadcasting CEO Jaime Kellner . . . said it best: . . . said it best: “Your contract with the “Your contract with the network when you get the show is you’re network when you get the show is you’re going to watch the spots. Any time you going to watch the spots. Any time you skip a commercial, you’re actually stealing skip a commercial, you’re actually stealing the programming.”the programming.”

——Brian EvankovichBrian Evankovich

Magic City Morning StarMagic City Morning Star

Support

TiVO exampleTiVO example

TiVO allows viewers to skip commercialsTiVO allows viewers to skip commercials..

Consumer: Consumer: Heaven!!!!Heaven!!!!

TV exec: TV exec: I’ll sue!I’ll sue!

Support

Case Study: Hate Speech CodesCase Study: Hate Speech Codes

A Pennsylvania school district A Pennsylvania school district banned ''unwelcome verbal, written banned ''unwelcome verbal, written or physical conduct which offends, or physical conduct which offends, denigrates or belittles an denigrates or belittles an individual.''individual.''

Support

Case Study: Hate Speech CodesCase Study: Hate Speech Codes

A Pennsylvania school district A Pennsylvania school district banned ''unwelcome verbal, written banned ''unwelcome verbal, written or physical conduct which offends, or physical conduct which offends, denigrates or belittles an individual.’denigrates or belittles an individual.’

PROS? PROS? CONS?CONS?

Support

What to avoidWhat to avoid

““Hate speech codes can prohibit the expression Hate speech codes can prohibit the expression of hate speech but they can not change the of hate speech but they can not change the attitudes that lead to that expression. The effect attitudes that lead to that expression. The effect is to send hate underground where it is less is to send hate underground where it is less likely to be challengedlikely to be challenged”” (Smethers, 1993, p 19). (Smethers, 1993, p 19). ““In every case where hate speech codes have In every case where hate speech codes have been challenged, the courts have criticized the been challenged, the courts have criticized the text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been found Hate speech codes have been found consistently unconstitutional by the courtsconsistently unconstitutional by the courts”” (Black, 1994, p. 13).(Black, 1994, p. 13).

Support

Back-to-back quotations Back-to-back quotations signal signal lazy writinglazy writing

Use CSW for argument body ¶Use CSW for argument body ¶

Claim:Claim: A hate speech code should not be A hate speech code should not be adopted because it would not reduce hate.adopted because it would not reduce hate.

Huh?

Support: Support: Smether (1993) argues that Smether (1993) argues that stopping people from saying hateful things stopping people from saying hateful things does nothing to change hateful attitudes.does nothing to change hateful attitudes.

Warrant:Warrant: Paradoxically, hate speech Paradoxically, hate speechcodes can actually strengthen prejudice codes can actually strengthen prejudice by driving it underground where it escapes challengeby driving it underground where it escapes challenge..

Which means…?

Support

Find the CSWFind the CSW

A hate speech code should not be adopted at A hate speech code should not be adopted at MU because it will be struck down by the court MU because it will be struck down by the court system. system. “In every case where hate speech “In every case where hate speech codes have been challenged, the courts have codes have been challenged, the courts have criticized the text of the codes for being vague criticized the text of the codes for being vague and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been and overbroad. Hate speech codes have been found consistently unconstitutional by the courts” found consistently unconstitutional by the courts” (Black, 1994, p. 13). (Black, 1994, p. 13). Adopting a hate speech Adopting a hate speech code that will be thrown out of court is a waste of code that will be thrown out of court is a waste of time and money.time and money.

Support

C

S

W

Supply the C and WSupply the C and W

Claim: Claim:

Supporting Material: Supporting Material: The music industry slapped The music industry slapped [Princeton student Daniel Peng] with a lawsuit seeking [Princeton student Daniel Peng] with a lawsuit seeking potentially billions of dollars in damages for distributing potentially billions of dollars in damages for distributing copyrighted works. His site was shut down and his life copyrighted works. His site was shut down and his life thrown into chaos.thrown into chaos.

Warrant:Warrant:

Supply the C and WSupply the C and W

Claim: Claim: Commercials are the best/worst Commercials are the best/worst entertainment on TV.entertainment on TV.

Supporting Material:Supporting Material:

Warrant:Warrant:

Support

Concede and CounterargueConcede and Counterargue

Establish common ground.Establish common ground. Show awareness of both sides.Show awareness of both sides. Acknowledge and counter the strongest Acknowledge and counter the strongest

objection to your arguments.objection to your arguments.



Why establish common ground?Why establish common ground?

CCounterounter


Why establish common ground?Why establish common ground? Enhance credibilityEnhance credibility Make it easier for readers to listenMake it easier for readers to listen

by acknowledging their point of viewby acknowledging their point of view Remind readers that they share values Remind readers that they share values

with the writerwith the writer

CCounterounter

Counterargument in ActionCounterargument in Action

Son:Son: I don’t need a helmet when skateboarding.I don’t need a helmet when skateboarding.PU:PU: OK, if you write a paper proving it’s safe.OK, if you write a paper proving it’s safe.

CCounterounter

Evidence favors the Parental Unit:Evidence favors the Parental Unit: 50,000 skateboarders visit ER each year50,000 skateboarders visit ER each year 1,500 have serious, even fatal head injuries1,500 have serious, even fatal head injuries Most seriously injured weren’t wearing helmetsMost seriously injured weren’t wearing helmets

Summarize, then CounterSummarize, then Counter

Glenn Reynolds argues that a heavily Glenn Reynolds argues that a heavily armed citizenry benefits society. armed citizenry benefits society.

This claim rests on very fragile This claim rests on very fragile evidenceevidence, as Prof. Philip J. Cook…, as Prof. Philip J. Cook…and I demonstrated in a 2003 study.and I demonstrated in a 2003 study.

——Jens LudwigJens Ludwigprofessor of public policy, Georgetown University,professor of public policy, Georgetown University,

in Letter to the Editor, in Letter to the Editor, NY TimesNY Times

Counter

Yes, but…Here’s whyYes, but…Here’s why

Glenn Reynolds argues that a heavily Glenn Reynolds argues that a heavily armed citizenry benefits society. armed citizenry benefits society.

The evidence [he] cites is selectiveThe evidence [he] cites is selective….….[He] doesn’t mention the only well-[He] doesn’t mention the only well-controlled study linking firearm prevalence controlled study linking firearm prevalence to burglary, which found that counties with to burglary, which found that counties with higher rates of household gun ownership higher rates of household gun ownership have higher, not lower, burglary rates.have higher, not lower, burglary rates.

——Matthew MillerMatthew Millerdeputy director, Harvard Injury Control Research Centerdeputy director, Harvard Injury Control Research Center

Counter

To rebut or refute:To rebut or refute:

Prove that opponents’ logic is faultyProve that opponents’ logic is faulty Show that their evidence doesn’t Show that their evidence doesn’t

really prove the claimreally prove the claim Attack the warrantAttack the warrant

CCounterounter

To refute:To refute:

It has been arguedIt has been argued that thatchildren who attend daycare at an children who attend daycare at an early age miss out on important early early age miss out on important early learning that occurs in parent-child learning that occurs in parent-child interactions. interactions. In reality….In reality….

Counter


Many people believeMany people believe……The truth isThe truth is…… Some maintain thatSome maintain that……The evidence The evidence

does not support this claim….does not support this claim….

Counter


““Dr. Evans, who Dr. Evans, who claimedclaimed to be a to be a ‘Fellow of the American College of ‘Fellow of the American College of Emergency Physicians’ and a Emergency Physicians’ and a member of the AMA, has not been a member of the AMA, has not been a Fellow of ACEP since 1984. Fellow of ACEP since 1984. His last His last year of membership in AMA was in year of membership in AMA was in 1990—10 years before his 1990—10 years before his testimonytestimony.”.”

Counter


A 2002 study in the A 2002 study in the American Journal American Journal of Clinical Nutritionof Clinical Nutrition found that found that chocolate had health benefits, like chocolate had health benefits, like antioxidants and flavinoids.antioxidants and flavinoids.

The study had only 23 subjects.The study had only 23 subjects. Funding came from the American Funding came from the American

Cocoa Research Institute.Cocoa Research Institute.

Counter


Fruits are a better source of Fruits are a better source of antioxidants.antioxidants.

““Unfortunately for chocolate lovers, Unfortunately for chocolate lovers, chocolate’s high content of stearic chocolate’s high content of stearic acid puts it in the same category of acid puts it in the same category of risk of coronary disease as milk and risk of coronary disease as milk and butter.”butter.”

““Chocolate is a terrific food, but it Chocolate is a terrific food, but it isn’t a health food.” isn’t a health food.” —Dr. Jay —Dr. Jay CohenCohen

Counter

Concede what you can’t rebutConcede what you can’t rebut

A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. W. Wirtz found that, among those W. Wirtz found that, among those students who worked at least 25 students who worked at least 25 hours per week while in school, their hours per week while in school, their unemployment rate four years later unemployment rate four years later was was halfhalf that of those who did not that of those who did not work. work.

Counter


A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. W. A 1980 study by A. V. Harrell and P. W. Wirtz found that, among those students Wirtz found that, among those students who worked at least 25 hours per week who worked at least 25 hours per week while in school, their unemployment rate while in school, their unemployment rate four years later was half that of those who four years later was half that of those who did not work. did not work. This is an impressive This is an impressive statistic.statistic. It must be seen, though, It must be seen, though, together with the findingtogether with the finding that many . . . that many . . . drop out and are gobbled up in the world drop out and are gobbled up in the world of low-skill jobs.of low-skill jobs. (see St. Martin’s Guide, p. 360, ¶ 10)(see St. Martin’s Guide, p. 360, ¶ 10)

Counter


Ernest Evans (2005) concedes that “terroristic violence is so horrible that people tend to instinctively believe that terrorists are both sociopathic and irrational” (p. 1). However, he believes that most terrorists are rational people with tactical goals.

Counter

Why counterargue?Why counterargue?

““Conceding that an opposing point is Conceding that an opposing point is valid and then building upon it to valid and then building upon it to further one's own claim allows a further one's own claim allows a writer to make the audience feel writer to make the audience feel appreciated without giving up her or appreciated without giving up her or his own position.”his own position.”

Terms in a Toulmin Argumenthttp://www.winthrop.edu/wcenter/wcenter/toulmin.htm

Counter

Where do I counterargue?Where do I counterargue?

You may choose toYou may choose to build each of your main points as a build each of your main points as a

contrast to oppositional claims.contrast to oppositional claims. offer a counterargument after you have offer a counterargument after you have

articulated your main claims.articulated your main claims.Organizing Your Argument

Purdue University Writing Lab


Counter Strategy 1Counter Strategy 1

IntroductionCON PRO—first argument

CONPRO—second argument

CONPRO—third argumentConclusion

Counter

Counter Strategy 1—ExampleCounter Strategy 1—Example

Thesis: Snowmobiles should be banned in Yellowstone National Park.

CON It may be hard to imagine that 1,100 snowmobiles a day could cause an air pollution problem in a park the size of Connecticut, but they can.

PRO—The air pollution at park entrances has already become so bad that . . . park rangers have been forced to wear respirators.

CCounterounter

Counter Strategy 2Counter Strategy 2

PRO: Snowmobiles pollute.PRO: Snowmobiles are noisy.PRO: Snowmobiles are costly to

police and park funds are limited.

CON: Opponents of a ban say. . . but …

Counter

Counter Strategy 2—ExampleCounter Strategy 2—Example

PRO—pollutionPRO—pollutionPRO—noise banPRO—noise banPRO—costPRO—costCON—Opponents of a ban argue that a central CON—Opponents of a ban argue that a central mission of the park is to provide access [to all, mission of the park is to provide access [to all, not just the physically fit]. not just the physically fit]. Admittedly,Admittedly, winter winter access is important, access is important, but but ordinary people can ordinary people can enjoy the park by means other than enjoy the park by means other than snowmobiles….snowmobiles….

CCounterounter

Words for counterargumentsWords for counterarguments

Language to show you’re aware of opposing Language to show you’re aware of opposing opinionsopinions

http://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/arguewhttp://www.eslplanet.com/teachertools/argueweb/2bothsds.htm - langsumeb/2bothsds.htm - langsum

Model papers:Model papers: http://word-crafter.net/CompII/argument.htmlhttp://word-crafter.net/CompII/argument.html

Counter

Organizing an ArgumentOrganizing an Argument

Weakest to Weakest to strongeststrongest OR OR StrongestStrongest to weakest to weakest


Organizing an ArgumentOrganizing an Argument

Weakest to Weakest to strongeststrongest(if you expect audience to agree)(if you expect audience to agree)

Strongest Strongest to weakestto weakest(if you have to convince audience)(if you have to convince audience)

Counter

Adding CounterargumentsAdding Counterarguments

Con; Pro; Pro; ProCon; Pro; Pro; Pro Pro; Pro; Pro; ConPro; Pro; Pro; Con Con—Pro; Con—Pro; Con—ProCon—Pro; Con—Pro; Con—Pro

Counter

Adding Other SectionsAdding Other Sections

IntroductionIntroduction(Background)(Background)BodyBody ConCon; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; Pro; ConCon ConCon—Pro; —Pro; ConCon—Pro; —Pro; ConCon—Pro—Pro(Solution; predictions about future….(Solution; predictions about future….))ConclusionConclusion

Counter

Specialized StructuresSpecialized Structures The SetUp/Reject ModelThe SetUp/Reject Model

http://atc.bentley.edu/courses/resources/lweinstein/24-1setupl.htm

The Comparison ModelThe Comparison Modelhttp://atc.bentley.edu/courses/resources/lweinstein/24-1compare.htm

Hybrids (combinations)Hybrids (combinations)http://atc.bentley.edu/courses/resources/lweinstein/24-1hybrids.htm

Counter

Argument ChecklistArgument Checklist

• IntroductionIntroduction• Is my thesis arguable?Is my thesis arguable?• Have I given readers a reason to care?Have I given readers a reason to care?

• BodyBody• Have I used Claim-Support-Warrant? Have I used Claim-Support-Warrant? • Does my evidence really support my argument?Does my evidence really support my argument?• Do I acknowledge other views and counterargue?Do I acknowledge other views and counterargue?

• ConclusionConclusion• Have I summarized my position and why it matters?Have I summarized my position and why it matters?

Summary


Further ResourcesFurther Resources

• Chapter 11 (thesis statement & blueprint)Chapter 11 (thesis statement & blueprint)• Chapter 23 (supporting evidence)Chapter 23 (supporting evidence)• infotrac.thomsonlearning.com/

infowrite/critical.html (fallacies)• bedfordstmartins.com/

online/cite6.html (integrating quotations)

• www.word-crafter.net/CompIIwww.word-crafter.net/CompII (argument) (argument)

Summary

Documents

Writing Arguments. Elements of Argument Thesis Thesis Thesis Body Body Body Counterargument Counterargument Counterargument Organizing Organizing Organizing