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Clauses and Punctuation

Turkey Alzahrani

KU Writing Center

Simple Sentences

•Example: Today is Wednesday.oNothing complex so far!

Clauses

• Clause: a group of words that contain a subject and a predicate.

• Clauses come in two flavors:

oMain clause: stand alone and makes sense by itself

o Subordinate clause (dependent clause): relies on the presence of a main clause.▪ Example: I know the restaurant that you are thinking of.

Compound Sentences

• Compound sentences: Link two main clauses together

• The Main clauses:

o Should be related

oHave equal value

▪ Example: Lily brought a casserole, John made a cheese ball, and I made the hot wings.

Types of connector for compound sentences

• ConjunctionsoConnect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences

o Show the relationships between the words and word groups they connect.

oThree types:▪ Coordinate

▪ Subordinate

▪ Correlative- special class!

• Conjunctive adverbsoCalled connectors

oNeither- exactly- coordinate conjunctions nor- exactly-standard adverbs, but perform similar functions

Coordinate Conjunctions

• Connect elements of equal importance

• Two types:

oConjunctive conjunctions▪ bring elements together; they have additive function

▪ We commonly use the conjunction and

▪ Example: The frog sings and dances.

oDiscojunctive conjunctions:

▪ Tie words and groups of words together; they imply an opposition or separation

▪ We commonly use the conjunctions but, or, nor, yet

▪ Example: They will stay, or they will go.

Subordinate Conjunctions (1)

• Connect elements of different importance

oOne element: main clause

o Second element: subordinate or dependent clause

• The word subordinate indicates a lower rank

• Common familiar subordinate conjunctions: after, before although, as, as if, as though, because, even if, even though, except, for, if, lest, provided, save, since, than, that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while

Subordinate Conjunctions (2)

• Subordinate clauses create a relationship between the main and subordinate clauses, that may carry one of the following meanings:

o Place: where & wherever

▪ Example 1: where there is smoke, there is fire.

▪ Example 2: I will go wherever you ask me to go.

o Time: after, before, since, until, when, whenever, & while

▪ Example 1: It has been years since I saw you last.

▪ Example 2: I saw your father while I was waiting for you

o Manner: as & as if

▪ Example 1: You look as me as if I were from another planet

▪ Example 2: She treats me as an equal peer.

Subordinate Conjunctions (3)

o Reason: as, because, in order that, since, so that, & that

o Example 1: I came because I want to see you.

o Example 2: I stopped running so that my knee could heal.

o Possibility or Conditionality: although, if, even if, provided, though, & unless

o Example 1: If you go, I will go too.

o Example 2: Sammy will not go to bed unless we read her a story.

o Comparison: as & than

o Example 1: I like summer more than I like winter.

o Example 2: She does not want to do anything else than to play pinball.

Correlative Conjunctions

• Come in pairs

• Some correlative conjunctions can function as coordinate while others function as subordinate

• Common correlative conjunctions: as-as, as-so, both-and, either-or, if-then, neither-or, not-but, not only-but also, not so much-as, whether-oro Example 1: NeitherTom nor Harry knows where the report went.

o Example 2: Both Jack and Jill went up the hill.

o Example 3: Either the cat goes or I go.

o Example 4: If you do had not called, then I would never have heard about the accident.

o Example 5: Whether you want to finish your homework or not is not my concern.

o Example 6: As you wish, so do I.

o Example 7: Not only am I a fisherman, but also I am a fabulous chef.

o Example 8: The washer never gets my clothes as clean as I would like.

Conjunctive Adverbs (1)

• Called connectors.

• Neither- exactly- coordinate conjunctions nor- exactly-standard adverbs, but perform similar functions.

• Common conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, afterward, again, also, anyhow, as a result, at last, at the same time, besides, consequently, earlier, eventually, finally, for example, for instance, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, in any case, indeed, in fact, in like manner, in short, instead, in the meantime, later, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, namely, nevertheless, next, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, perhaps, so, still, subsequently, that is, then, therefore, thus

Conjunctive Adverbs (2)

• Indicate different meanings:o Time: afterward, earlier, eventually, & later

▪ Example: Grandma took the kids to the zoo. Afterward, they stopped for ice cream.

o Addition: also, for example, furthermore, & moreover▪ Example: Reading is a good way to learn new vocabulary words; furthermore, it can

improve your ability to spell words correctly.

o Cause: as a result, consequently, hence, & therefore

▪ Example: The bank’s computers failed; hence, millions of dollars were lost.

o Manner: anyhow, in like manner, in short, & likewise▪ Example: The owner of the restaurant is likewise the owner of the deli next door

o Contrast: however, in fact, on the contrary, & on the other hand▪ Example: Tom wanted to buy the leather jacket; however, his empty wallet persuaded

him not to.

o Example: for instance & for example

▪ Example: For instance, you may manufacture widgets from lightweight plastic.

Compound Sentence Woes (1)

• The comma splice: occurs when the writer links, splices, main clauses together by using only commas

o Incorrect Example: The safe is empty, the butler is missing.

o How can we correct this sentence?

o Four ways:

▪ Adding a coordinate conjunction after the comma

❑ Example: The safe is empty, and the butler is missing.

▪ Replacing the comma with a semicolon

❑ Example: The safe is empty; the butler is missing.

▪ Replacing the comma with a coordinate conjunction

❑ Example: The safe is empty and the butler is missing.

▪ Turning the compound sentence into two separate sentences

❑ Example: The safe is empty. The butler is missing.

Compound Sentence Woes (2)

• The run-on sentence: occurs when the writer strings main clauses together without placing any punctuation or coordinate conjunctions between them.o Incorrect Example: We knew which car we wanted to buy we went to the dealer to buy it.

o How can we correct this sentence?

o Four ways:

▪ Adding a coordinate conjunction and comma between the clauses

❑ Example: We knew which car we wanted to buy, and we went to the dealer to buy it.

▪ Replacing the comma and the coordinate conjunction with a semicolon

❑ Example: We knew which car we wanted to buy; we went to the dealer to buy it.

▪ Replacing the comma with a coordinate conjunction

❑ Example: We knew which car we wanted to buy and we went to the dealer to buy it.

▪ Turning the compound sentence into two separate sentences

❑ Example: We knew which car we wanted to buy. We went to the dealer to buy it.

Complex Sentences

• A main clause joined by a subordinate clause using a connecting wordo Example 1: You will hear the roar of the ocean if you are very quiet.

o Example 2: The man who gave you that information is unreliable.

• In complex sentences, there are three types of subordinate clauses:o Relative

o Adverbial

o Nominal

Relative Clauses

• Function as standard adjectives do

• Modify nouns, pronouns, or other nominals

• Introduced byoReal relative pronouns

oRelative adverbs

oRelative determiners

Relative Clauses with Real Relative Pronouns

• A relative pronoun is multifaceted word

• Introduces a relative clause and joins that clause to a main clause, but stands for a noun, as any pronoun would

• The real relative pronouns: Who, Which, & That

o Example 1: I covet the dress that she wore to the wedding.

o Example 2: the dinosaur exhibit, which just opened Monday, is spectacular.

Who vs. Whom

• Who: nominative case usageo Example: Only people who know computers will succeed in

the modern world.

• Whom: objective case usageo Example: This is the man for whom the police have been

looking.

That vs. Which

• Thato Used in restrictive subordinate clauses

o Restrictive information cannot be removed given its significant essentiality to the meaning of the sentence

▪ Example: The opera that we saw last night was quite dull.

• Whicho Used in nonrestrictive subordinate clauses

o Nonrestrictive information can be removed given its nonsignificant essentiality to the meaning of the sentence

▪ Example: The opera, which we saw last night, was quite dull.

Relative Clauses with Relative Adverbs

• Introduce a relative clause and joins that clause to a main clause, but function as adverbials in those relative clauses given they only describe verbs

• The relative adverbs: When, Why, & Whereo Example 1: The workers chose a day when I will be vacationing on the

French Riviera.

o Example 2: Uncle Murray discovered the hanger where the UFOs were hidden.

o Example 3: Helga knows the reason why Jimmy Hoffa’s body was never found.

Relative Clauses with Relative determiners

• Relative determiners: modify the nouns that follow them in the relative clauses

• The relative determiners: Whose & Which

o Example 1: That is the family whose dog saved our little girl.

o Example 2: Your reports are due by midnight at which time I am going to bed.

• Note. The relative determiner Which is always preceded by a proposition

Note ... Zero Relative Pronouns

• We can correctly, on some occasions, omit the relative pronoun from relative clauses

• The gap left by the omitted pronoun is called: zero relative pronoun

o Example 1: The car (that) we saw yesterday was too expensive.

o Example 2: The people (whom) we know are not responsible.

Adverbial Clauses (1)

• Modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs

• Always Introduced by subordinate conjunctions: after, before although, as, as if, as though, because, even if, even though, except, for, if, lest, provided, save, since, than, that, though, till, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while

• Convey the meanings that standard adverbs and adverbials do in addition to: place or location, time, manner, reason, degree or comparison, possibility or conditionality

Adverbial Clauses (2)

• Place of Location: Where, Wherevero Example: We can eat wherever you want to eat.

• Time: After, before, since, until, when, whenever, while, etc.o Example: I watched the street while my partner planted the surveillance devices.

• Manner: as, as if, etc.o Example: She treated me as if I did not exist.

• Reason: as, because, in order to, since, so that, that, etc.o Example: The sheriff skipped town because he had to embezzled one million

dollars.

Adverbial Clauses (3)

• Degree or Comparison: as, than, etc.

o Example: My relatives arrived earlier than they usually do.

• Possibility or Conditionality: although, if, even if, provided, though, unless, etc.

o Example: She will not supply the documents unless she is adequately reimbursed.

• Adverbial clauses modifying adjectives and adverbs

o Example1: This computer is faster than that one is.

o Example 2: The plan landed later than we expected it to land.

Nominal Clauses (1)

• Do not play a modifying role

• Have a nominal role, filling almost any spot that a standard noun would

• Critical note: The nominal clause, a subordinate clause, completes the main clause (or group of words), meaning the main clause itself is grammatically incomplete without the subordinate clause. Modern grammarians use the term “host clause” to describe the group of words that the nominal clause completes

Using Nominal Clauses

• Subjects of sentences

o Example: That day I have not heard the news astounds me.

• Subject complements

o Example: The latest news is that the workers are still on strike.

• Delayed subjectso Example: It is clear that they do not enjoy lutefisk.

• Appositives

o Example: The notion that we will never see each other again is unbearable.

Note ... The Zero That in Nominal Clauses

• When the subordinate conjunction that introduces a nominal clause that serves as a direct object in the sentence, we can omit the connection word from the nominal clause.

• This case is called Zero That-Clauses.

o Example: I knew that everything would turn out for the best.

o Same example with omitting that: I knew everything would turn out for the best.

Compound-Complex Sentences

• One or more of the main clauses is connected to a subordinate clause

o Example: The winner may receive the trophy, but everyone who

finishes the race is a champion.

Punctuation ... Brief History

• Punctuation is expressively lucid, derived as it is from the Latin punctus, meaning “a point”.

• The first use of punctuation appears on the Moonbite Stone, dating from 850 B.C., on which each word is separated from the others by a vertical line.

The Period

• At the end of the sentence

o Example: Sara is a good student.

• Imperative and declarative sentences

o Example 1: Pass the salt.

o Example 2: The postman always rings twice.

• Requests and questions

o Example 1: Would you please turn your stereo down.

o Example 2: May I make a suggestion.

• Abbreviations

o Examples: A.D., M.A., Feb., Mrs.

• Ellipses: A series of periods indicating missing words in a quote

o Example: Unless we can surmount the crisis … all the plans for the rebuilding etc.

The Comma (1)

• Adverbial clauses: two cases

o Required: if the sentence starts with an adverbial clause

▪ Example: Until we your final paper,we cannot make a decision.

o Optional: if the sentence ends with a adverbial clause

▪ Example: We cannot make a decision until we have your final paper.

• Verbals

o After a participle phrase, a simple infinitive, or an infinitive phrase

▪ Example: To fly, one needs a strong pair of wings.

▪ Example 2: Seeing her again, I felt my heart go pitter-patter.

o Note. No comma after an infinitive that functions as the subject of the sentence

▪ Example: To sail the high seas was a childhood fantasy of mine.

The Comma (2)

• Propositional phrases: optional after a proposal phrase the begins a sentenceo Example: After the concert, we stopped for a cup of coffee.

o Example without comma: After the concert we stopped for a cup of coffee.

• Conjunctive adverbs: two cases

o If conjunctive adverb begins the sentence, place a single comma after it.▪ Example: Consequently, the freighter sank just three miles from its home port.

o If conjunctive adverb appears amidst the other words in the sentence, place a comma before and after it▪ Example: Sherman said, however, that he could not let these mistakes go

unreported.

The Comma (3)

• Negative and affirmative adverbs: place comma after a negative or affirmative adverb (Yes or No)o Example: Yes, that is Sara Griffin

• Nouns in direct addresso Example: Mr. Gernnan, assume the push-up position.

• Interjections: comma after an interjections at the beginning of a sentenceo Example: Well, that was certainly an usual movie.

• Appositives

o Place commas before and after appositives in the midst of the words in a sentence

▪ Example: Jennifer, the consummate hostess, put together another staggering dinner party.

o If an appositive ends the sentence, a comma need only precede it

▪ Example: I met my best friend, Susan.

The Comma (4)

• Three of more items in a series: place commas to separate the items in a series of three or more words, phrases, or clauseso Example: I need you to buy olive oil, sun dried tomatoes, and paprika for me.

• Adjectives

o Place a comma between two adjectives that describe the same noun when no coordinate conjunction is present

▪ Example: A damp, gray day greeted us this morning.

o Do not place a comma between two adjectives that modify the same noun when the first adjective modifies the entire idea created by the second adjective and the noun modified.

▪ Example: The brave young man rode into battle without fear.

• Coordinate conjunctions

o Place a comma before a coordinate conjunction that separates two main clauses of a compound sentence

▪ Example: I saw the game, but I do not remember the final score.

o Do not place a comma before a coordinate conjunction that connects two subordinate clauses

▪ Example: Because time is short and because the matter is so urgent, we must act now.

The Comma (5)

• To indicate omissions: place a comma to indicate the omission of a word

o Example: Frank is a smart man, and Hank, a clever man.

o In the same example: Frank is a smart man, and Hank is a clever man (is was omitted).

• To set off phrases of contrast: place a comma to set off a phrase of contrast at the end of a sentence

o Example: Jeff told her to chop the onion, not dice it.

• To set off interrogative clauses: place a comma to separate a declarative clause from an interrogative clause that follows it

o Example: She has beautiful eyes, does not she?

• With quotes materials: Place a comma to set off the quote from the main body of the sentence

o Example: Terry said, “Bring me the flashlight.”

The Comma (6)

• Salutations: place a comma after the salutation in an informal letter and after the complimentary close in an informal or formal letter

o Example 1: Dear Wendy,

Thank you so much ….

o Example 2: Your friend,

Stephen

• Dates: Place a comma between the day and the year in a date

o Example: January 8, 1889

• Notes about dates

• Place a comma after a date when it is used as object of proposition

o Example: On November 4, 1978, a miracle occurred.

• Do not place comma after a date when it is used as subject of sentence

o Example: March 17, 1998 is her birthday.

The Comma (7)

• Addresses and Locations: place a comma between the elements of an address or geographic locationso Example: His address is Vern Nutley, 57 Hawthorne Way, Rockford, IL 66114.

o Example: Bentley visited Greenwich, CT, over the break.

• Titles: place a comma to separate a name from titles that may followo Example: John Addison, Ph.D., M.D., has agreed to consult on the research project.

• Numbers: place commas to separate sets of three digits in numbers one thousand and greatero Example: 1, 994

The Comma (8)

• Names: place a comma after the last name of a list where the first and last names have been invertedo Example: Frampton, Peter

• To eliminate ambiguity: place a commas in sentences when the placement eliminates ambiguityo Example: Before John, Lou was our accountant.

• Nonrestrictive and restrictive information

• Nonrestrictive: place comma to set off nonrestrictive information

o Example: My only sister, Bernie, is coming for a visit next week.

• Restrictive: do not place comma to set off nonrestrictive information

o Example: My brother Timmy graduated at the top of his class.

The semicolon

• Indicates a stronger pause

• Two cases:

o Compound sentence: separating closely related two main clauses when no coordinate conjunction is used

▪ Example: I woke up; I got out of bed.

o Items in a series: separating items in a series when one or more of the items contain internal punctuation

▪ Example: The guest list includes Bill, my cousin; Susan, my best friend; and Arnold, my annoying brother.

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