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COLOR IN VISUAL BRANDING Sponsored By
COLORIN VISUAL BRANDING:A Study of Affects and Associations
of Color-Based AdvertisingByCHERODIE [email protected] | @ccayers
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COLOR IN VISUAL BRANDING2
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COLOR IN VISUAL BRANDING
ABSTRACT
Visual communications importance reects within the elds of mass
communication, marketing, graphic design, and psychology. In the realm
of advertising, visuals can properly convey an emotion, feeling, or message
to an audience. This study discusses how color-based advertising affects
perception through tone and associations related to particular colors. Two
factors are analyzed: the association and the perception of a product based
on color. Through the examination of 90 participants divided into 3 groups
(red, blue, gray), individuals opinions of the 15-second commercials tone
were assessed. Ultimately, the results show that despite an audiences gen-
eral perception of an advertisement, individual descriptions and associa-tions may vary based solely on the change of color.
INTRODUCTION
Pick a color, any color. Why did you choose that color? Is it the shirt you are
wearing? Does it convey your current feeling? Is it simply your favorite
color? What does that color really mean? One of those questions may take just a
bit longer than the rest. Color theory is the meaning and perception of color, and
its not a new concept. In fact, researchers have been searching for an universal
answer to that very question for centuries.
In 1810, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe wrote of the nature of color and its
perception by humans in the book entitled Theory of Colours. Even though
Goethe was a poet and writer, he conceptualized colors meaning beyond what
the eye simply saw. As he suggested, color theory continues to be a remarkablephenomena that demands our attention even today. In order that this attention
be continued, it is necessary that we should feel some interest in exercising it, and
thus by degrees we become better acquainted with the object of our curiosity. 1
Granted, the advertisers of today are not so much interested in the actual
color as much as how to use it effectively in order to persuade an audience.
Just like color itself, visual communication encompasses a seemingly
innite scale of shades and hues while inuencing moods and attitudes.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT 3
INTRODUCTION 3
COLOR IN THEORY 4
COLOR IN STRATEGY 5
COLOR IN QUESTION 6
COLOR IN METHOD 7
COLOR IN REVIEW 9
DISCUSSION 10
APPENDIX 12
Date Published: May 5, 2014
MORE ON ADAGE.COM
View theColor in Visual Branding
Instagram style videos
in black & white, blue
and red online at
creativity-online.com/redvsblue
Colors, like features, follow thechanges of the emotions.
-Pablo Picasso
1. Teory of Colours by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
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However, its quite interesting to consider just how effective a message is
based solely on color.
Red means stop. Green means go. Yellow means either slow
down or speed up before you get a ticket, depending on who youre
asking, of course. Colors suggest and instill certain emotions and reactions
within people. Through studies on color theory, we know to use red for dan-
ger, blue for safety, and yellow for caution. However, thats only if were
only considering color in the context of trafc.
In advertising, colors can mean multiple things. When thinking of the
color blue, possible emotions or feelings can include: peace, tranquility
and safety, but it can also mean sadness, faith or heaven, and can suppress
an appetite. Red can ignite feelings of anger, danger, or urgency, but it can
also be associated with passion, willpower, and determination. There sim-ply is no one-word denition for a color.
If colors meaning is not so black and white, is it possible to trick an
audience into connecting something is not as it seems, or would the effect
of color be too strong? This articles aim is to research peoples attitudes
when colors are placed in a similar context.
COLOR IN THEORY
Color perception arouses the neural portion of the optical pathway to thehypothalamic brain region into the pineal and pituitary glands, which contro
the endocrine system.2The formation of color associations stem from models of
memory and psychological functioning.7Phrased simply, our brains tell us wha
to think about color.
The embodied meaning of an aesthetic stimulus is independent of context
Similarly, biological responses to color are not learned, but already present from
birth.2On the other hand, referential meaning refers to learned color associations
through an individuals recollection of prior, absorbed inferences about that
color. These associations come from particular encounters with colors with
meaningful messages throughout ones lifetime.2
Just about every race, culture, and religion has a signicant discernment and
application of color. Everyone has their own perception and association of color
through individual memories and occurrences. Although cultural inuences
can also contribute to many learned color associations, color meanings are also
shared across cultural lines.2
CHARTS
DEMOGRAPHICS 9
OVERALL ASSOCIATIONS 10
TOP ASSOCIATIONS 11
OVERALL PERCEPTIONS 11
PECEPTION BY GROUP 12
ASSOCIATION BY GROUP 13
ASSOCIATION 14ONE-WAY ANOVA
ASSOCIATION 15POST HOC
PERCEPTION 17DESCRIPTIVES
PERCEPTION 17ONE-WAY ANOVA
2. Te Marketers Prismatic Palette: A Review of Color Research and Future Directions by Labrecque L., Patrick, V., & Milne (2013)3. Effects of Color as an Executional Cute in Advertising: Teyre in the Shade by Gorn, G., Chattopadhyay, A., Yi ., & Dahl D. (1997
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COLOR IN STRATEGY
Color theory has been a focus within the realmsof art and psychology for way longer than in the
marketing and advertising world. Little academic
research has examined color theorys role in marketing.3
Additionally, previous color theory research leaves us
with several unanswered and questions and concerns.2
Studies are often done on broad categories (i.e. warm
versus cool) rather than specic hues, neglecting the
differences between cue triggers.2
Color can affect to the point of arousal including
both pleasure and tension, but this stimulation is not
necessary a good thing. Colors within mainstream
advertising have been known to have a negative effect
on consumers. For example, think about McDonalds
straying from a headache inducing red and yellow
interior design to more relaxing, neutral hues.3
Through the effective use of color, a brand can
form a strong visual identity, adding to its overall
recognition and desired image, while stimulating and
maintaining a relationship with an audience.6
Granted,strong brand identities are not formed over night. Over
the decades, Coca-Cola is known as classically red;
Pepsi is classically blue.
According to The Marketers Prismatic Palette:
A Review of Color Research and Future Directions,
color research in advertising focuses on two points:
(1) the importance of color versus black and white
advertising and (2) the effect of specic colors in
inuencing an audiences mood and evaluation.2
However, the goal of an advertiser is to choose
colors that amplify attention for a particular product
or service. Not only should the selected colors lure
an audience, but they should also appropriately
relate to the brand.3 A hue itself can trigger specic
emotional associations, and eventually and ultimately,
those associations can become linked with a brand or
product.6
However, adding more colors to attempt to
captivate an audience can have the opposite effect. As
additional colors are added, the brands message can
become distracting and even annoying to a consumer
A more simplistic, black and white ad can freely allow
enhanced processing.4
On the other hand, colors are more likely to help
communicate the mood or tone of an ad, enhancing a
brands attributes more so than black and white ads.4
A single cue (color) can be processed centrally or
peripherally depending on a consumers processing
ability and motivation, implying that color can be
effective for further cognitive elaboration, whichcould ultimately lead to an inuence strong enough to
persuade the support of that brand.4
Petty and Caccioppos Elaboration Likelihood
Model (ELM) implies that an individuals motivation
and ability can moderate the effect of color in an
advertisement.4The Elaboration Likelihood Model is a
dual process theory of persuasion of how attitudes are
formulated and persuaded.
Factors including involvement, motivation, and
relevance inuence information processing. The modelillustrates a communication process through two
possible routes, either the central route or periphera
route, as an outlet for receiving, comprehending, and
analyzing information.5
ELM proposes that under low elabo-
ration likelihood, source factors serve
as simple acceptance or rejection
cues, under moderate elaboration
likelihood source factors guide the
extent of thinking; and under high
elaboration likelihood source factors
are unimportant as cues or general
motivators of thought
-Petty & Cacioppio, 1984
4. Understanding the Effects of Color: How the Correspondence between Available and Required Resources Affects Attitudes by Meyers-Levy J., & Peracchio L. (19955. Source Factors and the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion by Petty, R.E., & Cacioppo, J.., (1984
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Considering ELM, color can communicate
information about a brand through its visual impact.
The impact of color depends on its role in cognitively
demanding central processing, generally making it
more effective than black and white since it draws
more attention, stimulating a person to the point of
attentive arousal.4
As color-based ads repeat on our televisions and
computers, and in our newspapers and magazines,
certain meanings of that product are created and related
to that color. The initiation of color associations,
and their inuence on affect and behavior, may
occur without an individuals conscious decision orawareness to do so.6
This associative learning of visual information
develops in early enough stages to persuade quick
decision making.8 Associative learning also indicates
and inuences brand perception, explaining why
certain products become associated with certain
colors.6 Therefore, colors effectiveness can either
make or break an ad.
COLOR IN QUESTION
The review of literature presented an overview of
the theories relevant to the importance and development
of color theory in direct application to advertising
research. The literature focused on information
in regards to two topics: colors meaning through
associations and colors meaning through perceptions.
From these concepts, I sought to answer two questions:
The purpose of this research is to examine the
associations and perceptions of the public who are
exposed to color-based advertising. With previous
though limited academic research of color theory in
advertising, the intended goal is to gain more insight
and understanding of not just the perception of color
but also the successes and failures of color-based
advertising.
The overall hypothesis to be tested by this study is
that people are easily persuaded and inuenced on the
concept of a brand when color is presented in order to
increase a messages argument strength, even through
broadcast media such as commercials and online videoadvertisements.
More specically, through the experimentation
and survey of perceptions and associations of color-
based advertising, creative professionals could better
understand how to reach their audiences. This study
aims to relay useful insight to the relationship of color
theory and advertising.
To answer the presented research questions
experiment participants were shown one of three color-
based 15-second commercials in various colors: blackand white, blue, or red. Red is generally considered an
exciting color, and blue is considered relaxing. Both
of these hues can be perceived as pleasant, leading to
favorable attitudes in audiences.3
A black and white version of the video was selected
to see if color will have an effect at all compared to
the other two groups. In the past, researchers have
indicated that less-motivated consumers depend on
color as an elaboration cue.2
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
RQ1: Does the color used in advertising influence the consumers affective associations?
RQ2: Does the color used in advertising match the consumers perception of the advertisedproduct?
6. Romantic Red: Red Enhances Mens Attraction to Women by Elliot A. & Niesta D. (2008)7. Exciting red and Competent Blue: Te Importance of Color in Marketing by Labrecque L. & Milne G. (2011
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HYPOTHESES
H1: Participants watching the blue video willperceive the brand as water more so than theother groups due to biological responses andlearned associations.
H2: Participants watching the red video willbe tricked to perceive the brand not as water
more so than other groups due to biologicalresponses and learned associations.
H3: Participants watching the blue video willassociate the advertisement with affects andterminology relating to its defined meaningas due to biological responses and learnedassociations.
H4: Participants watching the red video willassociate the advertisement with affects andterminology relating to its defined meaning dueto biological responses and learned associations.
Therefore, based on the previous literature, four
hypotheses are proposed:
The following variables were analyzed to determine
the associations and perceptions that consumers
have on an advertisement with an emphasis on color.
Specically, affect will measure a persons associations;
and brand perception will measure a persons view of a
product.
For this project, association is dened as a connection
between objects that allows one item to become related
to another based on perception alone. This relationship
does not have to directly manipulate. For example, one
can associate the color blue with masculine or athletic.
Affect, instead of attitude, is used as a description
of the use of color in advertising. Affect means to
change in terms of an emotion or symptom. In this
sense, the advertisements affect on an individual will
not be weighed, but rather how the advertisement
itself displayed an affect. Someone can see a funny
commercial, but remain irritated or melancholy
based on the days personal impact. Additionally, the
advertisements impact will not be weighed. Questions
similar to Did you enjoy this ad? or Would you
purchase this product? were not asked.
COLOR IN METHOD
For this study, 90 consumers frequenting one of
three shopping centers were surveyed. The sample
from each shopping center included 30 randomly
selected participants, ages 18 64, using the intercept
sampling method (Chart 1). This sample is not a true
representative of the general population, but it does
target active consumers for many products, especially
since they were selected at random. Participants weredivided into groups by rolling a single die. Once in a
group, they were shown the designated video.
The video was three generic shots of water pouring
with either a black, blue, or red background. At the end
of the video, the brand Distil and a subtext triple
distilled was shown. Although the brand was shown
the actual product (water) was not displayed. This was
to test the perception of the participant.
Next, each participant lled out a short survey
(Appendix A). The rst question allowed for them to
choose from 14 associations along with 1 option to ll
in a word of their choosing. The second question asked
about the product itself. Participants had to indicate
if it was Distil Water, Distil Vodka, Distil Club Soda
or Distil Gin. The surveys were calculated and tested
using descriptive statistics and a one-way ANOVA test.
8. Remembering Visual Motion: Neural Correlates of Associative Plasticity and Motion Recall in Cortical Area M by Schlack A., & Albright .(2007
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The blue group labeled the video as calm, serene
and interesting the most. The color blue can be
described as both a calm and serene hue, and could
indicate that participants associated affects based on
the inuence of color in the video.
However, the red group listed the video more often
as calm, interesting, alluring and attractive. This could
be due to the overall nature of the video or the sound
accompanying the video. The association of the red
video with a red affect, sultry, was only recorded 10%of the time (Appendix D).
On the opposite end of the spectrum, the black
and white group labeled the video as melancholy
gloomy, emotional, and natural more than once, but
less than other popular groups, ranging from 6.7% to
13.3% (Appendix B). The multiple responses could
have come from being common associations with the
color gray, but because they did not rank higher among
participants, theres no true indication that color
inuenced the videos affect.
The blue group listed more lively affects such as
associations of the video including the active, energetic
and emotional affects the least. This directly contrasts
with the top choices of the blue video being described
as calm and serene (Appendix C).
The red group was more diverse in selection with
every option besides the sweet and cheerful affects
COLOR IN REVIEW
Overall, despite color, participants answers were
across the board in terms of the videos affect (Chart
2). They labeled it as calm the most often with 44.4%
and as cheerful and sweet the least, each with
just 1.1% per affect. Calm is considered a common
association with the color blue. Cheerful is generally
considered as an affect of yellow, and sweet is linked
with pink. Since the video was not shown in these two
color contexts, participants followed the trend of color
theory by selecting these options the least.
In most cases, affects ranked very high or low
amongst all three groups, giving it denite, polarized
characteristics. This indicates that color may not have
altered the overall tone of the advertisement, as even
with differing colors contexts, participants commonly
associated the video with the same affects.
Charts 3 and 4 examine the most described andleast described associations made by participants.
Between groups, participants were still consistent. The
majority of black and white group listed the video as
alluring, attractive, and interesting. These affects are
neutral compared to some of the others, indicating that
the black and video may have caused participants to
describe it as such.
RACE
33.3% WHITE45.6% BLACK
GENDER*
*1 N/A
36.7% MALE62.2% FEMALE
5.6% HISPANIC
2.2% NATIVE AMERICAN
2.2% ASIAN
11.1% OTHER
AGE
70% 18-2920% 30-49
10% 50-64
CHART 1: DEMOGRAPHICS
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value is the alluring affect. The lack of signican
values could be due to each group only having 30
participants per group, as it is a small sample.
The Post-Hoc analysis (Appendix F) conrmsthat the signicant value of 0.042 comes from the
difference between the blue and the black and white
groups. The blue group as a whole notably associated
the video with the calm affect more so than the black
and white group.
There was a marginal difference between the
red and the black and groups (0.08). Other marginal
differences resided with the natural affect, both between
the black and white group versus the two color groups
Despite the percent difference discussed earlier
in the article, the difference itself is not of signicant
value at 0.13 as indicated in Appendix G. This could
also be due to the small sample taken to compare
across groups.
DISCUSSION
This study was conducted in order to gain insighton how color-based advertising can inuence an
audiences association of affect and perception of a
product.
being chosen by at least one participant (Appendix D).
This could be due to the mixed perception with water,
commonly known as blue, with the red background.
Participants generally were not inuenced to thinkthat the product advertised was anything but water with
62.2% reporting that they perceived the advertisement
to be for Distil Water rather than Distil Vodka, Distil
Club Soda, or Distil Gin.
However, during testing, only 1 participant out of
90 recalled not seeing a particular product, just the
brand name itself. Therefore, even though a colors
meaning may not persuade an individual in this
case, brand awareness and recollection indicates that
consumers may bypass details of a message during
peripheral elaboration.
Between groups, participants within the blue group
perceived the product as water by over 20% more than
the other groups with 76.7% listing it as water while
the black and white group listed water 56.7% of the
time. The red group listed water the least at 53.3% with
46.7% perceiving the product as vodka, club soda, or
gin.
Appendix Es one-way ANOVA of associationsproves that there were differences between groups, but
the only one that indicated a designated signicant
CHART 2: OVERALL ASSOCIATIONS
ACTI
VE
6.7% 37.8% 36.7% 44.4% 1.1% 7.8% 5.6% 5.6% 36.7% 6.7% 24.4% 32.2% 20% 1.1% 6.7%
ALLU
RING
ATTR
ACTI
VE
CALM
CHEE
RFUL
EMOT
IONAL
ENER
GETIC
GLOO
MY
INTE
RESTING
MELA
NCHOL
Y
NATU
RAL
SERE
NE
SULT
RY
SWEE
T
OTHE
R
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Some of the results could indicate that color does
in fact persuade consumers; however, the size of
the selected sample per group reduces the ability to
properly apply results to the general public. Even so, ifthis study was conducted on a wider scale with similar
results, some signicant inferences can be made.
The experimental design itself can evolve from
this point, controlling for the atmosphere of the
administered experiment or the music played during
the advertisement.
I decided to work with a broadcasted commercial
format to see if peripheral cues swayed participants
associations of affects, yet the music itself can prove to
be an inuence in the tone of the messages argument.
However, in a day and age where advertisers are
looking into utilize Instagrams continuously scrolling,
15-second video format as a marketing tool, knowing
what grabs an individuals attention the quickest can
help effectively communicate a brands message.
ALLURING 56.7%
43.3%
40.0%
46.7%
40.0%36.7%
43.3%
33.3%
30.0%
ATTRACTIVE
INTERESTING
CALM
SERENE
INTERESTING
CALM
INTERESTING
ALLURING/ATTRACTIVE
BLACK & WHITE
BLUE
RED
CHART 3: TOP ASSOCIATIONS
CHART 4: OVERALL PERCEPTION
CHART 4: PERCEPTION BY COLOR
WATER
62.2% 37.8%
OTHER
WATER
56.7% 43.3%
OTHER
WATER
76.7% 23.3%
OTHER
WATER
53.3% 46.7%
OTHER
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Adding additional or similar colors for comparison
can also help not only in general advertising, but in a
brands visual identity as well. As we progress even
further into the digital era, color continues to be aneffective tool for shaping brand perception.6
In todays age, color is becoming more relevant in
advertising as a way to customize a users experience.
Granted, other disciplines over the centuries have
studied color theory, but mass communication as a whole
can learn to benet from analyzing, understanding, and
employing the meaning of color.
QUESTION TEXT: IF YOU WERE DESCRIBING THIS ADVERTISEMENT TO A FRIEND, WOULD YOU SAY THE AD IS...
(CHOOSE ALL THAT APPLY)
ACTIVE ALLURING ATTRACTIVE CALM SWEET
CHEERFUL EMOTIONAL ENERGETIC GLOOMY SULTRY
INTERESTING MELANCHOLY NATURAL SERENE OTHER (PLEASE LIST) __________
QUESTION TEXT: WHAT PRODUCT WAS THE ADVERTISEMENT PROMOTING
(CHECK ONLY ONE)
DISTIL WATER DISTIL CLUB SODA
DISTIL VODKA DISTIL GIN
QUESTION TEXT: WHAT IS YOUR SEX?
MALE
FEMALE
PREFER NOT TO ANSWER
QUESTION TEXT: WHAT IS YOUR ETHNICITY?
CAUCASIAN AFRICAN AMERICAN/BLACK HISPANIC PREFER NOT TO ANSWER
AMERICAN INDIAN ASIAN OR PACIFIC ISLANDER OTHER (PLEASE LIST) __________
APPENDIX A: SURVEY
ABOUT THE AUTHORCherodie M. Ayers-Cannon is in her third semester at
the Manship School of Mass Communication with an
emphasis in Visual Communication at Louisiana State
University. She plans to take this study in color theory
to present at advertising and marketing conferences in
order to create a dialogue of effective visual impact
amongst creative professionals.
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APPENDIX B, C, D: ASSOCIATION BY GROUP
ACTIVE
ALLURING
ATTRACTIVE
CALM
CHEERFUL
EMOTIONAL
ENERGETIC
GLOOMY
INTERESTING
MELANCHOLY
NATURAL
SERENE
SULTRY
SWEETOTHER
Valid N (listwise)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
3030
30
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
11
.97
.43
.57
.57
1.00
.87
.97
.93
.60
.90
.87
.63
.73
.97
.93
.183
.504
.504
.504
.000
.346
.183
.254
.498
.305
.346
.490
.450
.183.254
N MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN STD. DEVIATION
ACTIVE
ALLURING
ATTRACTIVE
CALM
CHEERFUL
EMOTIONAL
ENERGETIC
GLOOMY
INTERESTING
MELANCHOLY
NATURAL
SERENE
SULTRY
SWEET
OTHER
Valid N (listwise)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
.93
.73
.63
.53
.97
.93
.90
.93
.63
.93
.63
.60
.90
1.00
.90
.254
.450
.490
.507
.183
.254
.305
.254
.490
.254
.490
.498
.305
.000
.305
N MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN STD. DEVIATION
ACTIVE
ALLURING
ATTRACTIVE
CALM
CHEERFUL
EMOTIONAL
ENERGETIC
GLOOMY
INTERESTING
MELANCHOLY
NATURAL
SERENE
SULTRY
SWEET
OTHER
Valid N (listwise)
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
..90
.70
.70
.57
1.00
.97
.97
.97
.67
.97
.77
.80
.77
1.00
.97
.305
.466
.466
.504
.000
.183
.183
.183
.479
.183
.430
.407
.430
.000
.183
N MINIMUM MAXIMUM MEAN STD. DEVIATION
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APPENDIX E: ASSOCIATION ONE-WAY ANOVASum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
ACTIVE Between Groups 0.067 2 0.033 0.524 0.594Within Groups 5.533 87 0.064
Total 5.6 89
ALLURINGBetween Groups 1.622 2 0.811 3.613 0.031*Within Groups 19.533 87 0.225
Total 21.156 89
ATTRACTIVEBetween Groups 0.267 2 0.133 0.562 0.572Within Groups 20.633 87 0.237
Total 20.9 89
CALM Between Groups 0.022 2 0.011 0.044 0.957Within Groups 22.2 87 0.255
Total 22.222 89
CHEERFULBetween Groups 0.022 2 0.011 1 0.372Within Groups 0.967 87 0.011
Total 0.989 89EMOTIONA Between Groups 0.156 2 0.078 1.074 0.346Within Groups 6.3 87 0.072
Total 6.456 89
ENERGETICBetween Groups 0.089 2 0.044 0.835 0.438Within Groups 4.633 87 0.053
Total 4.722 89
GLOOMY Between Groups 0.022 2 0.011 0.206 0.814Within Groups 4.7 87 0.054
Total 4.722 89
NTERESTINBetween Groups 0.067 2 0.033 0.139 0.87Within Groups 20.833 87 0.239
Total 20.9 89
ELANCHOL Between Groups 0.067 2 0.033 0.524 0.594Within Groups 5.533 87 0.064
Total 5.6 89
NATURAL Between Groups 0.822 2 0.411 2.264 0.11Within Groups 15.8 87 0.182
Total 16.622 89
SERENE Between Groups 0.689 2 0.344 1.58 0.212Within Groups 18.967 87 0.218
Total 19.656 89
SULTRY Between Groups 0.467 2 0.233 1.457 0.239Within Groups 13.933 87 0.16
Total 14.4 89
SWEET Between Groups 0.022 2 0.011 1 0.372Within Groups 0.967 87 0.011
Total 0.989 89
OTHER Between Groups 0.067 2 0.033 0.524 0.594
Within Groups 5.533 87 0.064
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APPENDIX F: ASSOCIATION POST-HOC PART 1Multiple Comparisons
Tukey HSDDependent Variable (I) GROUP (J) GROUP ean Dif ference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval
Lower BoundACTIVE BW Blue 0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.12
Red 0.067 0.065 0.564 -0.09Blue BW -0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.19
Red 0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.12Red BW -0.067 0.065 0.564 -0.22
Blue -0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.19ALLURING BW Blue -.300* 0.122 0.042 -0.59
Red -0.267 0.122 0.08 -0.56Blue BW .300* 0.122 0.042 0.01
Red 0.033 0.122 0.96 -0.26Red BW 0.267 0.122 0.08 -0.03
Blue -0.033 0.122 0.96 -0.33ATTRACTIVE BW Blue -0.067 0.126 0.857 -0.37
Red -0.133 0.126 0.541 -0.43Blue BW 0.067 0.126 0.857 -0.23
Red -0.067 0.126 0.857 -0.37Red BW 0.133 0.126 0.541 -0.17
Blue 0.067 0.126 0.857 -0.23CALM BW Blue 0.033 0.13 0.965 -0.28
Red 0 0.13 1 -0.31Blue BW -0.033 0.13 0.965 -0.34
Red -0.033 0.13 0.965 -0.34Red BW 0 0.13 1 -0.31
Blue 0.033 0.13 0.965 -0.28CHEERFUL BW Blue 0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.03
Red 0 0.027 1 -0.06Blue BW -0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.1
Red -0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.1Red BW 0 0.027 1 -0.06
Blue 0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.03EMOTIONAL BW Blue -0.067 0.069 0.604 -0.23
Red -0.1 0.069 0.325 -0.27Blue BW 0.067 0.069 0.604 -0.1
Red -0.033 0.069 0.881 -0.2Red BW 0.1 0.069 0.325 -0.07
Blue 0.033 0.069 0.881 -0.13ENERGETIC BW Blue 0.067 0.06 0.505 -0.08
Red 0 0.06 1 -0.14Blue BW -0.067 0.06 0.505 -0.21
Red -0.067 0.06 0.505 -0.21Red BW 0 0.06 1 -0.14
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APPENDIX F: ASSOCIATION POST-HOC PART 2Multiple Comparisons
Tukey HSDDependent Variable (I) GROUP (J) GROUP Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error Sig. 5% Confidence Interval
INTERESTING BW Blue -0.033 0.126 0.962 -0.33 0.27Red -0.067 0.126 0.858 -0.37 0.23
Blue BW 0.033 0.126 0.962 -0.27 0.33Red -0.033 0.126 0.962 -0.33 0.27
Red BW 0.067 0.126 0.858 -0.23 0.37Blue 0.033 0.126 0.962 -0.27 0.33
MELANCHOLY BW Blue -0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.19 0.12Red -0.067 0.065 0.564 -0.22 0.09
Blue BW 0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.12 0.19Red -0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.19 0.12
Red BW 0.067 0.065 0.564 -0.09 0.22Blue 0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.12 0.19
NATURAL BW Blue 0.233 0.11 0.092 -0.03 0.5Red 0.1 0.11 0.636 -0.16 0.36
Blue BW -0.233 0.11 0.092 -0.5 0.03Red -0.133 0.11 0.449 -0.4 0.13
Red BW -0.1 0.11 0.636 -0.36 0.16Blue 0.133 0.11 0.449 -0.13 0.4
SERENE BW Blue 0.033 0.121 0.959 -0.25 0.32Red -0.167 0.121 0.354 -0.45 0.12
Blue BW -0.033 0.121 0.959 -0.32 0.25Red -0.2 0.121 0.227 -0.49 0.09
Red BW 0.167 0.121 0.354 -0.12 0.45
Blue 0.2 0.121 0.227 -0.09 0.49SULTRY BW Blue -0.167 0.103 0.246 -0.41 0.08
Red -0.033 0.103 0.944 -0.28 0.21Blue BW 0.167 0.103 0.246 -0.08 0.41
Red 0.133 0.103 0.404 -0.11 0.38Red BW 0.033 0.103 0.944 -0.21 0.28
Blue -0.133 0.103 0.404 -0.38 0.11SWEET BW Blue -0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.1 0.03
Red -0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.1 0.03Blue BW 0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.03 0.1
Red 0 0.027 1 -0.06 0.06Red BW 0.033 0.027 0.442 -0.03 0.1
Blue 0 0.027 1 -0.06 0.06
OTHER BW Blue 0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.12 0.19Red -0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.19 0.12
Blue BW -0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.19 0.12Red -0.067 0.065 0.564 -0.22 0.09
Red BW 0.033 0.065 0.866 -0.12 0.19Blue 0.067 0.065 0.564 -0.09 0.22
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APPENDIX F: PERCEPTION DESCRIPTIVES
APPENDIX G: PERCEPTION ONE-WAY ANOVA
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error 95% Confidence Interval for Mean
Lower Bound Upper Bound
BW 30 0.43 0.504 0.092 0.25 0.62
Blue 30 0.23 0.43 0.079 0.07 0.39
Red 30 0.47 0.507 0.093 0.28 0.66
Total 90 0.38 0.488 0.051 0.28 0.48
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Between Groups 0.956 2 0.478 2.058 0.134
Within Groups 20.2 87 0.232Total 21.156 89
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