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Advanced Computer Architecture
Book for ReferenceBook for Reference
1. Advanced computer Architecture : Kai Hwang
2. Computer Architecture : A Quantitative Approach,
Patterson.
3. Computer Organization and Architecture : designing
for performance, W. Stallings.
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Course outlineCourse outline
• Overview of von Neumann architecture &
Instruction set architecture.
• Pipelining .
• Hierarchical Memory Technology .
• Instruction-level parallelism.
• Multiprocessor Architecture.
• Non von Neumann Architectures.
Two important Approach for improvingthe performance of a computer :
•• By improving performance of a singleBy improving performance of a single
computercomputer
----Using faster memory, Cache and pipelining at instruction level.Using faster memory, Cache and pipelining at instruction level.
•• By parallel processing (advanced)By parallel processing (advanced)
---- UUse more then one CPUs as processing elements to solve a givense more then one CPUs as processing elements to solve a given
problem.problem.
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•• Computer organizationComputer organization is how operational
attributes are linked together and contribute torealize the architectural specifications.
•• Computer architectureComputer architecture is the architecturalattrributes like physical address memory,CPU andhow they should be made and made to coordinate
with each other keeping the future demands and
goals in mind.
• Computer architecture comes before computer
organiation.
von Neumann Architecturevon Neumann Architecture
• Principles – Data and instructions are both stored in the main memory(stored
program concept)
– The content of the memory is addressable by location (withoutregard to what is stored in that location)
– Instructions are executed sequentially unless the order is
explicitly modified – The basic architecture of the computer consists of:
Computer
MainMemory
CPU
Control
Data
Bus
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von Neumann Architecturevon Neumann Architecture
• A more complete view of the computer system architecturethat integrates interaction (human or otherwise) consists of:
Computer
MainMemory
CPU
Control
DataInput
Device
OutputDevice
SecondaryStorageDevice
Computer System
Bus Bus
BusFive Main Components:
1. CPU
2. Main Memory (RAM)
3. I/O Devices
4. Mass Storage
5. Interconnection network (Bus)
Another view of a digital computerAnother view of a digital computer
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An instruction is a binary code, which specifies a
basic operation (e.g. add, subtract, and, or) for thecomputer
• Operation Code: Defines the operation type
• Operands : Operation source and destination
instruction
Instruction Set Design
softwaresoftware
HardwareHardware
The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle
• The Instruction Cycle
– Basic
– Intermediate
– Exceptions
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The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle -- Basic ViewBasic View
• Once the computer has beenstarted (bootstrapped) itcontinually executesinstructions (until the computeris stopped)
• Different instructions takedifferent amounts of time toexecute (typically)
• All instructions and data are
contained in main memory
FetchInstruction
Start
ExecuteInstruction
The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle -- Intermediate ViewIntermediate View
• A complete instruction consists of
– operation code
– addressing mode
– zero or more operands
• immediately available data
(embedded within theinstruction)
• the address where the datacan be found in main memory
FetchInstruction
(IF)(IF)
Start
ExecuteInstruction
(IE)(IE)
FetchOperand
(FO)(FO)
Decode
Instruction(ID)(ID)
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The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle -- ExceptionsExceptions
• Exceptions, or errors, may occur atvarious points in the instructioncycle, for example:
FetchInstruction
Start
ExecuteInstruction
Fetch
Operand
DecodeInstruction
PossibleException
?
PossibleException
?
PossibleException
?
PossibleException?
The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle -- ExceptionsExceptions
• Exceptions, or errors, may occur atvarious points in the instructioncycle, for example:
– Addressing- the memory does not
exist or is inaccessible
FetchInstruction
Start
ExecuteInstruction
FetchOperand
DecodeInstruction
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The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle -- ExceptionsExceptions
• Exceptions, or errors, may occur atvarious points in the instructioncycle, for example:
– Operation - the operation code doesnot denote a valid operation
FetchInstruction
Start
ExecuteInstruction
Fetch
Operand
DecodeInstruction
The Instruction CycleThe Instruction Cycle -- ExceptionsExceptions
• Exceptions, or errors, may occur atvarious points in the instructioncycle, for example:
– Execution- the instruction logic fails,
typically due to the input data• divide by zero
• integer addition/subtractionoverflow
• floating point underflow/overflow
FetchInstruction
Start
ExecuteInstruction
FetchOperand
DecodeInstruction
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Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture
• Software design
• Hardware circuits
Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- Software DesignSoftware Design
• Each computer CPU must be designed to accommodate andunderstand instructions according to specific formats.
• Examples:
– All instructions must have an operation code specified
– NOP no operation
– TSTST test and set
OpCode
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Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- Software DesignSoftware Design
• Each computer CPU must be designed to accommodate andunderstand instructions according to specific formats.
• Examples:
– Most instructions will require one, or more, operands
– These may be (immediate) data to be used directly
– or, addresses of memory locations where data will be found(including the address of yet another location)
OpCode Operand (Address)
Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- Software DesignSoftware Design
• Sometimes the instruction format requires a code, called theMode, that specifies a particular addressing format to bedistinguished from other possible formats
– direct addressing
– indirect addressing
– indexed addressing
– relative addressing
– doubly indirect addressing
– etc.
OpCode Op. (Addr.)Op. (Addr.) ModeMode
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Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- CPUCPU
• The CPU must be designed to accommodate the instructionsand data to be processed
System Bus
System Bus
C on t r ol B u s
D a t aB u s
A
d d r e s sB u s
I/O 1
CPU RAM
I/O 2
ALU
CU
Regs
PC
PSW
IRInternal
CPU Bus
I/O n
Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- Hardware CircuitsHardware Circuits
• Everything that the computer can do is the result of designingand building devices to carry out each function – no magic!
• At the most elementary level the devices are called logicgates.
– There are many possible gate types, each perform a specificBoolean operation (e.g. AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR,XNOR)
• ALL circuits, hence all functions, are defined in terms of thebasic gates.
• We apply Boolean Algebra and Boolean Calculus in order todesign circuits and then optimize our designs.
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Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- Hardware CircuitsHardware Circuits
• Data is represented by various types of “signals”, includingelectrical, magnetic, optical and so on. Data “moves” throughthe computer along wires that form the various bus networks(address, data, control) and which interconnect the gates.
• Combinations of gates are called integrated circuits (IC).
• All computer functions are defined and controlled by IC’s ofvarying complexity in design. The manufacture of these maybe scaled according to size/complexity:
– LSI large scale integration – VLSI very large scale integration
– ULSI ultra large scale integration
Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- CUCU
• The control unit must decode instructions, set up forcommunication with RAM addresses and manage the datastored in register and accumulator storages.
• Each such operation requires separate circuitry to perform the
specialized tasks.
• It is also necessary for computer experts to have knowledgeof the various data representations to be used on the machinein order to design components that have the desiredbehaviours.
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Instruction ArchitectureInstruction Architecture -- ALUALU
• All instructions together are called the instruction set
– CISC complex instruction set
– RISC reduced instruction set
• Each ALU instruction requires a separate circuit, althoughsome instructions may incorporate the circuit logic of otherinstructions
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