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The Language of Research
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Construct
Abstraction that cannot be observed directly but are useful in interpreting empirical data and in theory building
People differ in what they can learn and how quickly they can learn. Scientist invented a construct called intelligence
other examples are: motivation, reading readiness, anxiety, underachievement, creativity, self-concept, maturity and many more.
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Specification of meaning
Constructs may be defined in a way that gives general meaning or they may be defined in terms of the operation by which they will be measured or manipulated
Constitutive definition A dictionary type of definition or formal definition For example, inteligence may be defined as the ability
to think abstractly or the capacity to acquire knowledge
Important to define so that readers know what is meant by the term and to enable other research to duplicate the research
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Operational definition
Helps researcher bridge the gap between theoretical and observable
Two types of operational definition:
measured operational definition and
experimental operational definition
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Measured operational definition: Details the operation by which the investigator measure
the construct
Example: Inteligence may be defined operationally as scores on
Stanford-Binet Intel Scale Creativity may operationally refer to…
So, when you define the construct in terms of how they are measured, you know precisely what it is meant by the term
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Experimental Operation Definition Details the steps taken to produce certain
experimental conditions
Example: Frustration in the study may take the form of
preventing subjects from reaching the goal
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Why operationally defined the construct?
To delimit a term To ensure that people understand particular way a term
is used To allow researcher to proceed with investigation that
might not be possible
Example: In practice, the investigation of the relationship between
construct creativity and the construct intelligence refers to scores on an intelligence test to scores on a measure of creativity
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Variables
Characteristics by which persons or objects can be described
Characteristics that do vary and can be put on a continuum or spectrum
Characteristics that can change from time to time for given persons or objects
There are variation within the class or subjects
Must have more than one level
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Example:To study the effect of reinforcement on
students achievementSelect 9th gradersDivide into 3 groupsTeachers give different reinforcement
(verbal praise, monetary rewards, extra points)
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Types of variables
Discrete or categorical or qualitative Can only take on specific values Do not vary in degree, amount, quantity but are
qualitatively different The simplest form of categorical variable:
gender (male-female). When there are two categories it is known as
dichotomous
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Other examples of categorical variables
Marital status Types of occupation Location of residence Ethnics Political pereference Hair colour, Brand of a car
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Quantitative variable
Also known as continous variableIt exist in some degrees along a
continuum from less to moreNumbers are assigned to indicate how
much of the variable they possessCan take on any valueIQ, Age, Height, Weigth, Interest
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Which of the folowing are categorical and quantitative Religion Cleaness Hair calor Race Gender SES Curiosity Writing ability Efficiency CGPA
Height Running Speed Teaching Mthods Leadership style Level of motivation Intelligence Komitment Job Satisfaction Level of Education Type oh Job School Climate Type of School
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Classification of variables
Independent Presumed cause Antecedent Variable predicted from Denoted by X The thing you think will
produce a difference and thing the experimenter change somehow
Treatment factors
Dependent Presumed effect Consequences Variable predicted from Denoted by Y The thing that is
supposed to change Thing that shoud be
affected Criterion
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Types of independent variable
Attribute: Variable that cannot be manipulated. [gender,
SES, IQ, Hair Color etc] Also known as assigned, measured,
organismic, personological, sociological, psycho-sociological, demographic
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Some variables can be manipulated but are not manipulated in a particular investigation Type of curriculum Section of a course Usually subject self-select the level of the
independent variable or naturally occuring Very common in ex post facto research
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Active independent variable Also called experimental variable Manipulated variable Treatment variable
Variable can be manipulated and are manipulated in a particular investigation
Method of teaching
What is manipulation? Random assigment of experimental units or
subjects to levels of the independent variable
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Intervening variable, extraneous, confounding or contaminating variables Things affecting dependent variable other than
the independent variable Cause a threat to the validity of the study This is a major problem in any study Give example
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Test wiseness affect test performance
Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more aggressive acts than children not so blocked
Girls who plan to pursue careers in science are more aggressive, less conforming, more independent and have a greater need for achievement than girls who do not plan such careers
Under intangible reinforcement conditiond, middle-class children will learn significantly better than lower-class children
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Students who have completed how to study course will make a significantly higher grade-point average than students who have never taken such a course
Individual who graduate with Doctor of Education in educational administration attain better paying jobs than those who received a Doctor of Philosophy in educational administration
Perceptions of the characteristics of the good or effective teacher are in part determined by the perceivers’ attitude toward education
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Dependent variable
Variable that the independent variable is presumed to affect
Variable that depends on independent variable Outcome variable Example:
The amount of uneasiness that applicants for a position express in an interview
How anxious students are before the examination Neatness Openness of a classroom Fluency in a foreign language
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Research in education may study the relationship between either (a) two or more quantitative variables, (b) one categorical and one quantitative
variable, or (c) two or more categorical variable
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Two quantitative variables
Age and amount of interest in schoolReading achievement and mathematics
achievementClassroom humanism and student
motivationAmount of time watching television and
agressiveness of behavior
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One categorical and one quantitative
Method used to teach reading and reading achievement
Counselling approach and level of anxietyNationality and liking for schoolStudent gender and amount of praise
given by teachers
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Two categorical variables
Ethnicity and father’s occupationGender of teacher and subject taughtAdministrative style and college majorReligious affiliation and political party
membership
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Constant
A fixed value within the study, that is all members of the class are identical
There is no variationNo change of characteristicsExample:
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Ugama yang dianuti Kecerdasan
Kebersihan Komitment
Warna mata/rambut Kepuasan bekerja
Bangsa Tahap pendidikan
Jantina Jenis pekerjaan
SES Leadership style
Curiousity Iklim sekolah
Writing ability Kualiti sekolah
Math ability Jenis sekolah
Kecekapan CGPA
Test anxiety Ketinggian
Grade level Kepantasan berlari
Kaedah mengajra Jenis kenderaan
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Yang manakah independent dan yang manakah dependent? effects of instructional variables on languange ability of preschool
children the validity of predictors of performance in law school computer based drill and practice in arithmatics: widening the gap
between high and low achieving students learning disable children self concept sex difference in choice of college science majors
Test wiseness affetct test performance Children who are blocked from reaching their goals exhibit more
aggressive act thath childern who are blocked Girls who plan to pursue career in science are more aggressive than