IJESAHEL
PRISAS/INS^H-MSIMJSAJO
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER IN THE SAHEL: BASELINE LITERATURE REVIEW
Ousmane N Coulibaly and Josu6 Dion6
BACKGROUND
The Sahel region is located in a belt between 250 mm and 750 mm with a rainy
season of between 60 and 120 days. The political definition of the region
encompasses 9 countries in semi-arid West Africa and includes: Burkina-Faso, Cap Verde, Chad, Gambia, Guinee Bissau, Mali, Mauritania, Niger and Senegal. Basic
environmental characteristics are: shortness of the rainy season, low and highly variable rainfall (Matlon, 1983) with impredictability in location, timing and amount
throughout the season; particularly poor soils with low nutritient and water-holding
capacity and highly susceptible to crusting, erosion with between-year variable
responses to land and substituting inputs (Nagy et al., 1986).
Farming systems are characterized by bush-fallow cultivation with a decade or more to restore soil fertility. Crop failure is current when rainfall is insufficient. Staple
food crops include millet, sorghum and maize in pure stands or inter-cropped with cowpea. As the soil fertility gradient changes different cropping and management
strategies are used by farmers (Nagy et al., 1986). Yields are low and insignificant
production gains could be achieved without technical change. Cash crops are cotton
and peanut mostly produced by farmers and receiving more inputs.
The Sahel is a vulnerable region where the gap between food production and food requirements is growing. The Sahel is known to be a drought striking zone.
There have been two widespread acute droughts in 1968-73 and 1982-84 (Sanders, 1989) when livestock died and crops failed in most parts of the region. In the past two
decades, Sahel food-grain supply has increasingly come to depend on imports and
food aid to overcome the food crisis.
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By 1974, the Sahel region has received from international relief efforts more
than $ 360 millions of emergency aid (OTA, 1986). To avoid such crises, donors and
governments implemented different development policies, most of which have been
disappointing in addressing food security in the Sahel. Among the policies
implemented were direct transfer of agricultural technologies from other semi-arid
regions without sufficient knowledge regarding Sahelian natural and socio-economic
environments; short-term production related and discrete projects with high recurrent
cost (OTA, 1986), weak cereal marketing and pricing policies.
I. RAINFED FOOD CROP TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH
RESULTS
1.1. Crop Improvement
Rainfed food crop improvement has been mainly focussed on developing and
introducing high yielding varieties of millet and sorghum under high management
conditions (Matlon, 1985). These breeding efforts have begun with IRAT (French
Research Organization) and accelerated by national agricultural research systems
(Sanders, 1989). Despite on station higher yields, improved materials have not been
successful when tried on farms because of environmental and socio-economic
constraints at the farm level. High management environment on station (high fertility,
tillage, water management and pest control) is rarely met on farm. Most cereal
farmers in the Sahel use family labor and little fertilizer and improved management
techniques. According to Matlon (1985), new materials have been developed and
selected on station without an early systematic and critical feed-back from farmers to
breeders.
Actually, most of these weaknesses in crop improvement are on way to be
corrected. Most of the breeding programs for sorghum are based on local as well as
introduced and locally-bred materials (Beninati, 1988). In Mali, local guinea types
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sorghum with favorable characters are combined with higher yield potential of
introduced materials for good grain and pest resistance qualities.
Also, efforts are underway to target sorghum breeding to specific agro-
ecological zones (low, medium and high rainfalls). Improved local varieties of millet
(IBV 8001, NKK and Toroniou de Ningari) have been extended into semi-arid regions
of Mali. Factors attributable to the success of these varieties are earliness and pest
resistance.
Early maturing cultivars of maize (Jaune Flint de Saria; IRAT 80; Tiemantie de
Zamblara) have been extended to Niger, Burkina-Faso and Southern Mali (Camara,
1986; Coulibaly et at., 1988). Collaborative cowpea breeding and testing programs
between IITA, SAFGRAD University of California-Riverside and national research
institutions lead to development of early flowering and short cycle cultivars (Hall and
Patel, 1986). Among varieties extended in Sahelian countries are: TN 88-63, SUVITA-
2, TVX 3236, KN1 with high yield potential. Since these varieties are pest sensitive,
efforts are underway to combine pest resistance with high yielding and early maturing
characteristics. Also, two varieties are reported to be free from Striga, a serious
problem in the dry areas (Aggarwal and Haley, 1986).
1.2. Crop Associations
Research on intercropping (growth of two or more crops simultaneously in the
same field) in the Sahel is a recent phenomenon compared to sole crops on which
colonial administrators and researchers concentrated their research and extension
efforts (Fussel and Serafini, 1985). Mos. of the research undertaken on
intercropping in the Sahel report significant increases in yields over sole crops, due
to increase in plant population and spatial arrangement (Fussel and Serafini, 1985).
Stoop (1981) reported interactions between crop combinations and soil type in
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Burkina-Faso and concluded that the best crop mixture depends on the nature of the
soil as well as the agroclimatio context. To maximize intercropping advantages, Willey
(1979) recommended maximizing the degree of complementarity between the
components and minimizing the inter-crop competition. Managing spatial
arrangements reduce competition for light, water and nutrients between crops. Also,
research in the Sahel has shown advantages in temporary complementarity between
crops when maturity periods differ. In Southern Mali, late millet provides a more
productive association with maize (Serafini, 1984; Shetty et al., 1987). Research
results on sorghum-cowpea and millet-cowpea intercropping systems show that a 30%
yield increase over the corresponding monocrop systems can be achieved (Schilling
et al., 1990). Intercropping is also proved to reduce striga incidence on the cereal
crop (Dembele, 1990). Limited research has been carried out on agro-forestry (Naggy
et al., 1986), although traditional cropping systems keep trees such as Acacia Albida
or Butyrospermum Parkii (Chea tree) on fields. Acacia Albida produces nitrogen and
deposit organic matter on surface for crops.
1.3. Fertilizer use
Current fertilizer use on rainfed food crops in the Sahel is low despite significant
yield responses on station trials (Fieri, 1985; Adesina et al., 1987). Fertilizer responses
vary by crop variety, crop area based on rainfall and the underlying soil fertility and
moisture (Roy and Me. Clellan, 1985; Adesina et al., 1987; Staatz, 1990). Results from
FAQ fertilizer programs in Burkina-Faso, Mali and Niger suggest that millet and
sorghum have the lowest responses to nitrogen and phosphorus compared to maize
(second highest) and rice (highest) (Me. Intire, 1986). Most of the research carried
out in the Sahel on fertilizer has shown that, without increased water availability,
responses and returns to fertilizer will be low (Matlon, 1987; Nagy et al., 1987;
Adesina, 1988; Sanders, 1989). Average negative economic returns were recorded
in Sahelian sites with low rainfall in ICRISAT farmers tests.
In recent years, attention has been paid to rock phosphate from large local
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deposits in the Sahel (Burkina-Faso, Mali, Niger and Senegal). These rocks are
reported to be in use as a direct application source. Many trials have confirmed
residual yield effects of a basal dose of such granulated phosphate (Matlon, 1985).
Despite multiyear delay in realizing full benefit due to solubility problems, dustiness,
partially acidulated forms of rock phosphate show promise in supplying phosphorus
to crops because of its low cost and easy-to-use type of technology (Matlon, 1985;
Me. Intire, 1985; Coulibaly, 1989). Applied research to solve solubility problems of
rock phosphate are underway by the German Foreign Aid Agency GTZ and the
International Fertilizer Development Center (IFDC) (Sanders, 1989). When the solubility
problem in rock phosphate is solved, it can be an appropriate technology for
increasing cereal yield in the Sahel. In Mali, rock phosphate from Tilemsi (Northern
Mali) is currently use by farmers in the Central and Southern regions where rainfall
ranges from 700 to 1000 mm per year.
Research on manure, compost and crop residues has shown the importance
of such organic inputs in counteracting the negative effects of continuous application
of nitrogenous fertilizer (Pichot et al., 1981) by maintaining yields and productivity.
Manure stables and compost with crop residues and rock phosphate have been tested
by Farming Systems Research and recommended to farmers in the Southern Cotton
Zone of Mali.
1.4. Animal traction
Animal traction is well known in Francophone West Africa and specially in the
Sahel. Since 1970, more than 50 projects involving animal traction have been funded
in Francophone West Africa (Sargent, et al., 1981). Higher rates of adoption of animal
traction are found in Southern Mali, Southern Gambia, South West Burnkina-Faso, the
Sine-Saloum zone of Senegal and the Soudanian zone of Chad (Matlon, 1983),
generally associated with cash crops (Dione, 1989, Adesina, 1990). Earlier research
in the Sahel (Delgado and Me. Intire, 1982) concluded that animal traction in isolation
from other improved technologies is not sufficiently profitable to compensate for the
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high opportunity cost of farm resources tied up in the technology. But, recent field
studies are challenging this view by demonstrating that draft animal tillage can be
profitably adopted by farmers in the Sahel with high utilization of animals and
equipment (Adesina, 1990; Jarger and Matlon, 1990). Animal traction clearly provides
extensification benefits and some labor- substituting effect to farmhouseholds
(Coulibaly, 1988; Dione, 1989; Adesina, 1990; Jaeger and Matlon, 1990). Because of
seasonal labor shortages in planting and weeding periods, animal traction offers
Sahelian farmers the only alternative for mechanized tillage and weeding operations
for the foreseeable future (Starkey and Faye, 1990).
1.5. Improved water and so!! management techniques
Improving the environment for crop growth has been a key research area in the
Sahel since the drought of the 1970's. Research has been mostly focussed on
improving water retention and soil fertility and conservation. Among the techniques
on shelves are tied ridges, anti-erosion dikes and bunds, and mulching. These
techniques have been shown to significantly increase yields (Nicou and Charreau,
1985; Nagy et al., 1986; Sanders, 1988; Jayne et al., 1989). Tied ridges are a
promising technology, which promotes soil fertility by conserving water and limiting
water erosion and improves crop establishment. Anti-erosion dikes, like tied ridges,
are a water conservation technique, which limits loss of organic matter and increases
water infiltration. Economic evaluation indicates that in Burkina-Faso, returns more
than offset labor cost of constructing the dikes in the initial year (Nagy et al., 1986).
Mulching reduces evaporation, rainfall runoff with crop residue left over the fields, but
the high demand for crop residues for animal feed, construction and fuel limits its use.
Improved water and soil management techniques in combination with animal
traction use (plowing, seeding, weeding) and moderate levels of fertilizers (organic and
inorganic) result in significant yield increase of crops in the Sahel (Nagy et at., 1986;
Adesina, 1987; Coulibaly, 1989; Sanders, 1989).
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1.6. Pest and weed management
Insect and weed control have received also some attention throughout the
Sahel. Most of the recommendations are based on chemical sprays and require
technology and inputs that are still out of reach for many farmers (Ter Kuile, 1985).
However, when input and output markets are favorable, chemical sprays are used by
farmers on crops that are very sensitive to pests. Examples are the use of insecticide
to control pod bugs and bruchids on high yielding cowpea varieties and the
widespread of a locally manufactured fungicide (THIORAL) for cereals and cowpea in
Mali. Insecticide is widely used on cotton in Southern Mali. But, in most national
agricultural research programs, efforts are underway to address pest and weed
problems through integrated pest management programs which combine breeding
with improved cropping practices and biological control.
II. IRRIGATION
With drought (1968-1974), unreality of the rain and prevailing food shortages,
priority has been given to the development of irrigation in the Sahel. Therefore, nearly
$ 1,8 billion was invested by donors in huge irrigation schemes (OTA, 1986). But
experiences with irrigation through large scale schemes have been disappointing. Per
hectare costs are substantially high and a CILSS/Club du Sahel estimated per hectare
investment of irrigation project to vary between $ 5,000 to $ 20,000 (Eicher and Baker,
1982). Rice has been the common crop under irrigation. Constraints to high yielding
of crops under irrigation have been reported by Matlon (1983) as poor water control,
absence of double cropping, inappropriate agronomic packages and lack of
complementary inputs. Matlon further adds that poor management, high recurrent
costs, lack of farmers incentives, intensive and directed irrigation with traditional
farmers have made economical potential of large scale irrigation project less
encouraging in the Sahel.
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But, potential for increasing the proportion of arable land in the Sahel has been
reported by FAO (1976). Eicher and Baker (1982) noted that this potential is still not
well known because of lack of soil mapping, hydrological surveys soil and agronomic
research for irrigated farming (plant water needs and yield responses under irrigation).
Few research has been carried out on indigenous irrigation techniques (small swamps
rice or bas-fonds rice) deemed adapted to local agro ecological conditions (Eicher and
Baker, 1982).
The profitability of small scale irrigation versus large schemes has been noted
by many authors in the Sahel (Sparling, 1981; Eicher and Baker, 1982; OTA, 1986).
III. EXPORTS/FOOD CROP DEBATE
Most of the research and agricultural strategies in the colonial and post
independence have been based toward export crops in the Sahel (cotton and peanut).
Redressing this imbalance may be important, but few researchers see it as a simple
question of switching from one to other (OTA, 1986; Dione, 1989).
Institutional factors such as credit, input and marketing services as well as price
factors have given more importance to export crops versus food crops (Matlon, 1985).
Increased productivity in the cotton industry has been achieved through technological
improvement, research and development and quality maintenance through extension
support (Abt Associates, 1990). The transfer and wide adoption of cotton and peanut
technologies in the Sahel show that sahelian farmers are responsive to economic
opportunities and incentives.
IV. LIVESTOCK
Efforts to improve the productivity of sahelian livestock systems have been less
successful as expected (Eicher and Baker, 1982; OTA, 1986) despite millions of dollars
channelled to livestock projects without a sound knowledge base.
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As with crop varieties, research on livestock in the Sahel has focused on
transferring imported and station bred materials to farmers. Unsuccessful results are
associated with poor environmental and farm resource base (inadequate water and
feed supplies, diseases and parasites, heat).
Research results have shown so far that technical coefficients for livestock are
still unfavorable in many sahelian countries (ILCA, 1978; Traore, 1990). More recent
research has shifted to crossing between imported and local materials, cattle feeding
(forage and pasture improvement), diseases and parasites; range management and
land use planting (Traore, 1990). Improvement of economic use of livestock through
small scale fattening schemes, integrated livestock crop management and the
relationship between pastoral livestock production (grazing) and environmental
degradation are on national livestock research agenda in the Sahel. In Mali, crossing
between local N'DAMA, Zebu and imported species or semens are underway to
increase milk and meat production as well resistance to environmental stress (climate,
diseases, poor feed supply).
ILCA and national agricultural research systems are working on animal feeding
with farm grown leguminous forages, agro-industrial and crops by products. Such
research centerprice is the integration between livestock and cropping systems typical
in most sahelian farm-households.
V. CONSTRAINTS TO TRANSFER AND ADOPTION OF PROPOSED
AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGIES
5.1. Physical constraints
Unpredictability of level and distribution of rainfall have increased risk of crop
failure, thus affecting the decision to adopt inputs such as chemical fertilizers. Also,
short growing season imposes severe time constraints on practicing adequate tillage.
Among other physical constraints are low soil fertility and water retention capacity,
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which compound the first ones, leading to highly variable inter-annual yield responses
to chemical fertilizers. This -in turn increases the risk of losing cash outlays for
purchased inputs (Nagy et al., 1986). Highly fragile and poor sandy soils are
challenging for further increase in productivity. An example is tied ridges that break
down with heavy rains on sandy soils in Niger (Nagy et al., 1983). Application of
fertilizers without an assured water supply is economically risky, since the response
to fertilizer is dependent upon the availability of water at critical stages of plant
development (Sanders, 1988; Coulibaly, 1989). The reduction of riskiness of fertilizer
use through improved water- retention capacity of the soils is a priority (Adesina et al.,
1987).
Harsh Sahelian agroclimatic conditions, pest existence and unrealistic
assumptions regarding these parameters were major factors in the poor performance
of new varieties of sorghum and millet brought to the Sahel from India by ICRISAT
(Matlon, 1985; Spencer 1985; Sanders, 1988).
5.2. Inappropriateness of technology development
a). Too much focus on breeding and direct transfer of varieties
Successful breeding results from the Green Revolution have been tried in the
Sahel in order to accelerate food production after 1973). Cereal breeding efforts
already started by French Research Organization (IRAT) have been accelerated by the
international and national agricultural research agencies, among which ICRISAT
(Sanders, 1989). These efforts concentrated on developing cultivars on experimental
stations with high-input and sophisticated cultural practices without much attention to
Sahelian micro-variations in climate, soils and socio-economic constraints at the farm
level where resource endowment is limited (Ibid).
This breeding strategy has been abandoned because of the poor performance
of introduced varieties at the farm level, where agroclimatic stress and low level input
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were constraining. Food quality, an important adoption criterion, was ignored. In Mali,
a sorghum variety CE90 failed to be adopted by farmers because of low consumer
acceptability of the quality of its Toh (a local dish made from sorghum and millet): Ton
made with CE90 did not taste as good as that made with local varieties (Coulibaly,
1990). New efforts are being made toward evaluating and exploiting local genetic
diversity of West African materials for crossing (Matlon, 1983; Sanders, 1988; Beninati,
1990).
One of the important problems in agricultural development in the Sahel is that
too much has been expected from breeders to come up with high-yielding and stable
varieties
under conditions of low and erratic rainfall and poor soil fertility (Sanders, 1989;
Beninati, 1989; Niangado, 1990).
b). Lack of profitability of agricultural technologies
High costs of production and low farmer returns for different agricultural
technologies have impeded their wide use by farmers in the Sahel. A well known case
of low profitability as a constraint to adoption of technology in the Sahel is that of
imported chemical fertilizer use on cereals.
Low and variable cereal yield responses, high prices of chemical fertilizers, low
and precipitous fall in cereal prices have limited chemical fertilizer use in most of
Sahelian countries (Matlon, 1983; Adesina, 1988; Coulibaly, 1989). Fertilizers are then
mostly used on cash crops which can pay for them. In Southern Mali, guaranteed
market prices and a well organized credit system for cotton have been important in
wide use of animal traction (Dione, 1989).
Short-term returns are also important for poor farmers to adopt technologies.
In Mali, rock phosphate, which requires two to three years before farmers can notice
the crop responses (solubility problems), has had low rates of adoption by farmers.
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Also, technologies that require high-labor inputs at critical peak-labor periods have low
chance to be adopted by farm-households facing scarce labor endowment. In their
fertilizer study in Niger, Adesina et al. (1987) have shown that farmers' risk, liquidity
position and seasonal labor constraints are factors limiting fertilizer use.
It has been noticed by many scientists that the lack of profitability of agricultural
technologies can be largely explained by the lack of socio-economic inputs in research
design. Most efforts of technology development lack inputs from social scientists to
modify its design and to make it more profitable or attractive to farmers, traders and
consumers (Staatz, 1990). In Mali, most of research stations are staffed with technical
scientists. The programs administratively and technically separate disciplines into
discrete vertical entities (Schilling et al., 1989). Little knowledge about marketing
credit, prices and costs of production is taken into account in technology
development, which ends up being costly, therefore impeding adoption by end users.
c). Lack of adequate funding and well trained scientists
The erratic and low funding of national agricultural research and the
inadequately staffed research programs are characteristics of Sahelian countries. Most
agricultural research or training programs are funded on externally short-term research
projects. Ultimately budgetary allocation constraints jeopardize agricultural
experiments and data collection activities throughout the Sahel (Spencer, 1985).
Inadequate funding and lack of political support add to the poor management of
scarce qualified human resources in research, characterized by experienced staff
instability and lack of incentives to scientists. The critical mass of scientists is lacking
in most national agricultural research systems. Vallaeys and al. (1989) report that the
mean number of research workers per million rural inhabitants is 7 in most of sahelian
countries.
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5.2. Institutional constraints to technology transfer and adoption in the Sahel
(a). Credit constraints
Limited access to credit for most of the farmers to invest in agricultural technologies has impeded transfer of technologies in the Sahel. Even when
technologies are profitable, less risky, farmers can't adopting them due to credit constraints (Staatz, 1990). Technologies that require initial high-capital investment
(e.g., animal traction) may be less adopted in areas without significant cash crop
farming to guarantee a sustainable stream of substantial farm income over a relatively
long period (Dione, 1989).
In his study of animal traction in Mali, Adesina (1990) found that 50% of the farmers indicated that the lack of credit for animal traction is the major problem limiting
their use of tillage technology. Profitability of animal traction depends on support
services. In-kind credit program run by a rural development project in Mali (FDVS)
allowed 93% of the farmers in the area to continue using the new varieties of cowpeas
by supplying them with insecticide, a key input for cowpea (Coulibaly, 1987; Coulibaly, 1989). In contrast, 80% of farmers in villages without access to credit have tried the
new varieties (KN1, TN 8863) of cowpea but quit using them because they were not profitable without insecticides (Coulibaly, 1987). Constraints to adoption of fertilizer
technology by sma1 ; scale farmers in Southern Niger include the poor liquidity position
of farmers (Adesina et al, 1987). Higher positive correlations have been found
between cotton production farmers' access to formal credit and use of chemical fertilizers in Southern Mali (Dione, 1989).
Poor functioning of input markets such as the lack of effective supply and distribution of implements and inputs, has often prevented farmers from adopting
improved agricultural technologies in the Sahel.
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(b). Poor extension systems for tainted food crop technologies
Extension policies in the Sahel are typically characterized by their top-down
approach of most of the extension policies and their excessive focus on commodities
and activities (managing credit, supply inputs and farm equipments), with few sound
technologies to be diffused. Poor linkages between research and extension have been
noticed. But one of the biggest weaknesses in technology transfer in the Sahel is the
poor understanding of farm level constraints by researchers, extension agents as well
as policy makers. First generation Sahelian agricultural programs attempted to
develop and extend combinations of interdependent technologies delivered to the
farmers as "packages". This package approach proved to be disappointing (OTA,
1986). Lack of information about farmers' adoption patterns of technologies has
handicapped thorough technology transfer in the Sahel and elsewhere. Farmer's
strategy to adopt single technologies or "cluste; ~" of technologies on route to total
package adoption, what Byerlee and de Polanco (1986) have termed stepwise
adoption, has rarely been understood by extension agents. Within the package,
technologies that are available, economically profitable, and less risky while fitting in
the farm systems (resource endowment) have greater chance to be selected for earlier
adoption before the other elements. An evidence of such selective adoption is the
case of new varieties of cowpea adoption by farmers around the agricultural research
station of Cinzana in Mali between 1983-1987. Farmers quickly adopted short cycle
(60-75 days) varieties (compared with 120-160 days for traditional ones) and the
accompanying insecticide instead of chemical fertilizers. In addition to maturing earlier
(this breaking the hungry season) the new varieties of cowpeas with insecticide
yielded, at 1,000 kg/ha, 12.5 times as much as the traditional varieties. Because of
their high sensitivity to pests, the profitability of the new varieties of cowpeas depended
more on using insecticides than increasing the level of fertilizer used. Likewise, some
farmers who faced cash constraint to pay for ULV sprayer still found it profitable to
adopt insecticide and use traditional brushes to spray it on cowpea plants.
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(c). Food marketing constraints
Bad marketing and price policies have been perceived by most policy analysts as major impediments to the growth of food production in the Sahel (Coulibaly, 1987;
Dione, 1989).
After independence, Sahelian countries adopted compulsory marketing of food- grains through parastatals (OPVN in Niger, OPAM in Mali). Official consumer and producer prices for all major commodities were fixed by the state, with conflicting objectives such as increasing rural incomes, providing cheap food to urban consumers and extracting surpluses from agriculture to finance state investment (Dione and
Staatz, 1988). These policies lead to depressed producer prices and hence
constrained food crop technology adoption by farmers. Steps have been taken to remove subsidies for imported cereals and flour and relax food prices. In Mali, market liberalization for food crops was designed as centerprice of a strategy aiming at restoring both producer and trader incentives though the idea of "getting the prices right" to stimulate cereals production and marketing (Dione, 1989). But, these policy reforms have some limitations. They lack a careful analysis of micro-economic data of Sahelian production systems and ot the linkages between macro-level policies and
micro-level responses (OTA, 1986). Assumptions that farmers' income and incentive
to adopt new technologies and to produce more cereals will increase by getting prices right can be misleading. In his food security policy study in Mali, Dione (1989), has shown that in the short-term, higher coarse grain prices benefit mainly fewer than one third of the farm-households while depressing the real income of 43% of the sample farmers, who were net buyers of cereals.
Competition of coarse grains with rice and wheat can be disincentives in transfer of rainfed cereal technologies. Without alternatives uses of millet and sorghum
into more marketable products, incentives to develop and transfer their production technologies will have little chance to succeed because of depressed effective demand. Under-investment in physical infrastructures (roads, storage capacities) and
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lack of information systems are also major constraints to well functioning of markets of food crops in the Sahel.
VI. SUGGESTIONS TO IMPROVING THE DEVELOPMENT, DIFFUSION AND
ADOPTION OF FOOD CROP TECHNOLOGIES IN THE SAHEL
Food crop technology development and transfer in the Sahel is more complex than has been assumed by donors, government agencies, and expatriates and national scientists.
Guidelines to improve the whole system include technology development which addresses agronomic environment constraints given farm-level socio-economic resources and objectives and appropriate institutional support. Technologies developed must be sustainable, i.e., they must be compatible with the resources and goals of farmers, affordable, and stable.
6.1. Improvement of agronomic environment
Given low and erratic rainfalls and low soil fertility, simultaneous improvements in water retention and soil fertility are priorities to focus on. Further on-farm tests and diffusion are needed on tied ridges, digues, water-shed management techniques, and laying out contours. Optimal organic and inorganic formulas including natural rock phosphate use and manuring should be developed. Mechanical ridges and locally- made and tiers as well as support for equipment spare parts and draft animal availability will be important to improve crop environment. These technologies will reduce physical environment risks which constrain increases in yields.
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6.2. Improvement of research design
Research should be location specific and reflect low levels of management and
input use to decrease yield gaps between stations and farms. Better understanding
of agroclimatic variations and cropping systems diversity is necessary. Crop
improvement should focus on stress (drought, pest and disease) resistances and food
quality to meet consumers preferences (alternative use of millet and sorghum for
animal feed). Research on management issues in irrigation should be adressed to
decrease costs of production. More research on small scale irrigation is needed.
Research on livestock will focus on improving crop livestock interactions (forage,
animal power, soil fertility). Farm level socio-economic characteristics and institutional
data should be incorporated in setting research priorities and designing technology
through multidisciplinary commodity-based research involving technical and social
scientists. Long run support from government, donors development agencies and
international research institutes to national research programs through funding,
collaborative research and training should be committed to improving food crop
technology development and transfer in the Sahel.
6.3. Improvement of research - extension - farmer linkages
An effective participation of farmers, extension agents into research design, with
feed-back about technologies used to researchers is required for to appropriate
technology development in the Sahel. This implies a new extension program design,
with a decrease in agent burdening-work load (credit management, input supply) and
better working conditions (more training, better salaries and logistics) of extension
agents.
6.4. Improvement of institutional setting
Access to reliable input and output markets should be improved. An integrated
seed multiplication that ensures high quality seeds is necessary. Public and private
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deliveries along with village-level farmer management of input supply and credit should
be encouraged. An example of such farmer participation is the management of in-kind
credit and cotton marketing at farm level by village associations in Southern Mali
(CMDT). Improving farmers and herders capacity of managing their own institutions
through training and developing managerial skills is a key for agricultural technology
transfer. Private banking system should be encouraged to extend loans directly to
farmers' associations (Dione, 1989). Special attention should also be paid to fiscal
policies, which constrain farmers' investment in animal traction equipment and other
farm investments. Alternatives use of cereals such as ready to cook rice-like products,
animal feeds may contribute to expanding effective demand for cereals. An important
institutional problem in the Sahel is the access of women to agricultural technologies
which needs to be adressed through tailored credit and extension to women as well
as men. The proposed technological package for women will include post-harvest
processing and storage techniques as well as crop production ones (Keimar, 1985).
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