Introduction to AstronauticsSissejuhatus kosmonautikasse
Vladislav Pustõnski
2009 – 2012
Tallinn University of Technology
2
Main goals of Astronautics andways to space
• Role of Astronautics in the modern lifeNo Astronautics means:1. Back to global cable relay, decrease of speed and deterioration of
quality of TV broadcast, Internet etc.2. No global navigation and positioning (no GPS etc.)3. Degradation of weather forecast and mapping4. Limited research of the upper atmosphere, solar activity etc.5. Deterioration of military reconnaissance, no precise guidance of
missiles etc.6. Degradation of space science: no space telescopes, no in situ
research throughout the Solar System, particles and fields, no precise physical experiments, no biological experiments in space
7. No manned spaceflights: no International Space Station, no Moon nor planetary missions
3
• Main types of spacecraft1. Satellites for practical applications:
I. Radio relay (TV broadcast, Internet etc.)II. Global navigation and positioning (GPS etc.)III. Earth observations (weather forecast, mapping, global and local changes)IV. Applied science (research of the upper atmosphere, solar activity, radiation etc.)V. Military (reconnaissance, positioning, guidance of missiles etc.)
2. Astronomy, physical and other sciences:I. Space telescopes (optical, IR, UV, , X-ray etc.)II. Solar System missions (Moon and planetary missions, missions to comets,
asteroids etc.)III. Research of particles and fields, spacecraft for verification of physical theoriesIV. Biological experiments
3. Manned space flights:I. Experiments in space and servicing of unmanned spacecraftII. The Space Station, long-term living in spaceIII. Manned missions to the Moon and the planets
4
• Example satellites and spacecraft
Navstar GPS satellite GOES-8 weather satellite
Sputnik-3USSR research satellite
Hubble space telescope
Cassini-Huygens mission to Saturn
Apollo-16 Lunar Module and LRV
Mir Space Station
Telstar communication satellite
5
1. Possible with current technology:I. Space gun
II. Electromagnetic catapult
III. Space plane
IV. Ramjet/scramjet
2. Need for advanced technology or new materials with still unavailable properties:
I. Space tower
II. Space elevators (mostly constructions based on tethers)
III. Momentum exchange tethers (rotovators)
IV. Laser propulsion
• Alternative ways to spaceTasks: use cheaper alternative methods to reach space (mostly Low Earth Orbit)
6
I. Old and new
II. Small and large
III. From ground, water & air
IV. Reliable, but sometimes fail
• Rocket as launch vehicleFact: rocket propulsion is currently the only way to space
7
End of Lecture 1
8
1. Passive satellites:I. Echo 1A: August 12, 1960, ~30 m inflated reflecting sphere.
First communication satellite
2. Active satellites:I. Telstar 1/2: July 10, 1962, ~1 m sphere, ~80 kg. First active
communication satellite (also first privately sponsored satellite). Elliptical orbit, P~2.5h, availability ~20 min/orbit
II. Syncom 2: July 26, 1963, first operational geosynchronous satellite (height of orbit ~ 36 000 km, P = 24h, i ~ 33º)
III. Syncom 3: August 19, 1964, first geostationary satellite (height of orbit ~ 36 000 km, P = 24h, i ~ 0º)
IV. Molniya-1: April 23, 1965. First soviet communication satellite. Highly elliptical orbit, apogee ~ 40 000 km, P ~ 12h, i ~ 63º, availability ~ 10 hours/2 orbits
• Communication satellitesTasks: telephony, TV, radio, Internet, fixed services, other communication
issues (i.e. communication with ISS etc.)
9
1. Early era:I. Transit 1B: April 13, 1960. System entered service in 1964.
Polar orbits, accuracy ~200 m
II. Kosmos-1000: March 31, 1978. Russian “Tsykada” navigation system
2. Modern systems:I. GPS: 24 satellites in 6 orbital planes (plus reserve). 1978, first
experimental satellite (Block-I)
II. GLONASS: 24 satellites in 3 orbital planes. 1982, first operational satellite. 1995 – 24 satellites, now again 24.
III. Galileo: 30 satellites in 3 orbital planes. 2005, first esperimental satellite (GIOVE-A)
• Navigation satellitesTasks: navigation, positioning, time transfer, mapping, geographical &
geophysical sciences, search, tracking and rescue, location-based media
10
1. Early era:I. TIROS I: April 1, 1960. First successful weather satellite
II. Kosmos-122: 1966. The first USSR dedicated weather satellite
2. Later and present systems:I. USA: GOES
II. Europe: Meteosat
III. USSR/Russia: Meteor, Meteor-M
IV. China: Fengyun
V. Japan: MTSAT-1R
• Weather satellitesTasks: weather forecast, climate changes, pollution, prediction of
catastrophic events (storms, typhoons etc.), long-term & short-term changes (ocean level, deserts areas, volcanoes, vegetation, snow etc.)
Weather satellites are mostly on geostationary or polar orbits
11
1. Early era:I. Sputnik-2: November 3, 1957. The first animal in space
II. Explorer 1: February 1, 1958. Research of space in different heights, van Allen belts discovered. First USA satellite
2. Later noticible missions:Explorer series, Orbital Geophysical Observatory (OGO) satellites (USA), Proton satellites (USSR heavy satellites launched by 2-stage version of Proton rocket)
3. Today’s outstanding missionsI. Gravity Probe B: Space experiment for verification of the general
theory of relativity (2004 – 2005, data is still being analyzed)
II. Planck satellite: ESA space experiment to study anisotropies of cosmic microwave background (2009).
• Research satellitesTasks: research of atmosphere, the Sun, particles, fields, verification of
physical theories, biological experiments and many more
12
1. Early era:I. OAO: 3 satellites 1968 – 81, prominent UV and X-ray space observatories
II. Uhuru: 1970-73, famous X-ray observatory
2. Great Observatories:I. Hubble Space Telescope (HST): launched 1990. Optical, UV, near IR. Still
in service
II. Compton -Ray Observatory: 1991 – 2000
III. Chandra X-Ray Observatory: 1999 –
IV. Spitzer Space Telescope: 2003 – , IR-telescope
3. Recent & future missions:I. Kepler mission: 2009. Exoplanets search through detection of stellar transits
II. Hershel Space Observatory: 2009, ESA mission, IR & sub-mm
III. James Webb Space Telescope: 2018 (?). IR telescope in the L2 point
• Space telescopesTasks: observations of fields and particles free of influence of the Earth’s
atmosphere
13
1. Early era:I. Luna-1: January 2, 1959, the first solar satellite (gained the escape velocity)II. Luna-2: September 12, 1959, first reached the Moon (Sep. 14)III. Luna-3: October 4, 1959, first photographed the far side of the Moon IV. Mariner 4: First Mars fly-by, first close photos of Mars (Jul. 1965)V. Venera-3: First reached the planet (Mar. 1965)VI. Luna-9: First lunar soft landing Feb. 6, 1966, first Moon panoramasVII. Luna-17: First automatic rover Lunokhod, 1970 – 71VIII. Pioneer 10/11: First Jupiter & Saturn fly-byes (1973, 1979), close-up images
2. Later outstanding missions:I. Voyager 1/2: great planets fly-byes (Uranus 1986, Neptune 1989)II. Viking 1/2: First Mars landers & orbiters, 1975 – 80III. Magellan: Venus high-resolution mapping, 1990 – 94IV. Galileo: Jupiter orbiter & atmospheric probe, 1995 – 2003V. Mars Exploration Rovers: Twin martian rovers mission, 2004 –VI. Cassini/Huygens: Saturn orbiter & Titan probe, 2004 –
• Solar System missionsTasks: probes to the Moon, the planets, their satellites, comets, asteroids
14
1. Early era:I. Vostok-1: April 12, 1961, first human to space, Yu.Gagarin
II. Voskhod: October 12, 1964, first spacecraft for more than one men
III. Voskhod-2: March 18, 1965, first spacewalk (A.Leonov)
IV. Gemini VIII: March 1966, first docking
V. Soyuz-1: April 1967, first disaster and casualty (at landing), V.Komarov
VI. Salyut: 1971, first space station
2. New age:I. Space Shuttle: 1981 – 2011, first reusable space winged vehicle
II. Mir: 1986 – 2001, first modular consistently inhabited space station
III. International Space Station (ISS): 1998 –
• Manned orbital spacecraftTasks: provide flights of human beings to Low Earth Orbit, their long-term
stay and work
15
1. Moon race, 1961- mid 1970’s:I. May 25, 1961, Kennedy speech that started the Moon race
II. Apollo 8: December, 1968, first human beings on the lunar orbit
III. Apollo 11: July, 21, 1969, first lunar walk (N.Armstrong)
IV. Apollo 13: April 1970, serious failure in the deep space, emergency return without landing
V. Apollo 15: 1971, first car on the Moon
VI. mid 1960’s – mid. 1970’s, USSR program (failed)
2. Future plans:I. ISS: till 2020
II. Next generation expendable manned spacecraft and heavy launch vehicles, possible return to the Moon or visits to asteroids (uncertain)
III. Beyond 2030: Mars exploration with manned vehicles
• Manned Moon and planetary missionsTasks: flights of human beings to the Moon and the planets
Syncom 3 geostationary communication satellite
Geostatinonary orbit and Molniya orbit
Syncom 3
first geostationary satellite
Molniya communication satellite
Molniya orbit
TIROS I weather satellite
First TV picture from space
TIROS I launch
Sputnik-2 satellite
Layka inside sealed container
Model of Sputnik-2
Luna-3 Moon probe
One of the first photos of the far side of the Moon
Luna-3
Mars Exploration Rovers
Martian panorama;
landing platformMER, artistic concept
Vostok manned spaceship
Gagarin’s reentry capsuleSchematic representation of Vostok spaceship and
its launch vehicle
Space Shuttle
Space Shuttle landing after the first orbital flight
Space Shuttle Columbia inauguration launch
Apollo program
Apollo CSM on the lunar orbitApollo 11 Lunar Module on the Moon (Buzz Oldrin
is in front)
Soviet lunar program
Moon fly-by spaceships ZondN1 rocket launch
Space gun
HARP gun shot
Columbiad of
Jules Vern
Advantages:• Launch is very cheap
Problems:• High acceleration
• Atmospheric drag
• Need for upper stage
Historical background:
•HARP 16 inch gun, barrel 40 m, projectile
180 kg, velocity 3,6 km/s, altitude 180 km
•Project Babylon Gerald Bull supergun project for
Iraq, parameters uncertain
Electromagnetic catapult (mass driver)
Electromagnetic catapult
for launch from the Moon
(artist’s conception)
Advantages:• Launch is very cheap
• Enables moderate acceletations
• May be useful on small planets to propel small objects
Problems:• Even high accelerations on the Earth
• Atmospheric drag
• Massive bearing structure
Historical background:
•Mass Driver 1 Prototype built by students in MIT,
1976 – 77
Space plane
Mock-up of Dyna-Soar X-33 artist’s concept
Advantages:• No oxidizer onboard needed
• Aerodynamic forces available
• Lower thrust is sufficient for start
Problems:• Extra weight of wings
• High aerodynamic drag
• Complexity of engines
• Harsh flight environment
Historical background:• X-20 Dyna-Soar Rocket-launched space plane. Weight
~5 tons 1957 – 63
• HOTOL British government call, several tons to
orbit, 1986 – 88
• VentureStar/X-33 (prototype) NASA call, Lockheed Martin project.
Mass ~130 tons. Cancelled 2001
Ramjet/scramjet
Scramjet engine
X-43A attached to Pegasus
Advantages:•No oxidizer onboard needed
Problems:• Nonoperational at low velocities
• Orbital velocity inachievable
• Low trust-weight ratio
• High cost
Historical background:• X-30 DARP call. McDonnel Douglas,
Rocketdyne etc. project, mid 1980 – 93
• HyShot University of Queensland, Australia, 2002.
First scramjet tests, rocket-launched engine
•X-43 X-43A scramjet launched by Pegasus
rocket, 2004. Glider 3,7 m long, ~1400 kg.
3,4 km/s achieved
Exotic launch systems (proposals)
Space elevator
Rotovator
Laser propulsion, artist’s concept
Old rockets and new rockets
Launch of Delta IV HeavySoviet R-7 ICBM
32
Arian 5 launch
Arian 5 launch
Small rockets and large rockets
Saturn V, Energia, R-7, Vanguard
Ground, water & air launches
Proton-K ground launch
Baikonur
Zenit-3SL sea launch
Odyssey Launch Platform, Pacific
Pegasus before its air launch
aboard Lockheed L-1011 plane
35
Delta II failure
Delta II failure