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KING NEROBy
Dr. S.N. Suresh
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Contents
1 Early life
o 1.1 Family
o 1.2 Physical appearance
o 1.3 Rise to power
2 Emperor
o 2.1 Early rule
o 2.2 Matricide and consolidation of power
o 2.3 Administrative policies
o 2.4 Great Fire of Rome
o 2.5 Public performances
o 2.6 War and peace with Parthia
o 2.7 Other major power struggles and rebellions
o 2.8 The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero
o 2.9 After death
3 Historiography
4 Nero and religion
o 4.1 Jewish tradition
o 4.2 Christian tradition
5 Ancestry
6 See also
7 Notes
8 References
o 8.1 Primary sources
o 8.2 Secondary material
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Early life
Roman imperial dynasties
Julio-Claudian dynasty
Chronology
Augustus 27 BC – 14 AD
Tiberius 14 AD – 37 AD
Caligula 37 AD – 41 AD
Claudius 41 AD – 54 AD
Nero 54 AD – 68 AD
Family
Gens Julia
Gens Claudia
Julio-Claudian family tree
Category:Julio-Claudian
Dynasty
Succession
Preceded by
Roman
Republic
Followed by
Year of the Four
Emperors
Family
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Nero was born on 15 December, AD 37, in Antium, near Rome.[9][10]
He was
the only son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and second and third cousin
Agrippina the Younger, sister of emperor Caligula.
Lucius' father was the grandson of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and
Aemilia Lepida through their son Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus
was a grandson to Mark Antony and Octavia Minor through their daughters
Antonia Major and Antonia Minor, by each parent. With Octavia, he was the
grandnephew of Caesar Augustus. Nero's father had been employed as a
praetor and was a member of Caligula's staff when the latter traveled to the
East.[11] Nero's father was described by Suetonius as a murderer and a cheat
who was charged by emperor Tiberius with treason, adultery, and incest.[11]
Tiberius died, allowing him to escape these charges.[11]
Nero's father died of
edema (or "dropsy") in 39 AD when Nero was three.[11]
Lucius' mother was Agrippina the Younger, who was great-granddaughter to
Caesar Augustus and his wife Scribonia through their daughter Julia the
Elder and her husband Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Agrippina's father,
Germanicus, was grandson to Augustus's wife, Livia, on one side and to
Mark Antony and Octavia on the other. Germanicus' mother Antonia Minor,
was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony. Octavia was Augustus'
second elder sister. Germanicus was also the adoptive son of Tiberius. A
number of ancient historians accuse Agrippina of murdering her third
husband, emperor Claudius.[12]
Physical appearance
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In the book "The Lives of the Twelve Caesars" the Roman historian
Suetonius describes Nero as "about the average height, his body marked
with spots and malodorous, his hair light blond, his features regular rather
than attractive, his eyes blue and somewhat weak, his neck over thick, his
belly prominent, and his legs very slender."[13]
Rise to power
Nero was not expected ever to become emperor because his maternal uncle,
Caligula, had begun his reign at the age of 25 with ample time to produce his
own heir. Lucius' mother, Agrippina, lost favor with Caligula and was exiledin 39 after her husband's death.
[14]Caligula seized Lucius's inheritance and
sent him to be raised by his less wealthy aunt, Domitia Lepida, who was the
mother of Valeria Messalina, Claudius's third wife.[10]
Caligula, his wife Caesonia and their infant daughter Julia Drusilla were
murdered on January 24, 41.[15]
These events led Claudius, Caligula's uncle,
to become emperor.[16] Claudius allowed Agrippina to return from exile.[10]
Coin issued under Claudius celebrating young Nero as the future emperor, c.
50
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Claudius had married twice before marrying Valeria Messalina.[17]
His
previous marriages produced three children including a son, Drusus, who
died at a young age.[18]
He had two children with Messalina - Claudia
Octavia (b. 40) and Britannicus (b. 41).[18]
Messalina was executed by
Claudius in the year 48.[17]
In 49, Claudius married a fourth time, to
Agrippina.[18]
To aid Claudius politically, Lucius was officially adopted in
50 and renamed Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus (see adoption in Rome).[19]
Nero was older than his stepbrother, Britannicus, and became heir to the
throne.[20]
Nero was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14.[21] He was appointed
proconsul, entered and first addressed the Senate, made joint public
appearances with Claudius, and was featured in coinage.[21]
In 53, he married
his stepsister Claudia Octavia.[22]
Emperor
Early rule
Aureus of Nero and his mother, Agrippina, c. 54.
Claudius died in 54 and Nero was established as emperor. Though accounts
vary greatly, many ancient historians state Agrippina poisoned Claudius.[12]
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It is not known how much Nero knew or was involved in the death of
Claudius.[23]
Nero became emperor at 16, the youngest emperor up until that time.[24]
Ancient historians describe Nero's early reign as being strongly influenced
by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Lucius Annaeus Seneca, and the
Praetorian Prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, especially in the first year.[25]
Other tutors were less often mentioned, such as Alexander of Aegae.[26]
Very early in Nero's rule, problems arose from competition for influence
between Agrippina and Nero's two main advisers, Seneca and Burrus.
Seneca and Nero, after Eduardo Barrón, Cordoba, Spain.
In 54, Agrippina tried to sit down next to Nero while he met with an
Armenian envoy, but Seneca stopped her and prevented a scandalous
scene.[27]
Nero's personal friends also mistrusted Agrippina and told Nero to
beware of his mother.[28]
Nero was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage
to Octavia and entered into an affair with Claudia Acte, a former slave.[29]
In
55, Agrippina attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that
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her son dismiss Acte. Nero, with the support of Seneca, resisted the
intervention of his mother in his personal affairs.[30]
With Agrippina's influence over her son severed, she reportedly began
pushing for Britannicus, Nero's stepbrother, to become emperor.[30]
Nearly
fifteen-year-old Britannicus, heir-designate prior to Nero's adoption, was
still legally a minor, but was approaching legal adulthood.[30]
According to
Tacitus, Agrippina hoped that with her support, Britannicus, being the blood
son of Claudius, would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over
Nero.[30]
However, the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February,
55, the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set. [31] Nero
claimed that Britannicus died from an epileptic seizure, but ancient
historians all claim Britannicus' death came from Nero's poisoning him.[32]
After the death of Britannicus, Agrippina was accused of slandering Octavia
and Nero ordered her out of the imperial residence.[33]
Matricide and consolidation of power
Coin of Nero and Poppaea Sabina
Over time, Nero became progressively more powerful, freeing himself of his
advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne. In 55, he removed Marcus
Antonius Pallas, an ally of Agrippina, from his position in the treasury.[30]
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Pallas, along with Burrus, was accused of conspiring against the emperor to
bring Faustus Sulla to the throne.[34]
Seneca was accused of having relations
with Agrippina and embezzlement.[35]
Seneca succeeded in having himself,
Pallas and Burrus acquitted.[35]
According to Cassius Dio, at this time,
Seneca and Burrus reduced their role in governing from careful management
to mere moderation of Nero.[36]
In 58, Nero became romantically involved with Poppaea Sabina, the wife of
his friend and future emperor Otho.[37]
Reportedly because a marriage to
Poppaea and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with
Agrippina alive, Nero ordered the murder of his mother in 59. [38] A number
of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as Nero did not marry
Poppaea until 62.[39]
Additionally, according to Suetonius, Poppaea did not
divorce her husband until after Agrippina's death, making it unlikely that the
already married Poppaea would be pressing Nero for marriage.[40]
Some
modern historians theorize that Nero's execution of Agrippina was prompted
by her plotting to set Rubellius Plautus on the throne.[41]
According to
Suetonius, Nero tried to kill his mother through a planned shipwreck, which
took the life of her friend, Acerronia Polla, but when Agrippina survived, he
had her executed and framed it as a suicide.[42]
The incident is also recorded
by Tacitus.[43]
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The Remorse of Nero after Killing his Mother , by John William Waterhouse,
1878.
In 62 Nero's adviser, Burrus, died.[44]
Additionally, Seneca was again faced
with embezzlement charges.[45]
Seneca asked Nero for permission to retire
from public affairs.[46]
Nero divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of
infertility, leaving him free to marry the pregnant Poppaea.[47]
After public
protests, Nero was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile,[47]
but she
was executed shortly after her return.[48]
Nero also was reported to have
kicked Poppaea to death in 65 before she could have his second child.[49]
However, modern historians, noting Suetonius, Tacitus and Cassius Dio's
possible bias against Nero and the likelihood that they did not have
eyewitness accounts of private events, postulate that Poppaea may have died
because of complications of miscarriage or childbirth.[50]
Accusations of treason being plotted against Nero and the Senate first
appeared in 62.[51]
The Senate ruled that Antistius, a praetor, should be put to
death for speaking ill of Nero at a party. Later, Nero ordered the exile of
Fabricius Veiento who slandered the Senate in a book.[52]
Tacitus writes that
the roots of the conspiracy led by Gaius Calpurnius Piso began in this year.
To consolidate power, Nero executed a number of people in 62 and 63
including his rivals Pallas, Rubellius Plautus and Faustus Sulla.[53]
According to Suetonius, Nero "showed neither discrimination nor
moderation in putting to death whomsoever he pleased" during this
period.[54]
Nero's consolidation of power also included a slow usurping of authority
from the Senate. In 54, Nero promised to give the Senate powers equivalent
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to those under Republican rule.[55]
By 65, senators complained that they had
no power left and this led to the Pisonian conspiracy.[56]
Administrative policies
Coin showing Nero distributing charity to a citizen. c. 64-66
Over the course of his reign, Nero often made rulings that pleased the lower
class. Nero was criticised as being obsessed with being popular.[57]
Nero began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy.[55]
In
this first year, he forbade others to refer to him with regard to enactments,
for which he was praised by the Senate.[58]
Nero was known for spending his
time visiting brothels and taverns during this period.[58]
In 55, Nero began taking on a more active role as an administrator. He was
consul four times between 55 and 60. During this period, some ancient
historians speak fairly well of Nero and contrast it with his later rule.[59]
Under Nero, restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines.[60]
Also,
fees for lawyers were limited.[61]
There was a discussion in the Senate on the
misconduct of the freedmen class, and a strong demand was made that
patrons should have the right of revoking freedom.[62]
Nero supported the
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freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right.[63]
The Senate tried to
pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a
household. Nero vetoed the measure.[64]
After tax collectors were accused of
being too harsh to the poor, Nero transferred collection authority to lower
commissioners.[60]
Nero banned any magistrate or procurator from exhibiting
public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to
sway the populace.[65]
Additionally, there were many impeachments and
removals of government officials along with arrests for extortion and
corruption.[66]
When further complaints arose that the poor were being
overly taxed, Nero attempted to repeal all indirect taxes.[67]
The Senate
convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury.[67]
As a
compromise, taxes were cut from 4.5% to 2.5%.[68]
Additionally, secret
government tax records were ordered to become public.[68]
To lower the cost
of food imports, merchant ships were declared tax-exempt.[68]
Nero's abandoned Corinth canal
In imitation of the Greeks, Nero built a number of gymnasiums and
theatres.[69]
Enormous gladiatorial shows were also held.[70]
Nero also
established the quinquennial Neronia.[69][70]
The festival included games,
poetry and theater. Historians indicate that there was a belief that theatre led
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to immorality.[69]
Others considered that to have performers dressed in Greek
clothing was old fashioned.[71]
Some questioned the large public expenditure
on entertainment.[71]
In 64, Rome burned.[72]
Nero enacted a public relief effort[72]
as well as
significant reconstruction.[73]
A number of other major construction projects
occurred in Nero's late reign. Nero had the marshes of Ostia filled with
rubble from the fire. He erected the large Domus Aurea.[74]
In 67, Nero
attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of Corinth.[75]
Ancient
historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the
State's budget.[76]
The economic policy of Nero is a point of debate among scholars. According
to ancient historians, Nero's construction projects were overly extravagant
and the large number of expenditures under Nero left Italy "thoroughly
exhausted by contributions of money" with "the provinces ruined."[77][78]
Modern historians, though, note that the period was riddled with deflation
and that it is likely that Nero's spending came in the form of public works
projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles.[79]
Great Fire of Rome
The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July, AD 64.
The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus Maximus in shops
selling flammable goods.[72]
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Sketch of Ancient graffiti portrait of Nero found at the Domus Tiberiana.
The extent of the fire is uncertain. According to Tacitus, who was nine at the
time of the fire, it spread quickly and burned for over five days.[80]
It
completely destroyed three of fourteen Roman districts and severely
damaged seven.[80]
The only other historian who lived through the period
and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder, who wrote about it in passing.[81]
Other historians who lived through the period (including Josephus, DioChrysostom, Plutarch, and Epictetus) make no mention of it.
It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire — whether accident or
arson.[72]
Suetonius and Cassius Dio favor Nero as the arsonist, so he could
build a palatial complex. It is also said that Nero played the fiddle while
Rome burned.[82]
Tacitus mentions that Christians confessed to the crime,
but it is not known whether these confessions were induced by torture.[83]
However, fires started accidentally were common in ancient Rome.[84]
In
fact, Rome suffered another large fire in 69[85]
and in 80.[86]
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It was said by Suetonius and Cassius Dio that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium"
in stage costume while the city burned.[87]
Popular legend claims that Nero
played the fiddle at the time of the fire, an anachronism based merely on the
concept of the lyre, a stringed instrument associated with Nero and his
performances. (There were no fiddles in 1st-century Rome.) Tacitus's
account, however, has Nero in Antium at the time of the fire.[88]
Tacitus also
said that Nero playing his lyre and singing while the city burned was only
rumor.[88]
According to Tacitus, upon hearing news of the fire, Nero returned to Rome
to organize a relief effort, which he paid for from his own funds.[88] After the
fire, Nero opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless, and
arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation
among the survivors.[88]
In the wake of the fire, he made a new urban
development plan. Houses after the fire were spaced out, built in brick, and
faced by porticos on wide roads.[73]
Nero also built a new palace complex
known as the Domus Aurea in an area cleared by the fire. This included lush
artificial landscapes and a 30 meter statue of himself, the Colossus of
Nero.[74]
The size of this complex is debated (from 100 to 300 acres).[89][90][91]
To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction, tributes were imposed on
the provinces of the empire.[92]
According to Tacitus, the population searched for a scapegoat and rumors
held Nero responsible.[83] To deflect blame, Nero targeted Christians. He
ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs, while others were crucified and
burned.[83]
Tacitus described the event:
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“ Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and
inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their
abominations, called Christians [or Chrestians[93]
] by the populace.
Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme
penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our
procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition,
thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the
first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous
and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and
become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who
pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude
was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of
hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their
deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and
perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames
and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had
expired.[83]
”
Public performances
Nero coin, c. 66. Ara Pacis on the reverse.
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Nero enjoyed driving a one-horse chariot, singing to the lyre and poetry.[94]
He even composed songs that were performed by other entertainers
throughout the empire.[95]
At first, Nero only performed for a private
audience.[96]
In 64, Nero began singing in public in Neapolis in order to improve his
popularity.[96]
He also sang at the second quinquennial Neronia in 65.[97]
It
was said that Nero craved the attention,[98]
but historians also write that Nero
was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate, his inner circle
and the people.[99]
Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform,
calling it shameful.[100]
Nero was convinced to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to
improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance.[101]
As a
competitor, Nero raced a ten-horse chariot and nearly died after being
thrown from it.[102]
He also performed as an actor and a singer.[103]
Though
Nero faltered in his racing (in one case, dropping out entirely before the end)
and acting competitions,[102]
he won these crowns nevertheless and paraded
them when he returned to Rome.[102]
The victories are attributed to Nero
bribing the judges and his status as emperor.[104]
War and peace with Parthia
For more details on this topic, see Roman-Parthian War of 58–63.
Shortly after Nero's accession to the throne in 55, the Roman vassal
kingdom of Armenia overthrew their prince Rhadamistus and he was
replaced with the Parthian prince Tiridates.[105]
This was seen as a Parthian
invasion of Roman territory.[105]
There was concern in Rome over how the
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young emperor would handle the situation.[106]
Nero reacted by immediately
sending the military to the region under the command of Gnaeus Domitius
Corbulo.[107]
The Parthians temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to
Rome.[108]
The peace did not last and full-scale war broke out in 58. The Parthian king
Vologases I refused to remove his brother Tiridates from Armenia.[109]
The
Parthians began a full-scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom.[37]
Commander Corbulo responded and repelled most of the Parthian army that
same year.[110]
Tiridates retreated and Rome again controlled most of
Armenia.[110]
Nero was acclaimed in public for this initial victory.[111]
Tigranes, a
Cappadocian noble raised in Rome, was installed by Nero as the new ruler
of Armenia.[112]
Corbulo was appointed governor of Syria as a reward.[112]
The Parthian Empire c. 60. Nero's peace deal with Parthia was a political
victory at home and made him beloved in the east.
In 62, Tigranes invaded the Parthian province of Adiabene.[113] Again, Rome
and Parthia were at war and this continued until 63. Parthia began building
up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria.[114]
Corbulo tried to
convince Nero to continue the war, but Nero opted for a peace deal
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instead.[115]
There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a
budget deficit.[116]
The result was a deal where Tiridates again became the Armenian king, but
was crowned in Rome by emperor Nero.[117]
In the future, the king of
Armenia was to be a Parthian prince, but his appointment required approval
from the Romans. Tiridates was forced to come to Rome and partake in
ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance.[72][118]
This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for Nero politically.[119]
Nero became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with theParthians as well.
[119]The peace between Parthia and Rome lasted 50 years
until emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114.
Other major power struggles and rebellions
Plaster bust of Nero, Pushkin Museum, Moscow.
The war with Parthia was not Nero's only major war but he was both
criticized and praised for an aversion to battle.[120]
Like many emperors,
Nero faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire.
British Revolt of 60–61 (Boudica's Uprising)
Further information: Boudicca#Boudica.27s_uprising
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In 60, a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia.[121]
While the
governor Gaius Suetonius Paullinus and his troops were busy capturing the
island of Mona (Anglesey) from the druids, the tribes of the south-east
staged a revolt led by queen Boudica of the Iceni.[122]
Boudica and her troops
destroyed three cities before the army of Paullinus was able to return, be
reinforced and put down the rebellion in 61.[123]
Fearing Paullinus himself
would provoke further rebellion, Nero replaced him with the more passive
Publius Petronius Turpilianus.[124]
The Pisonian Conspiracy of 65
Main article: Pisonian conspiracy
In 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, a Roman statesman, organized a conspiracy
against Nero with the help of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune
and a centurion of the Praetorian Guard.[125]
According to Tacitus, many
conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and restore the
Republic.[126]
The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and reported
it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditos.[127]
As a result, the conspiracy failed and
its members were executed including Lucan, the poet.[128]
Nero's previous
advisor, Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed
the plot with the conspirators.[129]
The First Jewish War of 66–70
In 66, there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish
religious tension.[130]
In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to restore order.[131]
This revolt was eventually put down in 70, after Nero's death.[132]
This revolt
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is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the
Second Temple of Jerusalem.[133]
The Revolt of Vindex and Galba and the death of Nero
Marble bust of Nero, Antiquarium of the Palatine.
In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the governor of Gallia Lugdunensis,rebelled against Nero's tax policies.
[134][135]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the
governor of Germania Superior, was ordered to put down Vindex's
rebellion.[136]
In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province,
Vindex called upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, the governor of Hispania
Tarraconensis, to join the rebellion and further, to declare himself emperor
in opposition to Nero.[137]
At the Battle of Vesontio in May 68, Verginius'
forces easily defeated those of Vindex and the latter committed suicide.[136]
However after putting down this one rebel, Verginius' legions attempted to
proclaim their own commander as emperor. Verginius refused to act against
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Nero, but the discontent of the legions of Germany and the continued
opposition of Galba in Spain did not bode well for Nero.
While Nero had retained some control of the situation, support for Galba
increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy. The prefect of
the Praetorian Guard, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also abandoned his
allegiance to the emperor and came out in support for Galba.
In response, Nero fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of Ostia
and from there to take a fleet to one of the still-loyal eastern provinces.
However he abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused toobey his commands, responding with a line from Vergil's Aeneid : "Is it so
dreadful a thing then to die?" Nero then toyed with the idea of fleeing to
Parthia, throwing himself upon the mercy of Galba, or to appeal to the
people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences "and if he could not
soften their hearts, to entreat them at least to allow him the prefecture of
Egypt". Suetonius reports that the text of this speech was later found in
Nero's writing desk, but that he dared not give it from fear of being torn to
pieces before he could reach the Forum.[138]
Nero returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace. After sleeping,
he awoke at about midnight to find the palace guard had left. Dispatching
messages to his friends' palace chambers for them to come, none replied.
Upon going to their chambers personally, all were abandoned. Upon callingfor a gladiator or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him, no one
appeared. He cried "Have I neither friend nor foe?" and ran out as if to throw
himself into the Tiber.[138]
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Returning again, Nero sought for some place where he could hide and
collect his thoughts. An imperial freedman offered his villa, located 4 miles
outside the city. Travelling in disguise, Nero and four loyal servants reached
the villa, where Nero ordered them to dig a grave for him. As it was being
prepared, he said again and again "What an artist dies in me!".[139]
At this
time a courier arrived with a report that the Senate had declared Nero a
public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to
death. At this news Nero prepared himself for suicide. Losing his nerve, he
first begged for one of his companions to set an example by first killing
himself. At last, the sound of approaching horsemen drove Nero to face the
end. After quoting a line from Homer's Iliad ("Hark, now strikes on my ear
the trampling of swift-footed coursers!") Nero drove a dagger into his throat.
In this he was aided by his private secretary, Epaphroditos. When one of the
horsemen entered, upon his seeing Nero all but dead he attempted to staunch
the bleeding. With the words "Too late! This is fidelity!", Nero died on 9
June 68.[140]
This was the anniversary of the death of Octavia. Nero was
buried in the Mausoleum of the Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what is now the
Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome.[140]
With his death, the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued in
the Year of the Four Emperors.[85]
After death
See also: Nero Redivivus Legend and Pseudo-Nero
According to Suetonius and Cassius Dio, the people of Rome celebrated the
death of Nero.[141][142]
Tacitus, though, describes a more complicated
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political environment. Tacitus mentions that Nero's death was welcomed by
Senators, nobility and the upper class.[143]
The lower-class, slaves,
frequenters of the arena and the theater, and "those who were supported by
the famous excesses of Nero", on the other hand, were upset with the
news.[143]
Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings, as they
had allegiance to Nero, but were bribed to overthrow him.[144]
Eastern sources, namely Philostratus II and Apollonius of Tyana, mention
that Nero's death was mourned as he "restored the liberties of Hellas with a
wisdom and moderation quite alien to his character"[145]
and that he "held
our liberties in his hand and respected them."[146]
Modern scholarship generally holds that, while the Senate and more well-off
individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general populace was "loyal to the
end and beyond, for Otho and Vitellius both thought it worthwhile to appeal
to their nostalgia."[147]
Nero's name was erased from some monuments, in what Edward Champlin
regards as "outburst of private zeal".[148]
Many portraits of Nero were
reworked to represent other figures; according to Eric R. Varner, over fifty
such images survive.[149]
This reworking of images is often explained as part
of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned
posthumously (see damnatio memoriae).[149]
Champlin, however, doubts that
the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to createimages of Nero long after his death.
[150]
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Apotheosis of Nero, c. after 68. Artwork portraying Nero rising to divinestatus after his death.
The civil war during the Year of the Four Emperors was described by
ancient historians as a troubling period.[85]
According to Tacitus, this
instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the
perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline, as Nero and those before him
could.[143]
Galba began his short reign with the execution of many allies of
Nero and possible future enemies.[151]
One notable enemy included
Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to be the son of emperor Caligula.[152]
Otho overthrew Galba. Otho was said to be liked by many soldiers because
he had been a friend of Nero's and resembled him somewhat in
temperament.[153]
It was said that the common Roman hailed Otho as Nero
himself.[154] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to
Nero.[154]
Vitellius overthrew Otho. Vitellius began his reign with a large
funeral for Nero complete with songs written by Nero.[155]
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After Nero's suicide in 68, there was a widespread belief, especially in the
eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.[156]
This
belief came to be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.
The legend of Nero's return lasted for hundreds of years after Nero's death.
Augustine of Hippo wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422[157]
At least three Nero imposters emerged leading rebellions. The first, who
sang and played the cithara or lyre and whose face was similar to that of the
dead emperor, appeared in 69 during the reign of Vitellius.[158]
After
persuading some to recognize him, he was captured and executed.
[158]
Sometime during the reign of Titus (79-81) there was another impostor who
appeared in Asia and also sang to the accompaniment of the lyre and looked
like Nero but he, too, was killed.[159]
Twenty years after Nero's death, during
the reign of Domitian, there was a third pretender. Supported by the
Parthians, they hardly could be persuaded to give him up[160]
and the matter
almost came to war.[85]
Historiography
The history of Nero’s reign is problematic in that no historical sources
survived that were contemporary with Nero. These first histories at one time
did exist and were described as biased and fantastical, either overly critical
or praising of Nero.[161]
The original sources were also said to contradict on a
number of events.[162] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources were the basis
of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next
generations of historians.[163]
A few of the contemporary historians are
known by name. Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Elder all
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wrote condemning histories on Nero that are now lost.[164]
There were also
pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or on what deeds Nero
was praised.[165]
The bulk of what is known of Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius and
Cassius Dio, who were all of the Patrician class. Tacitus and Suetonius
wrote their histories on Nero over fifty years after his death, while Cassius
Dio wrote his history over 150 years after Nero’s death. These sources
contradict on a number of events in Nero’s life including the death of
Claudius, the death of Agrippina and the Roman fire of 64, but they are
consistent in their condemnation of Nero.
A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on
Nero. Few surviving sources paint Nero in a favorable light. Some sources,
though, portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the
Roman people, especially in the east.[citation needed ]
Cassius Dio
Cassius Dio (c. 155- 229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman
senator. He passed the greater part of his life in public service. He was a
senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna after the death of
Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul around 205, as also
proconsul in Africa and Pannonia.
Books 61–63 of Dio's Roman History describe the reign of Nero. Only
fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and
altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk.
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Dio Chrysostom
Dio Chrysostom (c. 40– 120), a Greek philosopher and historian, wrote the
Roman people were very happy with Nero and would have allowed him to
rule indefinitely. They longed for his rule once he was gone and embraced
imposters when they appeared:
“ Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet; for so far as
the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was nothing to prevent
his continuing to be Emperor for all time, seeing that even now
everybody wishes he were still alive. And the great majority do
believe that he still is, although in a certain sense he has died not
once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that
he was still alive.[166]
”
Epictetus
Epictetus (c. 55- 135) was the slave to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos. He makes
a few passing negative comments on Nero's character in his work, but makes
no remarks on the nature of his rule. He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry
and unhappy man.
Josephus
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The historian Josephus (c. 37-100) accused other historians of slandering
Nero.
The historian Josephus (c. 37- 100), while calling Nero a tyrant, was also the
first to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:
“ But I omit any further discourse about these affairs; for there have
been a great many who have composed the history of Nero; some of
which have departed from the truth of facts out of favor, as having
received benefits from him; while others, out of hatred to him, and
the great ill-will which they bare him, have so impudently raved
against him with their lies, that they justly deserve to be condemned.
Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of Nero, since they have
not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts
that were earlier than his time, even when the actors could have no
way incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long time after ”
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them.[167]
Lucan
Though more of a poet than historian, Lucanus (c. 39- 65) has one of the
kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of peace and prosperity under
Nero in contrast to previous war and strife. Ironically, he was later involved
in a conspiracy to overthrow Nero and was executed.[168]
Philostratus
Philostratus II "the Athenian" (c. 172- 250) spoke of Nero in the Life of
Apollonius Tyana (Books 4–5). Though he has a generally a bad or dim
view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception of Nero in the East.
Pliny the Elder
The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c. 24- 79) did not survive. Still, there
are several references to Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of the worst opinions of Nero and calls him an "enemy of mankind."
[169]
Plutarch
Plutarch (c. 46- 127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account of the Life of
Galba and the Life of Otho. Nero is portrayed as a tyrant, but those that
replace him are not described as better.
Seneca the Younger
It is not surprising that Seneca (c. 4 BC- 65), Nero's teacher and advisor,
writes very well of Nero.[170]
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Suetonius
Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars
Suetonius (c. 69- 130) was a member of the equestrian order, and he was the
head of the department of the imperial correspondence. While in this
position, Suetonius started writing biographies of the emperors, accentuating
the anecdotal and sensational aspects.
Tacitus
Main article: Annals (Tacitus)
The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56- 117) is the most detailed and comprehensive
history on the rule of Nero, despite being incomplete after the year 66.
Tacitus described the rule of the Julio-Claudian emperors as generally
unjust. He also thought that existing writing on them was unbalanced:
“ The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius, and Nero, while they were
in power, were falsified through terror, and after their death were
written under the irritation of a recent hatred.[171]
”
Tacitus was the son of a procurator, who married into the elite family of
Agricola. He entered his political life as a senator after Nero's death and, by
Tacitus' own admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realizing that this bias
may be apparent to others, Tacitus protests that his writing is true.[172]
At the end of 66, conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem
and Caesarea. According to a Jewish tradition in the Talmud (tractate Gitin
56a-b), Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. All the
arrows landed in the city. He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse
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he had learned that day. The child responded "I will lay my vengeance upon
Edom by the hand of my people Israel" (Ez. 25,14). Nero became terrified,
believing that God wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed, but
would punish the one to carry it out. Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His
House and to lay the blame on me," whereupon he fled and converted to
Judaism to avoid such retribution. Vespasian was then dispatched to put
down the rebellion. The Talmud adds that the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess, a
prominent supporter of the Bar Kokhba rebellion against Roman rule, was a
descendant of Nero. Roman sources nowhere report Nero's alleged
conversion to Judaism, a religion considered by the Romans as extremely
barbaric and immoral.[173]
It seems unlikely that such sources - almost
universally hostile towards the emperor - would have passed up the
opportunity to denigrate Nero even further by mentioning this alleged
conversion. Neither is there any record of Nero having any offspring who
survived infancy: his only recorded child, Claudia Augusta, died aged 4
months. The legend recorded in the Talmud thus cannot be relied upon as a
historical source for facts on Nero's life.
Christian tradition
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A Christian Dirce, by Henryk Siemiradzki. A Christian woman is martyred
in this re-enactment of the myth of Dirce.
Christian tradition often holds Nero as the first persecutor of Christians and
as the killer of Apostles Peter and Paul. Fourth century theologians recorded
their belief that Nero would return, in some manner, as "the Anti-Christ."
First Persecutor
The non-Christian historian Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing and
executing Christians after the fire of 64.[83]
Suetonius also mentions Nero
punishing Christians, though he does so as a praise and does not connect it
with the fire.[174]
The Christian writer Tertullian (c. 155- 230) was the first to call Nero the
first persecutor of Christians. He wrote "Examine your records. There you
will find that Nero was the first that persecuted this doctrine".[175]
Lactantius
(c. 240- 320) also said Nero "first persecuted the servants of God".[176]
as
does Sulpicius Severus.[177]
However, Suetonius gives that "since the Jews
constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he [the emperor
Claudius] expelled them from Rome" (" Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue
tumultuantis Roma expulit ").[178]
These expelled "Jews" may have been early
Christians, although Suetonius is not explicit. Nor is the Bible explicit,
calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at
the time, "Jews."[179]
Killer of Peter and Paul
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The first text to suggest that Nero killed an apostle is the apocryphal
Ascension of Isaiah, a Christian writing from the 2nd century. It says the
slayer of his mother, who himself this king, will persecute the plant which
the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted. Of the Twelve one will be
delivered into his hands.[180]
The Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea (c. 275- 339) was the first to write that
Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero.[181]
He states that
Nero's persecution led to Peter and Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give
any specific orders. Several other accounts have Paul surviving his two years
in Rome and traveling to Hispania.[182]
Peter is first said to have been crucified upside-down in Rome during Nero's
reign (but not by Nero) in the apocryphal Acts of Peter (c. 200).[183]
The
account ends with Paul still alive and Nero abiding by God's command not
to persecute any more Christians.
By the 4th century, a number of writers were stating that Nero killed Peter
and Paul.[184]
The Antichrist
Main articles: The Beast (Bible) and Number of the Beast
The Ascension of Isaiah is the first text to suggest that Nero was the
Antichrist. It claims a lawless king, the slayer of his mother,...will come and
there will come with him all the powers of this world, and they will hearken
unto him in all that he desires.[180]
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The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in the 2nd century, speaks of
Nero returning and bringing destruction.[185]
Within Christian communities,
these writings, along with others,[186]
fueled the belief that Nero would return
as the Antichrist. In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero suddenly disappeared,
and even the burial-place of that noxious wild beast was nowhere to be seen.
This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that,
having been conveyed to a distant region, he is still reserved alive; and to
him they apply the Sibylline verses.[176]
In 422, Augustine of Hippo wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he
believed Paul mentioned the coming of the Antichrist. Though he rejects the
theory, Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that Nero was the
Antichrist or would return as the Antichrist. He wrote, so that in saying,
"For the mystery of iniquity doth already work,"[187]
he alluded to Nero,
whose deeds already seemed to be as the deeds of Antichrist.[157]
The concept of Nero as the Antichrist is often a central belief of Preterist
eschatology.