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Human Development: A Cultural ApproachJeffrey Jensen Arnett

Human DevelopmentHuman DevelopmentA Cultural ApproachA Cultural Approach

Chapter

Late Adulthood

12


Physical Development


Cultural Beliefs about Late Adulthood

• Perception of late adulthood Asian, African, and Latin cultures have

favorable view Western culture views becoming favorable

- Still combat some ageism



• Substages of late adulthood Young-Old—65-74 Old-Old—75-84 Oldest-Old—85 and up



• Perception of late adulthood• Each substage is different regarding

physical, cognitive, and social functioning



• Differ in performing activities of daily living (ADL’s) and reported health 1/3 of people over 80 say health is good Less than ½ of 85-89 year olds have a

disability

• Functional age may be better concept to use than chronological age


Global Aging Pattern

• Old-Age Dependency Ratio (OADR) Number of persons aged 65 or older

Number of persons aged 20-64

• Bottom number represent work force who pay into government



• Top number represents those not in workforce but receive government benefits

• OADR increase means more people receiving benefits and not enough paying in to cover



• Reasons for climbing OADR Birth rate peaked (represent workforce) Medical care increases longevity

• Some gender differences in life expectancy


Physical Changes

• Hair continues to gray and thin• Bones thin especially in women• Age spots develop—sun exposure

hastens development• Height and weight decline• Teeth yellow• Exercise and healthy diet can slow

some appearance changes


Changes in Senses

• Vision Reduced visual acuity Cataracts

- Most common visual impairment

Increased chance of Macular Degeneration Increased chance of Glaucoma


Changes in Senses


Changes in Senses

• Hearing Acuity diminishes for high-pitched sounds May develop tinnitus Can lead to social isolation

• Taste and smell Decline in taste and smell can make food

less enjoyable Dangerous smells not detected


Physical ChangesChanges in Sleep

• Quality of sleep declines with age Sleep less deeply Time in light sleep increases

• Sleep Apnea common sleep problem Can be treated with CPAP device

• Psychological issues can also impair sleep Depression, anxiety, and medical conditions


Health in Late AdulthoodChronic Health Problems

• Common health issues are: arthritis osteoporosis, and hypertension

• Arthritis—disease of the joints Cartilage that cushions joints wear out Women affected more than men

- Management involves medication, inserting new joints and/or exercise


Health in Late AdulthoodChronic Health Problems

• Osteoporosis Increased risk for broken bones Exercise and calcium-rich diet for

treatment

• Hypertension Secondary aging makes condition worsen Diet and medications are treatment

options


Health in Late AdulthoodHealth Care and Health Promotion

• Medical intervention can combat health problems

• Developed countries allow access to healthcare

• Rising OADR will cause future financial strain

• Healthy lifestyle can help


Figure 12.3 Use of Medical Resources by Age Group Persons age 65 and over consume far more medical resources than persons in other age groups. Source: OECD (2009)


Health in Late AdulthoodHealth Care and Health Promotion

• Healthy lifestyle includes: Healthy diet—low fat and sugar, taking

multivitamins Regular exercise—lowers risk of disease,

increases muscle and bone mass- Aerobic and strength training beneficial

Avoid smoking and alcohol


Cognitive Development


Cognitive Changes and DeclineChanges in Attention and Memory

• Declines in Selective Attention Divided Attention Sustained Attention

• Memory effects include Working memory decline Episodic and autobiographical memory

decline Source memory decline


Cognitive Changes and DeclineDementia and Alzheimer’s Disease

• Biological brain changes include Brain mass decline Spaces within brain increase

- Hippocampus, cerebellum, frontal lobes Neurotransmitters decline

- Acetylcholine and dopamine



• Aging increases risk of dementia Alzheimer’s disease most common

- Loss of memory for recent events including people

- increased anxiety and aggression Two features include

- Accumulation of plaques- Neurofibrillary tangles



• Risk factors include Gene

- ApoE gene or all onset but may not determine developing Alzheimer’s

Diet

• Protective factors include Cognitive activity Physical exercise Diet


Alternative Views on Cognitive Changes Wisdom

• Wisdom—expertise in the conduct and meaning of life Includes insight, knowledge, strategies,

values, and awareness

• Current research No clear link to age and being wise Future research may examine cultural

differences Impact of culture’s rates of social change


Alternative Views on Cognitive ChangesDealing with Cognitive Decline

• Late-life learning Regular mental exercise slows cognitive

decline

• Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC) Selecting valued activities Optimize performances in those activities Compensating for decline by using new

strategies


Alternative Views on Cognitive ChangesDealing with Cognitive Decline


Emotional and Social Development


Figure 12.4 Age and Emotional States In the course of late adulthood, positive affect rises steadily. Source: Mroczek (2001)


Emotional and Self-DevelopmentTheories on Emotions in Late Adulthood

• Erikson’s—Ego integrity vs. despair Ego integrity—looking back on one’s life

and accepting outcome Despair—regrets and bitterness about the

course of one’s life

• Physical and cognitive problems can impact self-esteem and integrity Depression can increase risk of despair


Emotional and Self-DevelopmentTheories on Emotions in Late Adulthood

• Socioemotional Selectivity Theory— maximize emotional well-being by becoming increasingly selective with social contacts Goals change

- Knowledge based- Emotion based

• Older adults seek relationships low in conflict and high in mutual enjoyment


The Sociocultural Contexts of Development Family Relationships

• Contact with adult children continue into late adulthood

• Asian cultures believe in Filial Piety Obligation to parents and provide care with

age Assistance flows from children to parents



• Western cultures Assistance flows from parents to children

• Gender differences Daughters provide more care Sons financial



• Relationships with grandchildren are positive Closeness and affection remain strong Gender differences

- Closer to grandmother than grandfather Great grandchildren signal family

endurance


The Sociocultural Contexts of DevelopmentLiving Arrangements in Late Adulthood

• Western countries Living independently

- Northern Europe—Independent- Southern Europe—Live with child

Living facilities- Assisted living and nursing homes- Personal control important

• Asian countries Living independently or with adult child


The Sociocultural Contexts of Development Love and Sexuality

• Marital satisfaction at peak Divorce would have occurred earlier

leaving strongest marriages Fewer daily responsibilities that cause

stress More time to enjoy leisure activities Solve disagreements calmly



• Depression and loneliness follows losing a spouse

• Widows more common than widowers• Social contact important for recovery



• Sexual behavior expectations differ by culture

• Activity relies on partner availability and physical health

• With assistance some problems correctable Women—lubrication, Men—medication for

erectile dysfunction



• Intimate acts more common than sexual intercourse

• Masturbation remains common


Figure 12.6 Sexuality in Middle and Late Adulthood In American society, many adults age 45 and over take part in a variety of sexual activities. This figure shows the percentage of adults engaging

in sexual activities once a week or more often within the past six months. Source: Based on AARP (2009)


The Sociocultural Contexts of Development Work and Retirement

• Median retirement age is 60–63• Longer life expectancies increase

retirement age• Retiring impacted by

Finances, physical health, and job satisfaction


The Sociocultural Contexts of Development Work and Retirement

• Satisfaction highest if retirement by choice

• May retire gradually but not for money Social contact and remaining active

• May have problems in obtaining work


The Sociocultural Contexts of DevelopmentLife Outside of Work and Home

• Time devoted to leisure activities, community activities, and religious involvement

• Leisure activities Increased time to continue previous

interests Increased travel if able Time spent doing non-demanding activities



• Community service and civic engagement

• Enhance well being of future generations

• Efforts increase social well-being• Enhance seniors well-being



• Religious involvement Participation increases Practices and beliefs increase Women more religious than men but men

hold dominate positions Promotes self esteem, life satisfaction, and

overall happiness Promotes better physical health



• Television, movies, reading, music compose 40% of leisure time

• Television use increases throughout life• Impacts globalization• Internet use lowest in later adulthood

Can have positive outcomes if taught to use internet