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The Nature and
Theory of War
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Resources
Required Readings United States Marine Corps, Warfighting,
Marine Corps Doctrinal Publication 1, (1997):
Chapters 1-2.
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Overview
The Nature of War War Defined
Friction
Uncertainty
Fluidity
Disorder
Complexity
The Human Dimension
Violence and Danger
Physical, Moral and MentalForces
The Evolution of Warfare
The Science, Art, andDynamic of War
The Theory of War War as an Act of Policy
Means in War
The Spectrum of Conflict
Levels of War
Initiative and Response
Styles of Warfare
Combat Power
Speed and Focus
Surprise and Boldness
Centers of Gravity &Critical Vulnerabilities
Creating and ExploitingOpportunity
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Learning Objectives
Know: the definition of war + describe its essential
elements. and describe the characteristics of warfare (e.g.
friction, uncertainty, fluidity, etc.). and describe the levels of warfare.
Comprehend: the relationship between the science, art, and human
dynamic of war. the relationship between politics, policy, and war.
the relationship between the offense and defense. the differences between maneuver + attrition warfare. the relationship between centers of gravity and critical
vulnerabilities.
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The Nature of War
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War Defined
War is a violent clash of interests between or among
organized groups characterized by the use of militaryforce. MCDP-1
Essence of war
Violent struggle b/n two hostile,independent, irreconcilable wills, each
trying to impose itself on the other
Clausewitzs Zweikampf(two-struggle)
Object of war Impose our will on the EN
Means to this end organized application or threat ofviolence my military force
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Friction
The force that makes the apparently easy so difficult.
Clausewitz
Conduct of war is anything but simple
Complex, countless factors
Elements
Mental (e.g. indecision over choice of COA)
Physical (e.g. effective EN fire)
External (e.g. imposed by EN, terrain, WX, chance) Internal / Self-induced (e.g. complicated plans, no
clearly defined goal, lack of coordination)
How does a leader cope with friction?
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Uncertainty
Certainty in war is impossible All actions will be based on incomplete, inaccurate,
even contradictory information At best, possibilities and probabilities
Nonlinearity
Causes and effects sometimes disproportionate Minor actions/incidents can have decisive effects
Risk Common to action and inaction Risk gambling on success of
single improbable event
Chance Doesnt play favorites; threat andopportunity
How does a
leader cope withuncertainty?
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Fluidity
No episode can be viewed in isolation Each episode is shapedby past events and isshapingfuture events
Continuous, fluctuating flow of activity
Fleeting opportunities and unforeseen events
Success depends on leaders ability to
adapt and react quickly to constantly
changing conditions
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Disorder
Plans will go awry, instructions will be unclear
and misinterpreted, comms will fail
Natural disorder creates conditions ripe for
exploitation by an opportunistic will
Cannot impose precise, positive control, only generalframework of order; influence general flow of action
Todays battlefield is more disorderly
Sophisticated weapons / C2 systems
Greater dispersion of troops Front / Rear areas no longer distinct
Disorder can be a weapon
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Complexity
Belligerents not a single, homogenous will, but acomplex system of many individual parts
System Outlook War not governed by decisions of one indiv in one
place, but from collective behavior of all parts of sys.
responding to local conditions + incomplete info Military action is result of near countless independentbut interrelated actions simultaneously executed
Commanders cannot control everything Efforts to exert complete control by a single decision
maker are inconsistent with complex nature of war
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The Human Dimension
War = clash b/n opposing human wills Shaped by human nature: subject to its
complexities, inconsistencies, peculiarities
Human dimension infuses war withintangible moral factors (e.g. effects of
fear, exhaustion, charisma, resolve) Human will, instilled thru leadership,
is driving force of all action in war
No degree of tech development or
scientific calculation will diminishhuman dimension in war
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Violence & Danger
War is among the greatest horrors known to humanity;
it should never be romanticized. MCDP 1
Means in war: force (organized violence) Violence is an essential element
Thru violence or credible threat
we compel our EN to do our will
Result: blood, destruction, suffering
Fear Contributes to corrosion of will
Courage is not the absence of fear, but the strength toovercome it
How does a leader cope with fear?
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Physical, Moral, Mental Forces
Physical muscle Tangible; easy to quantify Equipment capabilities / limitations Objectives / terrain seized or lost Body counts, # of prisoners captured
Moral heart Intangible; impossible to quantify National and military resolve, emotion,
courage, fear, resolve, leadership, esprit, morale
Mental mind Ability to grasp complex battlefield situations Ability to make effective estimates, devise tactics,
strategies and develop plans
Moral Mental
Physical
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The Evolution of Warfare
the belligerent who first exploits a development in the
art and science of war gains a significant advantage. MCDP 1
Basic nature of war is constant, but means and
methods evolve
Most changes are gradual
Occasionally a new technology or organizational
development will dramatically upset the equilibrium
(e.g. rifled bore, mass conscription, railroad)
Advancements in tech. + org. drive adaptation in
tactical, operational, strategic realm
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The Science, Art, and Dynamic of War
Science Application of empirical laws of nature Ballistics, mechanics and like disciplines
Application of fires / Effects of weapons / Rates and methodsof movement and resupply
Art Employment of creative or intuitive skills
Creative application of military science
Intuitive ability to grasp essence of a unique military situation
Development of strategies, tactics, plans to fit given situation
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The Science, Art, and Dynamic of War
We thus conclude that the conduct of war is fundamentally a
dynamic process of human competition requiring both theknowledge of science and the creativity of art but driven ultimately
by the power of the human will. MCDP 1
Human Dynamic War is a social phenomenon
Competitive human interaction
Human essentials (perseverance, boldness,esprit, fortitude) not explainable by art / sci.
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The Theory of War
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War as an Act of Policy
War is an extension of both policy and politics with the
addition of military force. MCDP 1 Politics
Refers to distribution of power thru dynamic
interaction, both cooperative and competitive Policy Refers to conscious objectives established within the
political process
Warmustserve policy When policy is extreme (e.g. regime change), fewer
political restrictions on force When policy is limited (e.g. punitive raid), political
considerations will restrict application of military force
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War as an Act of Policy
Two ways to use military force to imposewill on the EN:
(1) Strategy of annihilation
Make EN helpless to resist by physically
destroying his military capabilities
Incapacitate EN as a military threat
(2) Strategy of erosion
Convince EN that accepting terms will be less
painful than continued resistance
Military force to erode EN leaderships will
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Means in War
At highest levels, war involves use of allelements of power that a political group
can bring to bear
Diplomatic, informational, military, economic
Military force cannot be considered in isolation
from other elements
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The Spectrum of Conflict
MOOTW Deter war
Resolve conflict
Promote peace
Support civilauthorities
General War Large scale Regional Sustained combat
b/n major powers
MORE PROBABLE LESS PROBABLE
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Levels of War
Strategic Wars
Supports national policy objectives Military strategy subordinate to National
strategy
Operational Campaigns
Use of tactical results to achieve strategicobjectives Deciding when, where to engage EN or refuse
battle
Tactical Battles
Art + science of winning engagements/battles Concepts / Methods used to accomplish
particular mission Combat power to defeat EN in particular time
and place (also TTPs)
STRATEGIC
OPERATIONAL
TACTICAL
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Levels of War
Distinctions between levels rarely delineated
Single commander may have responsibilities at more
than one level
Tactical actions may have direct strategic implications
Compression one commander operating on 2or 3 levels simultaneously
Nuclear war
MOOTW
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Initiative and Response
Two fighters action vs. reaction
Flux of war product of continuousinteraction b/n initiative + response
Thru initiative we impose our will on EN
Offense striking power Most obvious way to seize and maintain
initiative: strike first, keep striking
Defense resisting power Negative aim resisting ENs will
More efficient (expends less energy)
Not always assumed out of weakness
Culminating point Offense cannot sustain itself indefinitely
ATK can no longer be sustained; mustrevert to defense
OFFENSE
DEFENSE
The defense is not asimple shield, but a
shield made up of well-
directed blows.
-- Clausewitz
No clear divisionbetween offense
and defense
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Styles of Warfare
Attrition Warfare
Goal: Victory through
cumulative destruction ofENs material assets by
superior firepower
Maneuver Warfare
Goal: Victory by
incapacitating the ENsystem
All warfare involves both maneuver + attrition in some mix.
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Attrition Warfare
Focus
Force ratios, efficient application of fires + technical proficiency
over creativity
Desire for volume + accuracy of fire toward centralized control
Success ability to inflict + absorb attrition
Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs) Body counts, terrain seized, equipment destroyed
EN viewed as collection of targets; attrition seeks EN
strengths as targets
Examples WWI, Western Front
French ops against Germans in May 1940
US ops in Korea after 1950
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Maneuver Warfare
Focus
Circumvent problem and ATK from a position of advantagerather than meet EN head on
Understanding of EN system, speed, surprise, creativity
Firepower + attrition are essential elements of maneuverwarfare, but they are applied to DES EN system, not
incrementally wear down EN force (attrition) MOEs
Incapacitation of EN system
Unlike attrition, success often disproportionate to effort made
Maneuver seeks EN weakness as targets
Examples German Blitzkrieg, 1939-40 (esp invasion of France)
MacArthurs Inchon campaign, 1950
Operation Desert Storm
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Combat Power
Combat Power: Total destructive force we can bring to bear
on our enemy at a given time
Situationally dependent; unique product of
variety of physical, moral, mental factors Factors
Tangible (e.g. superior #s)
Intangible factors (morale,
leadership, etc.)
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Speed and Focus
Speed Rapidity of action; applies to time + space Tempo = speed over time; consistent ability to
operate quickly Relative speed more important than absolute speed
Speed provides security, prerequisite for maneuverand surprise; speed is a weapon!
Focus Generation of superior combat power at a particular
time and place
Convergence of effects in time and space on someobjective
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Surprise and Boldness
Surprise Strike EN at a time/place or in a manner for which he
is unprepared; based on: Speed
Stealth deny EN knowledge of impending action
Ambiguity EN doesnt know what to expect
Deception offers greatest effects, but most difficult to achieve
Can be decisive, but risky to depend on it alone forthe margin of victory
Boldness
Characteristic of unhesitatingly exploiting the naturaluncertainty of war to pursue major results
Based on strong SA
Must be tempered with judgment
Both surprise and boldness are
sources of combat power.
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Centers of Gravity, Critical Vulnerabilities
Belligerents are a complex system of
physical, moral + mental components
Combination determines unique character
Many sources of strength
Many areas of weakness
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Centers of Gravity
CoGs: Most important sources of strength Few in number
Capabilities (e.g. armored forces)
Intangible (e.g. resolve, morale) Localities (e.g. critical piece of terrain)
Relations in an alliance
Which factors are critical to the EN? Which can the EN not do without? Which, if eliminated, will bend him most quickly to our will?
Answer centers of gravity
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Critical Vulnerabilities
CVs: Most important weaknesses
Few in number
Pathways to attacking a CoG
Where is the EN most vulnerable? Which vulnerabilities, if exploited, will do the most significant
damage to the ENs ability to resist?
Answer critical vulnerabilities
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Creating and Exploiting Opportunity
As opposing wills interact, various fleeting
opportunities are created for both foes
By exploiting opportunities, we create
more opportunities for exploitation
Willingness to ruthlessly exploit these
opportunities often generates decisive results
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Questions?