Chapter 3
Perceiving
Others
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Perception as a Process
Perception is the process of selecting, organizing,
and interpreting information from our senses.
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The Process of Perception
Figure 3.1
The first step of perception is selection—focusing our
attention on certain sights, sounds, tastes, touches, or
smells in our environment.
• Salience: the degree to which something is
noticeable and significant to us
Selecting Information
The second step of perception is organization—
structuring selected information into a coherent pattern.
• Punctuation: structuring information into a
chronological sequence that matches how you
experienced the order of events
Organizing the Information
You’ve Selected
The final step of perception is interpretation—
assigning meaning to selected information.
• Schemata: mental structures containing
information that defines concepts’
characteristics and interrelationships
Interpreting the Information
(Left to right) © Royalty-Free/Corbis; Steve Cukrov/Shutterstock; Royalty-Free/Corbis; Hero Images/Corbis
Attributions are explanations for others’ comments or
behaviors.
Attributions take two forms:
• Internal attributions
• External attributions
Interpreting the Information
(cont.)
Three errors in attribution:
1. Fundamental attribution error
2. Actor-observer effect
3. Self-serving bias
Interpreting the Information
(cont.)
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Reducing Uncertainty
According to Uncertainty Reduction Theory, our
primary compulsion during initial interactions is to
reduce uncertainty about others.
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Reducing Uncertainty (cont.)
Uncertainty can be reduced in several ways:
1. Passive strategies
2. Active strategies
3. Interactive strategies
Influences on Perception
Powerful forces outside of our conscious
awareness shape our perception, including culture,
gender, and personality.
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Perception and Culture
Culture affects whether you perceive others as
similar to or different from yourself.
• Ingroupers: fundamentally similar •
Outgroupers: fundamentally dissimilar
Perception and Gender
Although we’re socialized to believe in gender
differences, studies show that only about 1% of
communication behavior is influenced by gender.
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Perception and Personality
Personality is our characteristic way of thinking, feeling,
and acting based on the traits we
possess.
• The “Big Five”(OCEAN):
1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extraversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
Perception and Personality
(cont.)
Implicit personality theories are beliefs about
different personality types and the ways in which
personality traits cluster together.
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Forming Impressions of
Others
Interpersonal impressions are mental pictures of
who people are and how we feel about them.
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Constructing Gestalts
Gestalts are general impressions of people,
either positive or negative.
• Positivity bias: the tendency for Gestalts to
be positive when first formed
• Negativity effect: the tendency to
emphasize the negative information we
learn
Constructing Gestalts (cont.)
• Halo effect: positively interpreting what
someone says or does because we have
a positive Gestalt of him or her
• Horn effect: negatively interpreting the
communication of people for whom we
have negative Gestalts
Calculating Algebraic
Impressions
Algebraic impressions are the most accurate
and refined of impressions.
• We weight some information more heavily
than other information, depending on its
importance and positivity or negativity.
Using Stereotypes
Stereotyping involves overly simplistic
interpersonal impressions.
• While flawed, stereotypes streamline the
impression process and are almost
impossible to avoid.
Improve your perception:
• Offer empathy.
• Embrace world-mindedness.
• Engage in perception-checking.
Improving Your Perception
of Others
When we experience empathy, we “feel into” others’
thoughts and emotions.
Two components:
• Perspective-taking
• Empathic concern
Offering Empathy
© Mika/Corbis
Checking Your Perception
Perception-checking:
1. Check your punctuation.
2. Check your knowledge.
3. Check your attributions.
4. Check perceptual influences.
5. Check your impressions.