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Technical Writing and
Readability and Style
By
Dr. Rami Oweis
Jordan University of Science andTechnology
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PART ONE. INTRODUCTION
Why Study Technical andProfessional Communication?Even the most brilliant professionals
(scientists, engineers, managers, …etc.)must have the ability to convinceothers (coworkers, clients, supervisors,… etc.) of their worth.
Good teamwork is impossible withoutgood communication.
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Introduction (Cont’d.)
For many professionals, the end
product of their work is a written
document.
The more your progress, the more
important communication becomes.
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IMPORTANCE
Many well-structured surveysindicate that communication skillsrank very high in importance toindividuals' careers. They even rank
higher than technical skills.
Such skills include public speaking,
working with individuals, workingwith groups, and talking with people.
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Importance (cont’d.)
Surveys indicate that writing is one of the most important communicationskills.
In addition to writing, oralcommunication skills are equally
important including conversing,interviewing, listening, and giving oralpresentations.
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Importance (Cont’d.)
In a diverse and globalized world, take intoaccount the ethical and social aspects of communication plus its international nature.
In a diverse and globalized world, take into
account the collaborative nature of communication among different people.
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Importance (Cont’d.)
In a diverse and globalized world, takeinto account the computerization of technical communication documents.
Surveys showed that about 1/4 of professionals' time is spent on
communication.
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Forms of Communication The written formof communication: memos, letters,reports, procedures, proposals, …).
The oral formof communication: one-to-one talks,
telephone calls, small group or committee meetings.
Most professional need both forms.
Writing clearly is on the top of the list of all skills
needed.
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Complexity
Why professionals communicatebadly? Partlydue to poor training!
Communication is different fromtechnical training-two different
languages.
Why professionals communicate badly,
again? Mainlydue to cognitive and
physical complexity of the process.
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Skills in Problem Solving and
Communication A problem is a conflict between whatshould be(the desired) and what is (theactual).
Problems can be either well-defined(one correct solution) or ill-defined.The latter requires good
communication skills.
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Skills in Problem Solving and
Communication (Cont’d.)
People, unlike machines, interpret infonot merely pass it. Thus, consider thedifferent backgrounds and socially
negotiate a solution (intellectual skills).
In addition, project management skills
are needed for the communicationproduct: resources, timing, deadlines,cooperation and coordination, …
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PART TWO. GENERAL
WRITING STRATEGIES
GENERATING IDEAS
(Invention, or Prewriting)
Problem DefinitionFirst of all, identify the problem (ex. a job letter) AND how you are supposedto address it (your task and role).
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General Writing Strategies
(Cont’d.)
Brainstorming
Just write down whatever comes intoyour head about the topic (no good,
incomplete, inadequate ----- later) .The purpose: stimulate your thinkingand generate ideas.
Best done in collaboration with otherpeople. At this stage, don't criticize orevaluate ideas!
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Using Systematic Questions After brainstorming, try a moresystematic approach of thinking orexploring the subject (all relevantmaterial).
Relevant material arises fromexploring: the subject matter, subjectrequirements, type of writing,
audience, and institutional concerns.Exploring each of these (askingquestions about the subject) willgenerate ideas.
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Using Social and Ethical
Considerations for Audience
Impacts
Cooperate with many others to avoid
problems (insensitivity,…) Use the info completely, accurately, and
impartially (no bias) with good intention.
Finding Information* Besides the ideas you have so far
generated, search for further info in
libraries, dBases, …
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Forming a Thesis (Point of
View)
Comes after the topic is explored,
questions answered, and ideas
generated.
Identify the main point you want to
make.
Once the main point is identified, the
rest of ideas should be organized to
support the main point.
Organization may be achieved by
outlines or idea diagrams.
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Identifying Audiences and
Purposes: Who? Why communicating? What
they expect/hope?
AudiencesLearn to write to the audience (not to
yourself!)
The first audience you have written for wasone ideal reader (your teacher!)
Real-world audiences are different: consist of variety of readers, multiple audiences, knowless than you do (must explain), differ intheir reading strategies, will exert no effort tofigure out the unclear.
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Major Types of Audiences
Managerial, Nonspecialist, Peer,International, and Mixed.
Managerial Audiences (Managers -
Decisions Makers).Make key informational maximallyaccessible by foregrounding it: that is,
put it up front so that managers caneasily find it. Managers tend to ignoredetails.
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Audience Types (Cont’d.)
Nonspecialist Audiences: Whenever onereads something out of their field (Aproposal, an instruction manual, … etc.).
Basic rules:
Use as much common knowledge aspossible.
Provide an overview at the beginning.
Provide some background information.
Use lots of explanations and definitions byusing short paraphrases in parentheses(ex. hypertension – high blood pressure).
Use carefully chosen examples, analogies
and illustrations.
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Audience Types (Cont’d.)
Peer Audiences: Writing to peers (co-workers, colleagues) who know about thesubject as much as you do (experts). Basicrules are:
Speak the same language as peers – Standard terms, conventional format,data display, …
Avoid going into tiny details and
explanations (examples, illustrations, ..)Make main point clear. In addition,however, emphasize details on data thatyou anticipate your peers are likely to
look at.
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Audience Types (Cont’d.)
International Audiences: (nonnative)
Avoid long and complicatedsentences.
Avoid idiomatic vocabulary (slang,multiword, and culture-specific).
Try to use visual aids rather thanverbal explanations.
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Audience Types (Cont’d.)
Mixed Audiences: consist of a mix of
all above (managerial, technical,
native, nonnative, …). Two basic ways:
- Layered document: different sections
are aimed at different audiences.
- Democratized document: all
audiences understand all parts.
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Audience Analysis Identify audience characteristics and
needs for effective communication
(what info needed and how it is
presented).
A five-step procedure
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Audience Analysis (Cont’d.)
Five steps:
1. Identify the communication's usesand the routes it will travel.
2. Identify all possible audiences,current or future, in or out of theorganization.
3. Identify the concerns, goal, values
and needs of each audience(Different departments inorganizations).
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Audience Analysis (Cont’d.)
4. Make communication appropriate
(accessible and useful) for (busy)
mangers (integration of many
perspectives and goals).
5. Identify each audience's
preferences for and objections to the
arguments (esp. competitors andcritics).
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Purposes
By doing all the above in the writingprocess, you have likely formulated aclear sense of purpose.
All communication is purpose-driven:
writers and readers, speakers andlisteners.
Make your purpose clear to the audienceto convey your message easily.
Emphasize the ostensible (dictated by thesituation) purposes and deemphasizeunstated purposes.
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Constructing Arguments
As a technical professional, you don't
simply report info, rather, you exercise
judgment, make recommendations,
and propose solutions. Thus, you haveto be persuasive.
To be persuasive, you have to master a
minimum level of argumentation skills.
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Constructing Arguments
(Cont’d.)
Argument as used here is intended to
mean a claim that something should be
believed or done with proof or reasons
for believing or doing it. However,argument in the sense of quarrels anddebates should be avoided.
The first step in making an effective
argument is to describe the problem
that the reader wants to have solved.
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Basic Strategies of Argument Three main strategies or bases of
argument (Aristotle):
1. Logic and reason,
2. Credentials and character of the
communicator, and
3. Emotion
Generally, mix the three.
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Argument Types
Two main types:
The argument of fact is about
something that exists (is, are/not).
The argument of policy that something
should be done (should/not).
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The Argument of Fact Can be derived from three sources:
Questions or subarguments of
Existence
Q/S of Definition, and
Q/S of Quality.
If one of these fails, the main argument
fails.
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The Argument of Fact
Ex. Want to argue that a manufacturershould be stopped from dischargingpollutants into public water.
Q of E: Is the company (not any other one)
discharging materials (any materials) intowater?
Q of D: Are the discharged materialsdangerous (regardless of amounts)?
Q of Q: Are the discharged materials presentin illegal or unsafe amounts?
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The Argument of Policy Can be derived from two sources:
Questions or subarguments of Worth orGoodness (merit), and
Q/S of Expediency, Advantage, or Use.
Arguments based on the second sourceare much more successful than those
based on the first.
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The Argument of Policy
Ex. A company intends to make falseclaims about the merits of heir productfor more sales. YOU want to argue that
the company should make honestclaims only.
Q of W&G: It is good and worthy to behonest.
Q of EAU: Advantageous for thecompany to have a reputation of honesty; Such honesty protects from
lawsuits, fraud charges, penalties, .… .
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Relationship between Argument
Types
You can make an argument of fact
only. However, if you are making an
argument of policy, you will have to
establish all parts of the argument of fact first.
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Building a Case
HOW to present/organize/plan the
whole communication.
Table 1 outlines the items of building a
case.
You’ve gotta be persuasive.
To be persuasive, make sure that you
link arguments together.
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Building a Case (Cont’d.)
To link arguments, six major strategies:Simple Problem-Solution: Good foruninformed but very weak for the
informed). No need to state judgment criteria or evaluatecompeting solutions.
Criteria: Here, criteria must be
explicit and must be emphasized. Tobe acceptable, the criteria must becorrectand complete.
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Building a Case (Cont’d.)
Chain of Reasoning: Here, arguments
are linked in a sequence of logical steps
proceeding from the more acceptable
claims to the more controversial. Thisis a highly analytical and deliberate
form, needs a committed and patient
audience. Effective for hostile andskeptical audiences.
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Building a Case (Cont’d.)
Process of Elimination: Present a
number of solutions and gradually
eliminate all but one based on
specific criteria.
Experimental Research (Journal
article): Consists of four parts:
Problem, Method, Results, andDiscussion.
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Whistleblowing
What a professional should do when
faced with an ethical dilemma (asked to
violate ethical standards)?
Go within the normal chain of
command.
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Whistleblowing
If this doesn't work, go public (blow the
whistle) when the following conditions
are met (all need ability to build a case –
i.e., argue):
Deciding the harm is serious
Making concerns known to superiors
Having documented evidence
Having evidence that going public will
prevent the harm
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Stating Problems
Problem Introduction
An excellent way to capture youraudience's attention is to startyourcommunication with an interesting
statement of the problem(indicatesproblem magnitude).
A problem can best be stated in the
form of two directly conflicting terms joined by a word signaling the conflict(the A-but-B style – the full form).
St t d P
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Strategy and Purpose
Identification
After establishing a problem, the twoother steps (to show that your
communication addresses the problem)
are:
State the question(s) or task you're
addressing (identify strategy,
indicate missing info).
Announce the purpose of the
communication.
Sh t F f P bl
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Short Form of Problem
Statement Common in science and techno logycommunications with the steps:
Explicit problem statement (A and butareimplied – one missing!)
Ex. Observed high mortality of the 2-year-old pines during the 2006 visit and expectedshortage in 2007.
The A-but-B format: the above is B. A is
implied that one does not want highmortality …
Question/ task
purpose
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Drafting
First Draft
Goal of first draft is to turn ideas and
arguments into a text.
If all the above is worked out, writing a
first draft (rough) is relatively easy.
Never attempt to get the perfectdraft
form the first attempt. It fails! It
results in the “writer's block.”
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Writer’s Block To overcome writer's block, steps andapproaches:
Write an outline and flesh it out inany way comfortable for u.
Sit down and write whatever comesinto your head about the topic.
Sit down and write different versions
of what you want to say until youlike something enough to improve it.
Talk about your subject to othersand why it is important then use it.
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Testing and Revising
Both are essential parts of the writing
process (quality control) and work in a
cyclic manner (i.e., test, revise, then,
test, …).
The extent to which a document has to
be tested and revised depends on how
important it is.
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Testing
Field testing- have a representative of the intended readers look at the
document.
Role playing- have a well selectedfriend play the role of the intended
reader.
Self-evaluation- do the role playing
yourself (sleep on it).
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Testing (Cont’d.)
Two types of testingdepending on the
intended use of the document:
Testing of expositorywriting: when the
writer's goal is to inform the reader
about a topic or argue a case (letters,
proposals, reports, journal articles, …
etc.). It has a hierarchical structurewith few claims (main points) and lends
itself to selective reading.
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Testing (Cont’d.)
A procedure for testing expository
writing is outlined as follows:
1. Give your reader(s) a copy and
encourage them to be critical and
don't bias them in any way.
2. Realize that readers differ in what they
look for (ideas, details, grammar, …)
3. Look at their comments and
understand them.
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Testing (Cont’d.)
4. Ask questions about specific features
of the document (clarity of main points,
support of main points, mistakes in
details, anything offensive to readers,overall look, readability and flow, and
misspelling and grammar).
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Testing (Cont’d.)
Testing of procedural writing: refers to
"how-to" documents such as tutorials,
manuals, … etc. where the writer's
goal is to get the reader follow a step-by-step procedure.
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Revising
Revising follows testing with the
following key principles:
Make major repairs before minor
ones (never the reverse).
Fix up the content before you fix up
the form (content more important).
PART THREE VISUAL
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PART THREE. VISUAL
ELEMENTS
So far we have covered the production
of words (written or spoken)
In many cases, words alone can't
transfer info or view points
Combine words with visual elements
(formatting and visual aids)
The latter includes drawings, figures,
charts, graphs, …
VISUAL ELEMENTS
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VISUAL ELEMENTS
(Cont’d.)
Adding visual elements increases the
strength and memorability of messages
Visual elements presents a compact
form (A picture = 1000 words)
Thus, a communicator is ought to use
them effectively meaning
How to make an effective VA
When to use it
How to select the best type
How to integrate it into the text
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Selecting Visual Elements
When to Use Visual Aid?
After making a good VA (nicely arranging
the info), three principles as to when to use
the VA:
When words alone are insufficient
When a compact summary is needed or
important info is to be highlighted
When it is conventional or easy to use aVA (budget calcs, architectural plans,
geographical locations, electric circuits, …
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Selecting the Best Visual Aid
Line graphs: show well continuity and
direction. Weak with many lines and
intersections.
Bar graphs: Show well discreteness of
points and relationships, contrasts,
similarities, and differences among
many items.
Pie diagrams: show well relationships
among many items that total 100%.
Poor at showing differences.
Selecting the Best Visual Aid
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Selecting the Best Visual Aid
(Cont’d.)
Tables: well for presenting lots of data
and giving absolute values. Poor at
showing trends. Least appealing.
Photographs: Good when no resources
to make a good line drawing, when
emphasizing the external appearance(x- section).
Selecting the Best Visual Aid
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Selecting the Best Visual Aid
(Cont’d.)
Line drawings: these include several
types of drawings that focus on
external appearance, physical shape,
function, or relationship such assimplified photos, maps, anatomical
drawings, parts, models, objects, … .
C i i
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Creating Visual Elements
Designing the Visual AidDesign such that the VA is relevant,clear, and truthful. All make it
independent. Relevant: make it emphasize the point
you want to make by choosing the best
type and including key info.
Creating Visual Elements
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Creating Visual Elements
(Cont’d.)
Truthful: False or misleading VAs may
be created by
Inadvertently selecting the wrong
type of VA, or
Deliberately falsifying the data
(playing with the scale or
suppressing the zero).
Creating Visual Elements
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Creating Visual Elements
(Cont’d.)
Clear: Conceptuallyand technically.
Conceptuallyclear entails a clearlydefined and relevant point in a good
form. Technicallyclear entails the necessityof informative and appropriate titles,labels, white space (making it notcluttered or crowded by eliminatingunnecessary details), …
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Integrating the Aid into Text
Decide where best to use the VA (must
be tied to text).
Explain its main point and any
implications the reader should note.
Formatting VA to Make Reading
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Formatting VA to Make Reading
Easier
Main relevant formatting features totechnical writing include:
Informative headings at the
beginningSingle spacing (or, double)
Short paragraphs
ListsNumbers to mark various
paragraphs
Liberal use of white space
PART FOUR
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PART FOUR.
SPECIFIC APPLICATIONS
I. Resumesand J ob Letters A good Resume or job letter requires that
you know what you want to do by
Setting your goals (short- and long-term
ones), capabilities (studying, working,
playing, living, other special, …. ), and
constraints.
It also requires knowing what the
company does and offers. Look for info
everywhere (friends, library, … ).
Wh M k G d A li ?
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What Makes a Good Applicant? The regular characteristics: welltrained, competent, smart,
hardworking, reliable, honest, good
communicator, ….
Take the cover letter and resume as a
chance to demonstrate how well you
can write (communication skills).
Technical qualifications are
determined by other hiring parts
(interviews, tests, reference letters, )
W i i G d J b L
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Writing a Good Job Letter
Use a conventional format (look).Stress what you can do for the company,not what the company can offer you.
Address the person having the authority.
Stress (with evidence) youraccomplishments and responsibilitiesusing dynamic verbs like devised,organized, supervised, improved, created,
and developed.Make it look beautiful by avoidingspelling mistakes, typos, ….. That is, verycareful proofreading.
i i f i i
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Designing Letter of Application Usually one page long with four mainsections:
The heading: includes writer's andreader's addressesand date.
A first paragraph that:
Introduces you (with an impressivereference).
Establishes the company's need andyour ability to fill it, or,
Establishes the reason for writing andyour request from the reader.
Designing Letter of Application
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Designing Letter of Application
(Cont’d.)
A second (or several) paragraph (s) that:
Establish your most relevant experience and
qualifications.
Stress your accomplishments,responsibilities, and work qualities (with
evidence of good job) in addition to activities.
A closing paragraph that:
Gives any other pertinent data.
Asks for an interview and provides contact
info.
Designing the Resume
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Designing the Resume A resume is a summary of all one's
activities and experience.
It must be as strong and impressive as
possible.
Characteristics:
Easy to read, not too long, not too
short, well formatted.
Give your vital statistics.
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Designing the Resume (Cont’d.)
Should suggest where you are
heading in your career (Career
Goals section) and where you
have been (Work and Education section).
Must have a References section.
i
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I I. Business Letters
Required for requesting info, ordering
equipment, supplies, praising or
thanking, complaining, responding, ….
It is characterized by being personal
with frequent use of such pronouns as
I , we, and you.
B siness Letters (Cont’d )
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Business Letters (Cont’d.)
In writing a letter, the following steps (all
require you to generate ideas, analyze the
audience, and define your problem):
Orient the reader to the topic at hand
(new topic; reminder)Explain why the writer is writing
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Business Letters (Cont’d.)
Provide enough info so that the
reader understands what to do.
Make sure to use the correct form of
salutation (address-Dear ….).
Avoid sexism (use Ms.; whole name;
to-from form, … etc.).
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Basic Letter Formats
Three basic formats:
The Unblocked Format
The Semiblocked Format
The Blocked Format
(See the models provided)
I I I R t B i F t
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I I I . Reports Basic Features
Generally, reports are read by mixedaudiences and thus should be accessibleto them and responsive to their needs.
The responsiveness may be increasedby two structural features of a report,
The Argumentative Structure, which isappropriate for managers (they see theinfo they need up front). The twofeatures are
TheArgumentativeStructure
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The Argumentative Structure
The Foreword and Summary (orcounterparts): at the beginning formanagerial and nonspecialist readers,
followed by Discussion of details (that
support the proposed solution) for
technical readers.
The placement of generalizations
(Claims in the F&S) before their
support (Details in the D), which
represents the general report structure.
Purposes of the Foreword
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Purposes of the Foreword
To catch the reader's attention: Whythe report was done and why it isimportant.
To quickly orient the audience to the
subject of the report (what wasdone).
To define the purpose or focus of thereport (predict what info the reportwill present).
F d (C ’d )
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Foreword (Cont’d.)
An effective foreword (problem
setup) provides the driving force and
overall organizational structure of
the report.
The Argumentative Structure
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g
(Cont’d.)
The Summaryprovides a compact
statement of results, conclusions and
recommendations (identifies the
solution to the problem).The purposes of the Summary are
To quickly present the results of the
project
To quickly present the important
recommendations and implications
of the project.
The Argumentative Structure
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g
(Cont’d.)
Technical Discussions (details) for
specialist readers followed by
Appendixes of nonessential or lengthy
details.
R t St t
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Report Structures
The Narrative (Chronological)Structure: found in lab and research
reports and journal articles. Presents
info in the chronological order itoccurred.