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International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social SciencesApril 2011, Vol. 1, No. 1

© HRMARS, Pakistan www.hrmars.com

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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEMOGRAPHICS VARIABLES,EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS,

MOTIVATION, AND JOB SATISFACTION

Hassan JorfiPhD Student, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Johor Baharu, Malaysia

E-mail: [email protected]

Hashim Fauzy Bin YaccobPhD Scholar, Department of Management and Human Resource, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),

Johor Baharu, MalaysiaE-mail: [email protected]

Ishak Mad ShahPhD Scholar, Department of Management and Human Resource, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM),

Johor Baharu, MalaysiaE-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

What seems to still be the main concern for managers and employees in the organization world acrossthe globe is communication effectiveness. The problem to be addressed in this study was the lack ofmotivation and job satisfaction in educational administrations of Iran. Upon reviewing variousliteratures on this subject, it was found that emotional intelligence is one of the most vital factors thathelp sustain communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. The researcher upon having a detaileddiscussion on the possible areas associated with the present body of knowledge has discovered gaps inthe studies that have been undertaken on emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness. Thisis because motivation in relation to emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, and jobsatisfaction has been ignored in the previous studies. As a result, this research proposes a relationshipbetween demographic variables, emotional intelligence (i.e., intrapersonal, interpersonal, adaptability,general mood, and stress management), Communication Effectiveness, Job Satisfaction, and Motivation.

Keywords: Emotional Intelligence, Communication Effectiveness, Job Satisfaction, Motivation, andDemographic Factors.

1. Introduction

Today emotional intelligence is a popular topic of many discussions among academic scholars andcorporate executives. What exactly is emotional intelligence, and what role does it play in business andin education? In this paper, I will attempt to answer these questions by providing definitions and a briefhistory of emotional intelligence (EQ); by discussing the key components of emotional intelligence. Thispaper seeks to accomplish four objectives. The first is to provide meaning of emotional intelligence (EI),



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communication effectiveness, motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The second is todevelop an integration model showing the relationships among EI, communication effectiveness,motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables. The third is to invest in people through EIactivities, communication effectiveness and motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variablesprograms. Lack of recognition of the interconnection among EI, communication effectiveness,motivation, job satisfaction, and demographic variables in the literature motivated the authors to writethis paper. At present, there is very little empirical literature on EI within the context of the educationaladministrations, particularly on relationships EI, communication effectiveness, motivation, jobsatisfaction, and demographic variables and how manager's EI is affected on communicationeffectiveness and job satisfaction, that have attracted considerable attention in the organizationalliterature. In the next section, we review the literature on theories of EI, communication effectiveness,motivation, and job satisfaction, and of the link between them. This review leads to the development ofthe hypotheses in this study. Finally, we discuss our conclusions. Emotional intelligence in organizationsetups has undergone dramatic switches in the last few decades. All over the world, organizationenvironments have seen drastic changes as a result of the late 1990s developments in organizationalbehavior. The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of the notion of emotional intelligence.By the 1990s it became a topic of great interest. The first author on EI as a science was, Daniel Goleman,a psychologist who wrote for the New York Times. He modeled and extended the concept of EI in hisbook, ‘Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More Than IQ for Character, Health and LifelongAchievement’ which he wrote in 1995. Emotional Intelligence transformed progressively from a merenotion into a dominant theory in many research areas within which its effects on human behavior wereanalyzed. Recently, EI received much interest in effective communication. Results of these studiesindicated that emotional intelligence played a pivotal role in human communication. The need toestablish the relationship between EI and effective communication was recognized. This relationshipwas further emphasized by many EI theorists who asserted that managers who are emotionallyintelligent communicate well with people (Goleman, 1995; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2004; Weisinger,1998).There is a significant gap in the quantity of literature examining the relationship among emotionalintelligence, job satisfaction, communication effectiveness, and motivation. One study, the first of itskind, examined the interaction effect of managers' EI and employees' EI on job satisfaction (Sy, Tram, &O'Hara, 2005). Further, empirical support is limited that gives special attention to how managers withhigh EI offer unique contributions to their organizations (Carmeli, 2003). More research is needed tofurther examine the relationships between emotional intelligence and the work environments thataffect job satisfaction and performance (Sy et al., 2005). Concerning job satisfaction, existing researchhas examined the relationship between present-tense emotions and job satisfaction (Niklas & Dormann,2005), self-esteem and job satisfaction (Alavi & Askaripur, 2003), self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy,emotional stability upon job satisfaction and job performance (Judge & Bono, 2001), and finally, theeffect of EI upon job satisfaction and performance (Sy, et al.). Concerning organizational commitment,one study was done examining the relationship between EI and occupational stress and organizationalcommitment (Nikolaou & Tsaousis, 2002). Two research studies, however, were found that examinedthe three components of EI, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment (Carmeli, 2003; Petrides &Furnham, 2006). But no study has examined the relationship among emotional intelligence,communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation together. On the other hand, no studyhas examined the interaction effect of managers’ EI and employees’ EI on job satisfaction andcommunication effectiveness. The combination of these four variable will invariably lead to higher levelsof both success and life satisfaction. This comprehensive study will seek to expand our understandingand identify the nature of the relationships among the four factors of emotional intelligence,communication effectiveness, motivation, and job satisfaction within the educational administrations.



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Even though, emotional intelligence is crucial for the sustainment of communication effectiveness andjob satisfaction, there have been very limited studies done on this subject, resulting in vital aspects likemotivation to go on unnoticed. In order to fill in this gap, this study will be conducted in Iran-basededucational administrations.

1.1 Problem Statement

The problem to be addressed in this study was the lack of communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction in educational administrations of Iran. Sharma (2006) reported that attrition rate andabsenteeism are major problems in the organizational environment due to ineffective of communicationand lack of job satisfaction. Also, In 2000, statistics from the Society for Human Resource Management(SHRM) 2000 Retention Practices Survey revealed a turnover rate of 21 to 26% in organizations due tolack of communication and job satisfaction. Voluntary turnover increased across the board for 2003 to2004 from 19 to 20% (NOBSCOT Corporation, 2006). Twenty-one percent of respondents reported poorcommunication and unsatisfied conditions of job as major reasons for the problem of turnover rate.Smaller organizations experienced a national turnover rate of 17% in the United States (SHRM, 2000). Ifindividuals are not satisfied with their jobs and communications are not effective, problems often arisein effectiveness and satisfaction throughout the organization (Herzberg, 1974). Ineffectivecommunication, lack of communication or inadequate communication causing disturbance, employeeturnover, disorder, failure to achieve goals, and damage to the image of the organization (Chang, 1993).Another study illustrates that lack of effective communication may lead to; misunderstandings, lack ofinformation, decrease in employees’ performance, and decrease in company’s turnover in organizationsand on the other hand lead to incompetence, poor teamwork and disrespect (Maxfield et al., 2005). Alsolack of communication effectiveness and job satisfaction in organizations led to high stress, monotony,poor fit between employees and the job, inadequate training (Missouri Small Business Development,2002). On the other hand, lack of job satisfaction also lead to lower productivity, higher absenteeism,increased work errors, poor judgment, defensive behavior, hostility, reduction in creativity, and jobturnover. Hinshaw, Smeltzer, and Atwood (1987) view low turnover as the product of job satisfactionand commitment, which are in turn influenced by organizational factors such as routinization,instrumental communication, and integration within the organization as well as demographics and theenvironmental factor of alternate job opportunities. Another example shows lack of job satisfaction inorganizations due to absent and leaves the job (Hackett & Guion, 1985, Carsten & Spector, 1987). A2003 study conducted by Grebner et al. (2003) involving 234 call center agents revealed lower jobsatisfaction primarily due to lower levels of job control and task complexity. This finding is consistentwith earlier research by Victor Vroom (1964), which established that a distinct inverse relationship existsbetween job satisfaction and attrition. Locke’s (1976) value theory also proves instructive whenconsidering workplace attrition, as this theory differentiated between needs and values and suggestedthat needs are inborn and exist separate from an individual’s desires. Mobley’s research (1977) alsolinked job dissatisfaction to attrition, suggesting that employees typically progress through a series ofsteps prior to quitting: thinking about quitting, considering the cost of quitting, looking for a new job,and eventually quitting. The question arises, what factors influence job satisfaction and communicationseffectiveness in organizations? A review of the literature indicated that there are numerous factors suchas job performance (Sy et al., 2005; Judge & Bono, 2001), organizational commitment (Carmeli, 2003;Petrides & Furnham, 2006), emotional intelligence (Bar-On, 2005; Schein, 2004), communication (Pettitet al., 1997; Pincus, 1986), and motivation (Anthony and Govindarajan, 1998; Edmondson, 2003). Alsoliterature review showed that emotional intelligence- one of effective factors- is a considerable factor in



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today’s volatile environment and additionally studies on this factor very limited and we found thatmotivation that it is very vital with regard to emotional intelligence with communication effectivenessand job satisfaction have not seen in previous studies. According to Mathews (2002), numerousprofessions showed a dire need for some levels of emotional intelligence. The education system is oneof those within which, the individuals could reap great advantage from the knowledge of emotionalintelligence owing to recurrent human communication that existed among them. Also, theadministrative centers of these education administrations sense a need for both the managers andemployees to create working associations with others. This is because, the administration centers haveto deal with important people and matters related to key professions. These managers and employees,according to Matthews (2002), partake in a profession in which there exists a high probability that a highlevel of emotional intelligence is required due to their everyday interaction with their customers,educators, supervisors and co-workers. In line with all reasons above, the objective of this research wasto study emotional intelligence on communication effectiveness and job satisfaction; on the other hand,identifying motivation – existent gap- which may impact the relationship between emotionalintelligence with communication effectiveness and communication effectiveness with job satisfaction.We believe that this research will provide additional insight on this topic.

1.2 Gap of Study

Both communication effectiveness and job satisfaction researches are considerable researches domainfor emotional intelligence. Studies of this domain can be categorized into two fields: the first fieldregarding factors which influence communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, the second fieldwith regard to communication effectiveness and job satisfaction impact on emotional intelligence. Themajority of communication effectiveness and job satisfaction researches studies investigate by; Rivers,2004; Luftman, 2004; and for job satisfaction major areas explored are such as: Spector, 1997. Thereview of literature showed much study on the relationship communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction with emotional intelligence like: Sy, 2006; Güleryüz, 2008; Chiva & Alegre, 2008; Kafetsios& Zampetakis, 2008. Research done till date in the field of education administration show a keeninterest in knowing all about effective communication and job satisfaction. The resulting knowledge gainon human nature could lead to important elucidations and assumptions about effective skills to improvecommunications and job satisfaction among managers and employees. As an example, if a person isable to identify the communication signals of another, this could improve the quality of communicationbetween them. Also, managers and their employees could be taught to identify various communicationindicators others express. If the level of emotional intelligence is identified within each employee by theeducation administration executive, he/he could aid them more profitably. Various perspectives ofhuman behaviors such as communication and job satisfaction can be illustrated by this study ofemotional intelligence. Certain occupational areas are implementing the measures of emotionalintelligence measures to foresee employees’ performance. Yet, in specific professions such as theteaching profession, specific emotional skills are exceptionally significant to job satisfaction. Otheroccupations exist where specific skills may be attractive but not imperative. A brain surgeon ormechanical engineers, for example, do not need the same emotional intelligence participation withothers than the emotional intelligence the managers and employees in education administrationsrequire to possess so as to surpass in job satisfaction. The formal appraisal of these skills would appearimportant for professions in which emotional abilities are clearly essential. Thus recognizing the factthat, different jobs do call for different levels of social and emotional involvement and activity, is of direimportance.



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Administrators in several jobs sense an increasing need to have recurrent interchanges that is bothemotionally positive and supportive with employees and teachers, Even in educational administrations,one generally tends to interact emotionally with others, teachers not only need to assess the reactionsof others and attempt to influence other’s emotions and motives but they also need to talk with othersface to face and exhibit optimistic behaviors.Numerous communal establishments, such as corporations and organizations, are commencingexplorations with EI, even though it is a fairly innovative concept and it continues to advance in theresearch arena. It is supposed that, by recognizing the manager and employee’s level of emotionalintelligence, a difference in corporations and organizations could be achieved companies attempt todevelop the quality of the executives and co workers’ lives which is said to affect their output level,which, in turn, amplifies profits (Brophy,1996). However, it should be stressed here that, emotionalintelligence should be recognized as early as in the educational setting when these prospective socialcontributors are not yet key administrators or workers in the educational management. Aftercompleting the research illustrated above, several apparent gaps were found to exist in the area of theproposed research topic: relationship between emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, jobsatisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran. As well, there are gaps in theliterature due to a lack of investigation into a potential relationship between emotional intelligence,communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran.The main gaps of this study including:1. There is not any study related to relationship between emotional intelligence, communicationeffectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation together. In current research, the researcher combinesfour main variables together for examine them.2. Observing little studies on relationship between emotional intelligence and communication, but nostudy has examined relationship between emotional intelligence and effectiveness of communication.According to the process improvement literature, there are a small number of previous research papersstudied the area of emotional intelligence with communication skills, styles, interpersonal, verbal andnon verbal, and competence concept. Research that is published helps to address the gaps of not havinginformation on emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness.3. Another gap is that there has been no study on communication effectiveness as mediator inrelationship between emotional intelligence and job satisfaction.4. Another gap in this study refers to motivation as moderator variable. There has been no study onmotivation as moderator variable on relationship between emotional intelligence and communicationeffectiveness.5. Another gap in this study refers to motivation as moderator variable. There has been no study onmotivation as moderator variable on relationship between communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction.6. Observing little studies on relationship between demographic factors, emotional intelligence, and jobsatisfaction together. The gap in the current research is that there are limited studies due to theemotional intelligence and job satisfaction with usage control variable.Thus, there are obvious gaps in the literature for an emotional intelligence, communicationeffectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran. The current studywas developed with the intention of filling that research gaps. Due to these gaps, in educationaladministrations research, the study was absolutely necessary and certainly timely. For these reasons,the researcher believes that there is benefit in conducting this research.It is worthy to note motivation in current study is very vital in existing literature and have been studiedwith regard to various factors such as organization performance, leadership, and arguments imply theinfluence this factor on the relationship between emotional intelligence and communicationeffectiveness; on the other hand, relationship between communication effectiveness and job



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satisfaction. As a result, the researcher will fill the mentioned gap with focus on motivation asmoderating factor on the link between emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Definitions of Emotional Intelligence

The study of emotional intelligence evolved from works by such theorists as Gardner (1983) andWilliams and Sternberg (1988), who proposed broader approaches to understanding intelligence.Salovey and Mayer (1990) coined the term “emotional intelligence” and included Gardner’sintrapersonal and interpersonal components in the construct. Goleman (1998) popularized emotionalintelligence in the business realm by describing its importance as an ingredient for successful businesscareers and as a crucial component for effective group performance.These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of emotional intelligence. In thecourse of this research, I found at least a dozen definitions of emotional intelligence (EQ). Here I willinclude the four most popular ones. Emotional intelligence (EQ) can be defined as: “The ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among

them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and action” (Mayer & Salovey, 1993).

“The intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by usingthem to help guide your behavior and thinking in ways that enhance your results” (Weisinger,1998).

“The ability to recognize and respond to the emotions and feelings of others, as well as the skillto help others manage their emotions” (Schmidt, 1997).

“the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, tounderstand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control one’s impulses;and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On,1988).

Thus, the definition of emotional intelligence as the range of abilities, talents and skills that are non-cognitive but can affect a person’s ability to manage the environmental demands and pressuresuccessfully by Bar-on was found to be suitable for this study.

2.2 Bar-On Theory of Emotional-Social Intelligence and the EQ-i

Researchers like Darwin, Thorndike, Wechsler, Sifneo, and Applebaum had influenced development ofthe emotional-social intelligence (Bar-On, 2005). The central constituents in the emotional-socialintelligence meaning and concepts were founded on the works of these researchers. Recognizing thevarious abilities in EI, Bar-On divided them into five sets which he considers as:(a) Ability to distinguish, recognize and communicate emotions and feelings(b) Ability to recognize how others sense and relate with them(c) Ability to deal with and manage emotions(d) Ability to transform, adjust and unravel problems of an individual and interpersonal nature; and



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(e) Ability to create positive influences and be self-motivated (Bar-On, 2005, p.3).Thus, emotional-social intelligence, then, is a cross-section of interconnected emotional and social

capabilities, skills and catalyst that establishes how successfully we comprehend and articulateourselves, recognize others and communicate with them while managing our daily demands (Bar-On,2005.p.3). Consequently, the theoretical framework for the Bar-On model and its measurementcalled the EQ-I, are based on these sets of abilities. Bar-On (2000) asserts that the EQ-i was framed togauge a person’s emotional and social intelligence and not personality traits or cognitive capacity. Yet,research has shown that the EQ-I has a somewhat reasonable relationship with other personality traitmeasures (e.g. Conte, 2005). Other research stated that, Bar- On’s model of emotional intelligencefocused on non-cognitive personality traits (Newsome et al., 2000). Meanwhile, Bar On reiterated thathis construct had sufficient empirical evidence to prove its validity as he had based the concept of hismodel on the results of various researches conducted around the world during a period of 17 years (Bar-On, 2000). Finally, he developed his theory of Mixed (trait) theory by identifying five variables

Intrapersonal: The intrapersonal score is a value which represents the Manager’s ability to knowhow he acts or responds to emotions. It includes the measurements for the subscales of self-awareness, assertiveness, independence, and self-regard.

Interpersonal: The interpersonal score is a value which represents the Manager’s ability toidentify or know how his emotions affect, or is perceived by, others. It includes themeasurements for the subscales of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonalrelationships.

Adaptability: The adaptability score provides insight into the Manager's ability to be flexible andrealistic. It includes the measurements for the subscales of reality testing, flexibility, andproblem solving.

Stress management: As expected, this score reflects the Manager's ability to deal with, andadapt to, stress. It includes the measurements for the subscales of stress tolerance and impulsecontrol.

General mood: General mood evaluates the Manager's attitude and perceptions of life andpeople. It includes the measurement for the subscales of optimism and happiness.

Several reasons can be delineated for the choice of the Bar-On EQ-i model for this studycomprising;

i) It has been considered as an optimal and well tested instrument to gauge emotionalintelligence.

ii) It is the most comprehensive and certified self-reported psychometric instrumentavailable to gauge emotional intelligence.

iii) The theory underlying this instrument has a direct and positive effect on thedevelopment of effective communication and communication plays a key role inincreasing emotional intelligence in managers and promoting effectiveness inorganizations(Bar-On, 2000a;Matthews et al., 2002)



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2.3 Research on Emotional Intelligence (EQ-i) Components

The researcher has studied five components of Bar-On-EQ-i which are interpersonal, intrapersonal,general mood, stress management and adaptability in the current study. Thus, these components wouldbe explained in detail subsequently.

2.3.1 Bar-On’s EQ-i: Interpersonal Component

In the social context, during a conversation, those who are conversing demonstrate various types ofinterpersonal skills encased in their personalities. Some may be exhibit exceptional speaking skills whileothers, superior listening skills. These are called interpersonal skills. Research has proven that people invarious occupations can benefit from the presence and existence of both skills (Northon, 1983,Matthews et al., 2002). These skills matter a great deal to managers who wish to practice effectiveinterpersonal relationships in their workplace. These managers are expected to possess certain traits:dominance and nurture.

2.3.2 Bar-On’s EQ-i: Stress Management Component

Much research data frequently reported source of work-related stress (Matthews et al., 2002; Knapp &Miller, 1994). These were related to people who felt dissatisfied due to lack of interpersonal recognitionwhich eventually led to stress. Thus, poor emotional intelligence was expected to be a chief feature atplay in aggravating this source of stress (Matthews et al., 2002). The main local on stress faced by peopleworking in offices is when dealing with individuals that are undergoing various, simultaneousneurophysiologic, body, and emotional changes. and managing an office is considered and labeled to bea stressful occupation (Wubbels &Levy, 1993; Wong & Wong, 1998; Wang et al., 1994). In an academicsetting, office management is somewhat more sensitive as managers are expected to regulate theirmood with caution so as not to damage the interpersonal relationships they develop with others in thissetting (Wang, 1994).

2.3.3 Bar-On’s EQ-i: Intrapersonal Component

Intrapersonal intelligence can be conveyed tangibly as a poem or painting or intangibly as rage or joyand so not recognized easily from the outside (Gardner, 1983). This component is related to the way onereaches within oneself to make sense of the information collected from the environment and how thatinformation is embodied in outward appearances. Bar-On states that intrapersonal intelligence is theskill of probing one’s own feelings, to recognize, and distinguish among them, and to represent themcharacteristically (Bar-On, 1997). In this way, one is able to achieve a better understanding of the self.This is thought to be the basis for understanding a person, his urges and ambitions (Gardner, 1983). Theknowledge of intrapersonal intelligence also aids in realizing one’s strengths and weaknesses whichwhen managed, could lead to more successful, more fulfilled individuals (Bar-On, 1997).

2.3.4 Bar-On’s EQ-i: Adaptability Component

Research has shown that those who are emotionally intelligent are adapted effectively and cancontinuously adapt in such a way as to be competent enough to deal with fresh challenges in life (Bar-



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On, 1997; Matthews et al., 2002). Bar-On states that adaptability can be classified into problem solving,reality testing, and flexibility. These three subsets are essential to the managing profession because ofthe high degree of stress involved in this field and thus require high levels of adaptability. Even in theeducational scene, managers encounter many different challenges in diverse situations that vary incomplexity levels that are not only demanding but also stressful. Thus, in order to avoid unpleasantcriticism, it is imperative that education managers possess a superior level of adaptability.

2.3.5 Bar-On’s EQ-i: General Mood Component

Confidence and contentment comprise the meaning of general mood. To be content, one has to besatisfied with his life in such a way as to enjoy living and being with others (Bar-On, 1997). This type ofsatisfaction, according to some researchers holds the essence of effective communication (Golemn,1995; Matthews et al., 2002; Wubbels et al., 1997). They believe that, when one is not feeling content orconfident of what one is doing, though, one tends to search for a change voluntarily. As a result, it canbe assumed that man is continuously finding ways to change their moods in the process of seeking anoptimal one. Since moods can affect the way people relate to others, in the arena of management, thisissue is of great importance managers especially in times of crisis (Wubbels et al., 1997).

2.4 Definitions of Communication Effectiveness

According to Campbell (1989) communication effectiveness is deliberate behavior aimed at augmentingthe result of an interpersonal meeting. Similarly, the expression “communication effectiveness” is oftenreplaced by, “effective communication” (Gudykunst, 1993, 1995, 2005a). In other words,communication becomes valuable when the people involved in the communication can augmentunderstandings and decrease misunderstandings.Fisher reiterated that effective communication is an important factor in any work place, relationship as

well as in everyday life but difficult to attain (Fisher, 1999). Since communication is the means by whichany manage can increase his knowledge and skills of communicating effectively, it can be used to unitethe manager to his workers and decision making to induce teamwork in organizations (Thamin, 1992).Each concept possesses certain limitations to effective communication but according to the literaturereview, six factors that could help improve communication effectiveness were: effective listening,feedback, understanding, influencing, oral and written, and clarifying. All these aspects would bediscussed in detail henceforth.

Effective listening: An effective listener is one who pays attention to what the speaker sayingwithout interruptions noting all the details while listening for key words of interest to enquireabout later and retains his verdict until this speaker has presented all of his or her ideas(Greenberg, 1999).

Feedback: Feedback takes place when the receiver of a communication sends a message back tothe sender. The best method to receive the message properly is through a feedback (Greenberg,1999).

Understanding: The extent to which people make sense of what they see and hear to participatecompletely in a communication and respond shrewdly, according to the conditions is based onunderstanding.



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Influencing: the meaning of influence is being able to move things ahead, without pushing,forcing or telling others what to do.

Oral and written: Communication consists of oral communication, body language, listening,inflection, and written communication and thus, multi faceted.

Clarifying: The extent to which a person uses cautious and penetrating questioning methods toeffectively interpret the words and actions of the other person in order to understand his/hermeaning is called clarifying.

2.5 Definitions of Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction is a recurrently researched subject in work and organizational literature and has beeninvestigated by several disciplines such as psychology, sociology, economics and management sciences.An employee’s affective reaction to his job in terms of how much it satisfies his desired outcome iscalled job satisfaction. He compares it with the actual outcome (Cranny et al., 1992). Overall, jobsatisfaction is actually how much a person likes his/her job (Spector, 1999). It may also relate to aperson’s emotional attachment to one’s job “… viewed either in its entirety (global satisfaction) or withregard to particular aspects (facet satisfaction; e.g. the employees’ view of the quality of supervision”(Tett & Meyer, 1993, p. 261).

2.6 Definitions of Motivation

Motivation has been defined as the inner condition of man that swells in vigor to become active. It isalso defined as something that encourages a person toward certain goals or that which influences aperson’s learning strategies and cognitive process (Ormrod, 1995). It is very essential to comprehendand maintain the motivation in a job, since it will influence employees and managers in deciding thetime and energy spent in work action. At an individual level, occupational motivation is defined as theintrinsic enthusiasm that promotes the continuous engagement in one’s occupation or the “exceptionalmoments” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1997, p. 29) in one’s career. Central to this definition is the notion thatmotivation involves voluntary actions that are goal directed (Halbeslem & Bowler, 2007).

2.7 Relationship between Emotional Intelligence, CommunicationEffectiveness, Job Satisfaction, Motivation, and Demographic Variables

Both communication effectiveness and job satisfaction researches are considerable researches domainfor emotional intelligence. Studies of this domain can be categorized into two fields: the first fieldregarding factors which influence communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, the second fieldwith regard to communication effectiveness and job satisfaction impact on emotional intelligence.Research done till date in the field of education administration show a keen interest in knowing allabout effective communication and job satisfaction. The resulting knowledge gain on human naturecould lead to important elucidations and assumptions about effective skills to improve communicationsand job satisfaction among managers and employees. If the level of emotional intelligence is identifiedwithin each employee by the education administration executive, he/he could aid them more profitably.Various perspectives of human behaviors such as communication and job satisfaction can be illustratedby this study of emotional intelligence. Certain occupational areas are implementing the measures of



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emotional intelligence measures to foresee employees’ performance. Yet, in specific professions such asthe teaching profession, specific emotional skills are exceptionally significant to job satisfaction.Administrators in several jobs sense an increasing need to have recurrent interchanges that is bothemotionally positive and supportive with employees and teachers, Even in educational administrations,one generally tends to interact emotionally with others, teachers not only need to assess the reactionsof others and attempt to influence other’s emotions and motives but they also need to talk with othersface to face and exhibit optimistic behaviors. Numerous communal establishments, such as corporationsand organizations, are commencing explorations with EI, even though it is a fairly innovative conceptand it continues to advance in the research arena. It is supposed that, by recognizing the manager andemployee’s level of emotional intelligence, a difference in corporations and organizations could beachieved companies attempt to develop the quality of the executives and co workers’ lives which is saidto affect their output level, which, in turn, amplifies profits (Brophy,1996). However, it should bestressed here that, emotional intelligence should be recognized as early as in the educational settingwhen these prospective social contributors are not yet key administrators or workers in the educationalmanagement. After completing the research illustrated above, several apparent gaps were found toexist in the area of the proposed research topic: relationship between emotional intelligence,communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educational administrations of Iran. Aswell, there are gaps in the literature due to a lack of investigation into a potential relationship betweenemotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, job satisfaction, and motivation in educationaladministrations of Iran.

3. RESEARCH MODEL

Based upon the studies and researches, it can be concluded that communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction are affected by many factors. To name a few factors, job performance, organizationalcommitment, emotional intelligence, motivation and leadership can influence communicationeffectiveness and job satisfaction. For this study, we have focused on emotional intelligence due tosome reasons that we have mentioned previously. By reviewing much literature, it was found thatemotional intelligence brought about a positive effect on communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction. In relation to communication effectiveness and job satisfaction, many researchers havecategorized intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and general mood ascomponents of emotional intelligence. We are going to examine all the mentioned components againstother constructs. Additionally, we have found a gap after examining and reviewing the literature on thissubject. In order to fill in the gap, we have included motivation construct in relation to emotionalintelligence with communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. Also, we studied relationshipbetween demographic variables (i.e., age, gender, job position, work experience, educational level) andemotional intelligence. We will discuss the arguments and support for the construct in more detail innext section. Figure 1shows the research model.



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4. Results and Discussion

4.1The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and CommunicationEffectiveness

Theorists who advocate emotional intelligence reiterated that EI leads to enhanced effectiveness incommunication (Goleman, 1998; Mayer et al. 2004; Weisinger, 1998).To demonstrate their point; oneinstance was pointed out wherein salesman required a high degree of emotional intelligence to besuccessful. They either consciously or unconsciously relied upon some dimensions of emotionalintelligence to accurately understand and respond appropriately to customers’ verbal and nonverbalsigns (Deeter-Schmelz and Sojka, 2003). In another instance, it was indicated that workers sensed abetter and nicer manager when he was trained in emotional intelligence (Ikemi and Kubota, 1996.p.116). There has been clear evidence of some similar essential factors that bond emotional intelligencewith communication effectiveness in the field of EI theories. One of these similarities is the construct ofcognitive complexity which has been referred to, in Hale’s research, as being effective in promotingcommunication effectiveness. Also, Saine believed cognitive complexity could lead to the transfer ofinformation while Watson & Behnke realized its effectiveness in group problem solving activities (Hale,1980, Saine, 1976, Watson & Behnke, 1994). Bar-On (2005) “to be emotionally and socially intelligent isto effectively understand and express oneself, to understand and relate well with others, and tosuccessfully cope with daily demands, challenges, and pressures.” (p. 3). Goleman (2001) the socialawareness of emotional intelligence has directly relationship with people and groups precisely andcommunication such as “the empathic individual can read emotional currents, picking up on nonverbalcues such as tone or facial expression” (p. 35-36), while the relationship management focus on inducingattractive responses in others tune their own responses to move relations in the best way “… effective ingive-and-take of emotional information …skills at handling difficult people…” (p. 37). Mayer et al. (2004)“the high EI individual, most centrally, can better perceive emotions, use them in thought, understandtheir meanings, and manage emotions better than others … tends to be more open and agreeable …” (p.210). As shown, these theories focus on the significance of understanding and relating with others whichhas near connection with case of communication where adaptation and proper use of knowledge andskills are essential when interacting with other person.Recent research in the area of emotion intelligence has also led to a link to communication. Andersen

& Guerrero (1998) suggest that emotions intelligence are inherently communicative and provide sixprinciples that illustrate how communication is necessary to the process of emotional experience. Thesesix principles include: (a) Emotions evolve as communicative actions, (b) emotional expression is shapedthrough socialization processes, (c) the primary elicitor of most emotion is interpersonalcommunication, (d) schemata affect how and when emotions are communicated, (e) an inherentfeature of emotional experience is emotional expression, and (f) emotion generates other emotions andinteraction chains.The above literature demonstrates that emotions and communication are often associated with

interpersonal interactions. Anderson and Guerrero believe that the future welfare of the human race,may depend somewhat on a better understanding of emotions and communication and thus it isessential to expose the future managers to the concept of emotional intelligence and communication soas to ensure the prosperity of mankind (Anderson & Guerrero, 1998,p.89). The focus of this study willcontinue with emotional intelligence and communication effectiveness in the educationaladministrations. In summary, a communication view of emotional intelligence on the interaction andrelationship components of the process. The view holds that emotional intelligence is outcomes of thecommunicative process. It follows that to improve manager effectiveness requires a significant emphasis



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on communication effectiveness since according to this view; it is through communication effectivenessthat emotional intelligence occur. Figure 2 show his relationship:

As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:H1: Emotional intelligence is positively associated with communication effectiveness.H1a: Intrapersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communicationeffectiveness.H1b: Interpersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communicationeffectiveness.H1c: Adaptability (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communicationeffectiveness.H1d: Stress management (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated withcommunication effectiveness.H1e: General mood (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with communicationeffectiveness.

4.2 The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction

Several studies have been conducted on the relationship between workers EI and their satisfaction attheir workplace especially during the 21st century. Some of the significant studies that related these twoconstructs to job performance were by Sy et al, (2006), Wong and Law (2002) and Villard (2004).Another research on this relationship is by Patra who proved that those employees with EI find theirplace of work satisfying and this influenced their satisfaction and overall productivity that led to efficientmanagement and organization development (Patra, 2004). To conclude, most studies providedsignificant evidence that higher emotional intelligence levels were related to more flexible managers asthey are able to understand the reasons behind stress and thereby plan ahead to avoid the resultantunconstructive consequences of stress (Cooper & Sawaf, 1997). Furthermore, Shimazu, Shimazu, &Odahara all feel that these managers will probably control emotions in others too. Their ability is veryuseful in group settings where employees with high EI can use their skills to promote constructiveinteractions that help increase their own self-esteem, as well as the self-esteem of the group, and addpositively to the experience of job satisfaction overall (Shimazu, Shimazu, & Odahara, 2004). On theother hand, those with lower emotional intelligence levels are probably less conscious of their emotionsand quite incapable of managing their emotions in complicated circumstances. These workers ultimatelyaugment their level of stress and thereby reduce their level of job satisfaction. As a result of this, thefollowing hypothesis is proposed:

H2: Emotional intelligence is positively associated with job satisfaction.H2a: Intrapersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.H2b: Interpersonal (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.H2c: Adaptability (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.H2d: Stress management (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with jobsatisfaction.H2e: General mood (as an aspect of emotional intelligence) is positively associated with job satisfaction.

4.3 The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Motivation

Many research like those of Goleman and Lanser have showed a relationship between emotional



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intelligence and motivation (Goleman, 1998b, Lanser, 2000). They reiterated that through the positiveand negative aspects of working life we can comprehend motivation which is an essential factor ofemotional intelligence. Also, Dijk and Freedman proved the relationship between emotional intelligenceand motivation in a study that concluded that those who require extrinsic support for motivation arealways are helpless without the consent or reward system of other (Dijk and Freedman, 2007, p.17).Some of the studies that dealt with emotional intelligence and have examined the role that emotionalintelligence play in motivation, self regulation and variety of achievement behaviors were by Frijda 1994and Zurbriggen & Sturman 2002. Most of these studies showed a relationship between emotionalintelligence and motivation. For example, a study by Wong and Law showed that workers EI influencedtheir job satisfaction and performance (Wong and Law, 2002). Thus, the literature review concluded thatemotionally intelligent employees are efficient enough to distinguish emotions, control them andemploy them to improve performance in others as compared to those employees that possessed loweremotional intelligence capabilities. In addition, employees who possessed EI were found to be able tolook at their responsibilities in a constructive manner so as to enhance motivation. As a result of this,the following hypothesis is proposed:

H3: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between emotional intelligence andcommunication effectiveness.H3a: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between intrapersonal (as an aspect ofemotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.H3b: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between interpersonal (as an aspect ofemotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.H3c: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between adaptability (as an aspect ofemotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.H3d: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between stress management (as an aspect ofemotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.H3e: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between general mood (as an aspect ofemotional intelligence) and communication effectiveness.

4.4 The relationship between Communication Effectiveness and JobSatisfaction

Many public and private organizations have started to study their communication systems in order toappraise their effects on the effectiveness of their companies. This initiative commenced with studiesrelated to communication effectiveness and its relationship to job satisfaction (Weigel, 1994). Amongthe earliest analysts who conducted significant research into the connection between communicationsatisfaction and job satisfaction was Herzberg in 1960s (Downs and Hazen, 1977). From then on, manyother related studies such as those conducted by Faicione, McCroskey, & Daly, 1977 and Wheeless, &Howard, 1984 have been recorded. In the 1970s, more substantial results into this area of research wereproduced. One such study revealed that the employment of effective communication by the employeesand managers in an organization as well as their job satisfactions are vital features that contribute to thesuccess of any organization whether public or private (Druker, 1988). Kim believed that when therelevant individuals in an organization participate in strategic planning process with the influence ofeffective communications, job satisfaction is amplified (Kim, 2002). Other researchers have mentionedover 500 studies where there were significant associations found among communication, productivityand job satisfaction within working environments (Downs, Clampitt and Pfieffer ,1988). Thus, it can beconcluded that, the two variables of communication and job satisfaction are directly related to a



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company’s efficiency and achievements (Young, Worchel, & Woehr, 1998). As a result of this, thefollowing hypothesis is proposed:

H4: Communication effectiveness is positively associated with job satisfaction.

4.5 The relationship between Communication Effectiveness and Motivation

In this day and age, motivation and communication have been found to possess a significant relationshipin the majority of establishments. Literature revealed that, though motivation has played an importantrole in the enhancement of communication effectiveness the relationship between the two constructwere rarely studied. Some of these studies, have concluded those who were inherently motivated hadthe habit of looking at an organization’s communication environment as being more honest thanexternally motivated ones (Krivonos ,1975).Thus, motivation, in a later study was recognized as one ofthe ways to for attain communication effectiveness (Locke, 1976). To reiterate this point, another studyconcluded that without an adequate measure of motivation, communication probably would not takeplace effectively (Scott, 2008).

4.6 The relationship between Job Satisfaction and Motivation

Literature review revealed that primary study into the complex nature of satisfaction and motivationand provided knowledge into many general predicaments. For one, the relationship that exists betweenjob satisfaction and motivation has often misinterpreted. Though in past literature, job satisfaction andmotivation were not the same, they were shown to be related and somewhat depended upon oneanother in recent literature. One researcher linked basic psychological issues to organizational andindustrial settings when dealing with motivation and job satisfaction (Wofford, 1971) .It was alsoassumed that these two constructs were both simple and complex at the same time. The mainelement that assesses a person’s performance in organizations which is vital to accomplishing itsobjectives is motivation.While, job satisfaction is a key variable in people’s level of performance and motivation, the concepts

are related but contain basic differences because factors influencing satisfaction and motivation varyfrom individual to individual and between people from similar groups. One difference is that jobsatisfaction is related to the amount of pleasure an employee gets while working whereas motivationfocuses on a different set of factors including behaviors, goal, and feedback. Another difference is thatjob satisfaction deals with the job and the employee while motivation addresses the complex nature ofmaking (Steers and Porter, 1979). Results of these investigations revealed that motivation is related tooverall job satisfaction and thus provided a guideline to other researcher investigating the relationshipbetween employee’s motivation and job satisfaction. Thus, this was also chosen as a variable to betested in this study. As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H5: Motivation is positively associated with relationship between communication effectiveness and jobsatisfaction.

4.7 The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Age

In the late 1990s, some studies showed that the subjects who were older possessed higher levels ofemotional intelligence as compared to those who were younger which made the researchers presumethat emotional intelligence may increase with age (Bar-On & Handly, 1997). Later, the results of



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numerous significant studies conducted on EI by Bar-On, 1997, 2002; Mayer, Caruso, & Salovey, 1999;Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002 supported this assumption. As a result of this, the following hypothesisis proposed:

H6: Age (as demographic variable) has positively associated with emotional intelligence.

4.8 The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Gender

Gender, according to Wood, comprises an intricate measure of interconnected cultural ideas thatconsciously or unconsciously affect how a person pictures him/her self as a woman or man, what he/shecommonly anticipates in women and men, and what kinds of transformations he/she attempts to createin this gendered behavior (Wood, 2003.p.38).Some believe that this idea of gender influences peoples’postulations, anticipations, and behaviors (Scherer & Petrick, 2001; Wood, 2003). The literature reviewshowed diverse assumptions supporting gender differences in EI .The first few studies using prevalent EItests, reported women to be more socially skillful as compared to men (Hargie, Saunders, & Dickson,1995). Other researches supporting this assumption are those by Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D.R., and Salovey(1999). Some other researchers reiterated that emotional experience of women were more complexand clearly expressed than the experience of men (Barrett, Lane, Secherst, & Schwartz,2000).Supporting these assumptions, other researchers added that the higher levels of emotionalintelligence in women may be associated to the connections between the mother and her child whereinwhich the female children are likely to obtain more emotional expression from their mothers than malechildren ( Lopes, Salovey, and Straus ,2003). As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H7: Gender (as demographic variable) has positively associated with emotional intelligence

4.9 The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Education Level

The potential positive impact that the understanding and development of emotional intelligence instudents can have on academic achievement have interested educational administrator andpolicymakers for years. The work of a group of curriculum leaders such as Elias, Zins, Weissberg, Frey,Greenberg, Haynes, Kessler, Schwab-Stone, & Shiver, 1997 and Pool, has also exposed the idea thatemotional intelligence is the integrative notion behind successful learning as the results of his researchshowed a prediction of about 80% of a person’s success in life is affected by emotional intelligence(Pool, 1997.p.12). Another study revealed that low emotional intelligence is directly connected toremedial troubles, and suggested that teachers should identify disobedient students and reinforce theiremotional intelligence. However, some researchers highlighted the importance of looking at learners asboth cognitive and emotional people as these two constructs have been ignored so far. They alsoindicated that much of the studies carried out on education and emotional intelligence were related topersonality traits, or a broad mixed-mode of emotional intelligence, than on the ability based model andthus much research is clearly lacking on education and emotional intelligence (Mayer and Cobb, 2000).As a result of this, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H8: Education level (as demographic variable) has positively associated with emotional intelligence.



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4.10 The relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Work Experience

Work experience is the knowledge a person gains while working in a specific field or occupation and italso provides a student with some real life work experience while studying. The factor of workexperience is the most important factor that can impact on emotional intelligence in the educationaladministrations. Aryee, Wyatt and Stone,1996; Judge and Bretz ,1994; Judge et al., 1995; Nabi, 1999 areall samples of research work that have found factors such as educational level, work experience , ageand gender to affect perceived job success .The results of these studies have shown that workexperience could be considered an important variable that could affect emotional intelligence. Also,there is some evidence that the more parallel the work experience is to the new learning experience,the more successful, the final outcomes (Adams & Hancock, 2000). Taking this substantial proof intoconsideration, these variables were included as control variables in current study. As a result of this, thefollowing hypothesis is proposed:

H9: Work experience (as demographic variable) has positively associated with emotional intelligence.

4.11 Emotional Intelligence and Job Position

Job position factor is the most significant factor that can impact on emotional intelligence ineducational administration. Job position in current study plays a vital role in emotional intelligence. Incurrent study job position includes manager and employee in educational administrations. Each ofmanager and employee can impact emotional intelligence differently. The purpose of this sectionstudied relationship between job position and emotional intelligence. As a result of this, the followinghypothesis is proposed:

H10: Job position (as demographic variable) has positively associated with emotional intelligence

5. Conclusions

Upon reviewing various literatures on this subject, it was found that emotional intelligence is one of themost vital factors that helps sustain communication effectiveness and job satisfaction in today’senvironments, but unfortunately the studies on this subject is very limited. At present, organizations arelooking at emotional intelligence as the main and fundamental competency that is required in order fororganizations to exist and grow in the present-day environments. Also, reviewing the literature showedthat intrapersonal, interpersonal; adaptability, general mood, and stress management are the mostimportant dimensions of emotional intelligence. The researcher upon having a detailed discussion onthe possible areas associated with the present body of knowledge has discovered gaps in the studiesthat have been done on emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, and job satisfaction. Thisis because, motivation in relation to emotional intelligence, communication effectiveness, and jobsatisfaction have been ignored in the prior studies. On the other hand, in this study demographicvariables (i.e., age, gender, job position, educational level, and work experience) have positiverelationship with emotional intelligence. To fill this gap, it is argued that motivation influenced bydimensions of emotional intelligence (i.e., intrapersonal, interpersonal; adaptability, general mood, andstress) and influences communication effectiveness and job satisfaction. As a result, this researchproposes the relationships between emotional intelligence (i.e., intrapersonal, interpersonal;adaptability, general mood, and stress), communication effectiveness, motivation, and job satisfaction.



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7. Future Research

Emotional intelligence, as an important area of Social sciences needs a lot of research in the developingcountries like Iran. As it directly influence the employees behavior working in any organization, thedecision making power and the abilities related to handle the contingency situations, which may ariseout of blues. There is also need to carry out research regarding intrinsic and extrinsic factors which haveimpact on the employee behavior and emotional intelligence of the employees. Sector wise researchmay also be carried out to see the emotional intelligence level of employees in different sectors of thecountry, to make country prosper by having intellect human capital with in the country. On the otherhand, further studies with respect to impact of Emotional Intelligence on communication effectiveness,job satisfaction, motivation, and demographic variables by different organization variables, are requiredin this field especially in the Iran whether it’s manufacturing industry or service industry.

Figure 1. The research model

Stress Management

Communication

Effectiveness

Emotional

Intelligence

Adaptability

Intrapersonal

Interpersonal

General Mood

Job

Satisfaction

Motivation

Age

Gender

Education

Level

Work

experienc

JobPosition



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Figure 2. Communication Effectiveness View of Managers and Employees with EmotionalIntelligence

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