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Shashini Tennekoon
Why do we learn a language? To read books
To speak
To pass an exam
Methods and approaches change Depending on the kind of proficiency needed
Reading comprehension Oral
Change of theories of the nature of language & of language learning
Grammar Translation The sole form of instruction –mechanical translation
Learn grammar rules through detailed analysis
Based on disconnected sentences
Translation of texts into & out of target language
Offspring of German scholarship
GTM Goal of learning language- to read its literature
To benefit from the mental discipline & intellectual development
Views lang. learning as memorizing rules & facts in order to understand & manipulate morphology & syntax of the foreign language
First language is maintained as the reference system
Reading & writing major focus
Little/no systematic attention to litening & speaking
Vocabulary selection based on the reading text used
Words taught through bilingual word lists, dictionary study & memorization
The sentence is the basic unit of teaching(distinctive feature)
GTM Accuracy is emphasized
Students are expected to achieve high standard in translation
To pass large number of formal written examinations
GTM Grammar taught deductively
Presentation of grammar rules
Studying them
Practice translation
A syllabus with sequencing of grammar points through out text
Attempt to teach grammar in systematic way
GTM Native language is the medium of instruction
Used to teach new items
Comparisons are made between L1 & Target
GTM Dominated from 1840’s – 1940’s
Still practiced widely in the world in modified form
where understanding of the literary texts is the focus
When little need is there to speak
Used in college level to teach contemporary texts for teaching in foreign languages
Criticisms Rigorous method of study
Memorizing endless lists of unusable rules and vocabulary
Attempted to produce perfect translations of literary prose
Not liked by learners
Creates frustration for students
Few demands on teachers
No theory
No advocates
No literature offering justification
No attempt to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology or education
Mid & late 19th century opposition from several European countries laid foundation for development of new ways of language teaching
Increased demand for oral proficiency as a result of communication development
C. Marcel (Frenchman)(1793-1896) Child learning as a model
Emphasized importance of meaning
Proposed reading be taught before other skills
Located language teaching within a broader framework
T. Prendergast (Englishman)(1806-1886)
Children use contextual & situational cues to interpret utterances
They use memorized phrases & routines in speaking
Propsed the first “structural syllabus” supporting learners be taught the most basic structural patterns occur in language
F. Gouin (Frenchman)(1831-18960) Lang. learning facilitated through using language to
accomplish events consisting of a sequence of related actions
Used situations & themes as ways of organizing and presenting oral lang. (Gouin series) ex. Chopping wood, opening door etc.
To present new teaching items in context to make meaning clear
Use of gestures & actions
Reform Movement Educators recognized the need for speaking
proficiency
Interest in how children learn language
Henry Sweet(English) Wilhelm Vietor (German), Paul Passy (French) provided intellectual leadership
Discipline of linguistics were revitalized-emphasized speech is primary
Phonetics established for new approach to speech
Henry Sweet (1845-1912) Sound methodical principles based on analysis of
language and study of psychology
Careful selection of what is to be taught
Imposing limits on what is to be taught
Arranging what is to be taught on four skills
Grading material from simple to complex
Wilhelm Vietor ( 1850-1918) Used linguistic theory
training in phonetics would enable to pronounce accurately
Speech is fundamental (rather than grammar)
Value of training teachers
IPA-1886 Study of spoken language
Phonetic training
Use of conversation texts
Inductive approach to grammar
Teaching meaning through associations within the target language
Reformers agree that Spoken language is primary
Phonetics should be applied
Learners should first here the language before seeing written form
Words be presented in sentences & be practiced in meaningful contexts
Rules of grammar should be introduced after practicing in context
Translation to be avoided
Native lang. could be used to explain new words & check comprehension
Natural Method Founded by L.Sauveur
Foreign lang. could be taught without NL or translation
Meaning conveyed through demonstration & action
F. Franke provided theoretical justification (direct association between forms & meanings in TL)
Natural Method Language be best taught using it actively in the
classroom
No analysis of grammar rules but direct & spontaneous use of language
Induce grammar rules
Tr. Replaced the text book in the early stages
Speaking with systematic attention to pronunciation
Words taught using mimes, demonstration & pics.
Direct Method Most widely known of natural methods
Introduced in France & Germany
Also widely known in US-by Sauveur & Berlitz
Principles & Procedures CR instruction exclusively in TL
Only everyday vocab. & sentences taught
Oral skills built in a carefully graded progression organized around Q & A exchanges
Grammar taught inductively
New teaching points introduced orally
Guidelines on teaching oral lang. Never translate: demonstrate Never explain: act Never make a speech: ask questions Never imitate mistakes: correct Never speak with single words: use sentences Never speak too much: make sts speak much Never use book: use lesson plan Never go too fast: keep sts pace Never speak too slowly: speak normally Never speak too quickly or loudly: speak naturally Never be impatient: take it easy
Contd. Concrete vocab. Taught through demonstration,
objects, pics
Abstract concepts through association of ideas
Both speech & listening comprehension taught
Correct pronunciation & grammar emphasized
Criticism Failed in public schools
Required native speakers to teach
Dependent on teacher’s skills
Prohibition on use of native language
Compare & Contrast GTM & Direct
Audiolingual MethodBackground Effect of world war 11
Army Specialized Training Program-1942
Objective- to attain conversational proficiency
Methodology derived from intensive contact
Value of intensive oral based approach
Many foreign students
American approach to ESL- Audiolingualism-mid 1950’s
Launching of first satellite by Russians
Audiolingual Method Combination of structural linguistic theory, aural-oral
procedures, contrastive analysis & behaviouristpsychology
Charles Fries applied principles of structural linguistics to lang. learning
Problems of learning attributed to conflict of different structural systems (oral approach/aural oral approach/structural approach)
Advocated aural training first-pronunciation-speaking-reading & writing
Contd. Termed coined by Prof. Nelson Brooks 1964
Turned language teaching from an art to science
Lang. viewed as a system of structurally related elements for the encoding of meaning, the elements being phonemes, morphemes, words, structures & sentence types
“structural” referred to……. Elements in a were thoughht of as being lineraly
produced in a rule governed (structured) way
Language samples could be exhaustively described at any level of description (phonetic, phonemic, morphological etc.)
Linguistic levels were thought of as systems within systems (pyramidally structured)
Behaviourist theory B. F. Skinner verbal behaviour is similar to non verbal
behaviour
Stimulus response theory
Language mastery as acquiring a set of appropriate language stimulus response chains
Principles Foreign language learning is basically a process of
mechanical habit formation
Spoken form before written form
Analogy provides a better foundation than analysis
Meanings of words can be learnt in linguistic & cultural context & not in isolation
Contd. Native like fluency sought
Early stages oral skills gradually to other skills
Language skills are taught in the order of L,S,R & W
Dialogue presented & memorized, gr, patterns selected & practiced in drills
Dialogues & drills forms the basis of classroom practice
Dialogues contextualize key structures
Drills Repetition
Inflection
Replacement
Restatement
Completion
Transposition
Expansion
Contraction
Transformation
Integration
Rejoinder
Restoration
Criticism Most widespread use in 1960’s
Theoretical foundations unsound in terms of learning theory & language theory (Chomsky,1966)
Practical results fell short of expectations
Sts unable to transfer learning into real communication
Procedures boring & unsatisfying
Lack of alternative to Audiolingualism
1970’s 1980’s period of adaptation, innovation, experimentation & confusion
Several proposals appeared but no claim in mainstream language teaching
Eg.TPR, Silent Way,counseling-learning
Total Physical Response Developed by James Asher (Prof. of Psychology)
Method built around coordination of speech & action
Teach language through physical activity
Based on developmental psychology, learning theory, humanistic pedagogy, lang. teaching procedures proposed by Harold & Dorothy Palmer(1925)
Contd. SL learning parallel to child first lang. acquisition
Speech directed to young children consist primarily of commands
Children respond to physically before verbal responses
Role of affective factors (humanistic psy.)
Undemanding in terms of ling. Production & involves game like movements reduce learner stress & facilitate learning
TPR Grammar based view of language
“ most of gr. structures & vocab. can be learned by the skillful use of imperatives by instructor”
The verb in the imperative as the central linguistic motif around which lang. learning is organized
Stimulus response view as providing learning theory underlying teaching pedagogy
Linked with trace theory of memory in psychology (more often /more intensive memory connection is traced the stronger the memory association be & more likely it will be recalled)
TPR Three influential learning hypothesis used
Bio- program
Listening first-comprehension acquired from physical responses-speech evolves naturally
Brain lateralization
Right brain learning(Piaget-learning through motor movement)
Reduction of stress
Absence of stress through pleasurable learning activities
TPR Objective: oral proficiency at a beginning level
Produce learners capable of an uninhibited communication intelligible to a native speaker
Goals must be attainable through use of action based drills in imperative form
Sentence based syllabus
Initial attention to meaning rather than form
Grammar taught inductively
Fixed number of items to be introduced at a time
Conversational dialogues are delayed until after about 120 hours of instruction
Other class activities include role plays & slide presentation
TPR
Role plays center on everyday situations
Learners have the primary role of listener & performer
Learners must produce novel combinations
Monitor & evaluate their own progress
Teacher plays & active & direct role
Detailed lesson plans required
Speaking ability to develop on leaner’s own pace
Teacher should model parents’ feedback
Can be used in association with other methods
Communicative Language Teaching Need to focus on communicative competency rather
than mastery of structures
Increasing interdependence of European countries
The work of The Council of Europe & D.A. Wilkins, & vanEK and Alexander,(1980) had a major impact on the birth of CLT
An approach not a method
CLT Communicative competence as the goal
Procedures to teach four skills
Focus on interdependence of language and communication
Comprehensive approach
No single authority, text or model
Pays attention to both functional & structural aspects
CLT Learners work in groups/pairs in problem solving
tasks
Direct practice of communicative acts
Learning by doing (experience based)
material developed on learner needs
Learner centered
Communicative competence (Hymes-1972)
Learner first learning second
Principles of CLT Learners learn a language through using it for
communication
Authentic & meaningful communication should be the goal of CR activities
Fluency is an important dimension
Communication involves integration of different language skills
Learning is a creative process that involves trial & error
Compare & contrast CLT & ALM
Method vs Approach An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing
with the nature of language teaching & learning
Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material no part of which contradicts & all of which is based upon the selected approach
Technique is implementational A particular trick, strategy used to accomplish an immediate objective
Eclectic None of the methods completely successful
Teachers in USA adopted various features from different methods to suit their purpose
A combination of elements from methods is called eclectic
What are the advantages & disadvantages?
References
Hewage. A.K.(2003) Readings in ELT Methodology. Colombo: Denuma Publications
Richards, J.C. & Rodgers, T.S. (2006) Approaches &Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press