Developmental psychology

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY:

AN OVERVIEWAvon Pearl S. Amores, MP

Asia Pacific College

OBJECTIVES To have a thorough understanding of

Changes of Human beings over the course of their life.

To have a thorough information about the Human Development and how its study evolved

To identify the Domains of Development To have an overview about Perspectives

used

DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY DEFINED A Scientific study of processes of

change and stability throughout the Human Life Span

A branch of Psychology that studies interindividual changes within these intraindividual changes

Studying the Life Span from Conception to Death

What do Developmentalists study?

MAJOR OBJECTIVES OF DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To find out what are the common and

characteristic age changes in appearance, in behavior, in interests and in goals from development period to another

To find out when these changes occur To find out what causes them To find out whether they can or cannot

be predicted And to find out whether they are

individual or universal

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT Physical Development- growth of body

and brain, including patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills and health

Cognitive Development- Pattern of change of in mental abilities such as learning, attention, reasoning and creativity

Psychosocial Development- Pattern of change in emotions, personality and Social Relationships

PERIODS OF THE LIFE SPANAge Period Physical

DevelopmentsCognitive Developments

Psychosocial Developments

Prenatal Period (From Conception to Birth)

• Conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means.

• The Genetic endowment interacts with environmental influences from the start.

• Basic body structures and organ form; brain growth spurt begins

• Physical growth is the most rapid in the life span

• Vulnerability to environmental influences is great

Abilities to learn and remember and to respond to sensory stimuli are developing

Fetus responds to mother’s voices and develops a preference for it.



Psychosocial Developments

Infancy and Toddlerhood (birth to age 3)

• All senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees.

• The brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influence

• Physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid

• Abilities to learn and remember are present, even in early

Fetus responds to mother’s voices and develops a preference for it.



• Psychosocial Developments

Early Childhood (ages 3-6)

• Growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions more adultike.

• Appetite diminishes and sleep problems are common

• Handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve

• Thinking is somewhat egocentric but understanding of other people’s perspectives grows.

• Cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world.

• Memory and language improve

• Intelligence becomes more predictable

• Preschool experience is common and kindergarten experience is more so.

• Self concept and understanding of emotions become more complex; self esteem is global

• Independence, initiative and self-control increases.

• Gender identity develops

• Play becomes more imaginative, more elaborate and usually, more social.

• Altruism, aggression and fearfulness are common.

• Family is still the focus of social life, but other children become more important.




Middle Childhood (ages 6-11)

• Growth slows• Strength and

athletic skills improve

• Respiratory illnesses are common but health is generally better than at any other time in the life span.

• Egocentrism diminishes. Children begin to think logically but concretely.

• Memory and language skills increase

• Cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal schooling.

• Some children show special educational needs and strengths.

• Self concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem

• Coregulation reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child

• Peers assume central importance.




Adolescence *(ages 11- about 20)

• Physical growth and other changes are rapid and profound.

• Reproductive maturity occurs

• Major health risks arise from behavioral issues such as eating disorders and drug abuse.

• Ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops

• Immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors

• Education focuses on preparation for college or vocation

• Search for identity including sexual identity, becomes central.

• Relationships with parents are generally good.

• Peer group may exert a positive or negative influence.




Emerging and Young Adulthood(ages 20-40)

• Physical condition peaks, then declines slightly.

• Lifestyle choices influence health.

• Thought and moreal judgments become more complex

• Education and occupational choices are made, sometimes after period of exploration.

• Personality traits and styles become relatively stable, but changes in personality may be influenced by life stages and events.

• Intimate relationships and personal lifestyles are established but may not be lasting

• Most people marry and most become parents.




Middle Adulthood (ages 40-65)

• Slow deterioration of sensory abilities, health, stamina and strength may begin, but individual differences are wide,

• Women experience menopause

• Mental abilities peak; expertise and practical problem-solving skills are high.

• Creative output may decline but improve in quality

• For some, career success and earning powers peak; for others, burnout or career change may occur.

• Sense of identity continues to develop; midlife transition may occur

• Dual responsibilities of caring for children and parents may cause stress

• Launching of children leaves empty nest.




Late Adulthood(age 65- death)

• Most people are healthy and active, although health and physical abilities generally decline

• Slowing of reaction time affects some aspects of functioning

•

• Most people are mentally alert,

• Although intelligence and memory may deteriorate in some areas, most people find ways to compensate.

• Retirement form workforce may occur and may offer new options for use of time

• People develop more flexible strategies to cope with personal losses and impending death

• Relationships with family and close friend can provide important support

• Search for meaning in life assumes central importance

DEFINITION OF TERMS Individual differences- differences in characteristics,

influences or developmental outcomes Heredity- inborn traits or characteristics inherited

from the biological parents Environment- totality of non hereditary or

experiential influences on development Maturation- unfolding of a natural sequence of

physical and behavioral changes Culture-a society’s or group’s total way of life

including customs, traditions, beliefs, values, language and physical products

Ethnic Group- a group united by ancestry, race, religion, language, or national origins, which contribute to a sense of shared identity

INFLUENCES ON DEVELOPMENT Heredity, Environment and Maturation Socioeconomic Status and

Neighborhood Culture and Race/ Ethnicity Culture Normative Influences and Non

Normative influences Timing on Influences: Critical or

Sensitive Periods Imprinting

PRINCIPLES OF A LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH Development is life-long Development is Multidimensional Development is Multidirectional Relative influences of biology and

culture shift over the life span Development involves changing

resource allocations Development shows plasticity Development is influenced by the

historical and cultural context

THEORY AND RESEARCH Basic Theoretical Issues

Issue #1: Is Development Active or Reactive? Mechanistic Model- John Locke’s View- in this

view, people are like machines that react to environmental inputMechanistic Researchers want to identify the

factors that make people behave as they do Organismic Model- Jean Jacques Rousseau’s

View, this model sees people as active, growing organisms that set their own development in motion. They initiate events; they do not just react.

Thus the driving force for change is internal.

THEORY AND RESEARCH Basic Theoretical Issues

Issue #2: Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous? Quantitative Changes- changes in number or

amount, such as height, weight, size of vocabulary, or frequency of communication

Qualitative Changes- changes in kind, structure or organization

FIVE PERSPECTIVES

ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Psychoanalytic2. Learning

3. Cognitive4. Contextual

5. Evolutionary/ Sociobiological

PERSPECTIVE 1: PSYCHOANALYTIC Important Theories

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory- Behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges Technique Used: Clinical Observation Stage Oriented: Yes Causal Emphasis: Innate factors modified by experience Reactive

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory- Personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of crisis. Technique Used: Clinical Observation Stage Oriented: Yes Causal Emphasis: Interaction of innate and experiential

factors Active

PERSPECTIVE 2: LEARNING Important Theories

Behaviorism or Traditional Learning Theory (Pavlov, Skinner and Watson)- People are responders; the environment controls behavior Technique Used: Rigorous Scientific (experimental)

procedures Stage Oriented: No Causal Emphasis: experience Reactive

Social Learning (social cognitive) Theory (bandura)- Children learn in a social context by observing and imitating models Technique Used: Rigorous Scientific (experimental)

Procedures Stage Oriented: No Causal Emphasis: experiences modified by innate factors Active and reactive

PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE Important Theories

Piaget’s Cognitive Theory- Qualitative changes in thought occur between infancy and adolescence Technique Used: Flexible interviews; Meticulous

observation Stage Oriented: Yes Causal Emphasis: Interaction of Innate and experiential

factors Active

Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory- Social Interaction is central to cognitive development. Technique Used: Cross-Cultural research; observation of

child interacting with more competent person Stage Oriented: No Causal Emphasis: Experience Active

PERSPECTIVE 3: COGNITIVE (CONT’D) Important Theories

Information- Processing Theory- Human beings are processors of symbols Technique Used: Laboratory research;

technological monitoring or physiologic responses

Stage Oriented: No Causal Emphasis: Interaction of Innate

and experiential factors Active

PERSPECTIVE 4: CONTEXTUAL Important Theory

Bronfenbenner’s Bioecological Theory- Development occurs through interaction between a developing person and five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences, from microsystem to Chrono system. Technique Used: Naturalistic Observation

and analysis Stage Oriented: No Causal Emphasis: Interaction of Innate and

experiential factors Active

PERSPECTIVE 5: EVOLUTIONARY/SOCIOBIOLOGICAL Important Theory

Bowlby’s Attachment Theory- Human beings have the adaptive mechanisms to survive; critical or sensitive periods are stressed; evolutionary and biological bases for behavior and predisposition toward learning are important Technique Used: Naturalistic Observation

and laboratory observation Stage Oriented: No Causal Emphasis: Interaction of Innate and

experiential factors Active and Reactive (theorists vary)

RESEARCH METHODS

Scientific MethodQuantitative and Qualitative Research

SamplingBasic Research Designs

STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD1. Identification of a problem2. Formulation of hypotheses3. Collection of data4. Statistical Analysis5. Formation of Tentative Conclusions6. Dissemination of Findings

SAMPLING-MAJOR METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

Type Main Characteristics

Advantages Disadvantages

• Self-report• Diary• Visual

Reports• Interview• Questionnair

e

Participants are asked about some aspect of their lives; questioning may be highly structured or more flexible; self report may be verbal or visual

• Can provide firsthand information about a person’s life, attitudes or opinions

• Visual techniques (e.g. drawing, mapping, graphing) avoid need for verbal skills.

• Participants may not remember information accurately or may distort responses in a socially desirable way;

• How question is asked or by whom, may affect answer




• Naturalistic Observation

People are observed in their normal setting with no attempt to manipulate behavior.

• Provides good description of behavior; does not subject people to unnatural settings that may distort behavior

• Lack of control

• Observer bias




• Laboratory Observation

Participants are observed in the laboratory, with no attempt to manipulate behavior

• Provides good descriptions;

• Offers greater control than naturalistic observation because all participants are observed under the same controlled observations

• Observer bias

• Controlled situation can be artificial




• Behavioral and Performance Measures

Participants are tested on abilities, skills, knowledge, competencies or physical responses

• Provides objectively measureable information;

• Avoids subjective distortions

• Cannot measure attitude or other non behavioral phenomena

• Results may be affected by extraneous factors

BASIC RESEARCH DESIGNSType Main

Characteristics


• Case Study In-depth study of single individual

• Flexibility• Provides

detailed picture of one person’s behavior and development can generate hypotheses

• May not generalize to others;

• Conclusions not directly testable

• Cannot establish cause a


Characteristics


• Ethnographic Study

In-depth study of culture or subculture

• Can help overcome culturally based biases in theory and research

• Can test universality of developmental phenomena

• Subject to observer bias


Characteristics


• Experiment Controlled procedure in which an experimenter controls the independent variable to determine its effects on the dependent variable May be conducted in the laboratory of field

• Establishes cause and effect relationships

• Highly controlled and can be repeated by another investigator

• Degree of control is greatest in the laboratory experiment

• Findings, especially when derived from the laboratory experiments may not generalize to situations outside the laboratory