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ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PARTS OF SPEECH

Parts of speech .....................................................................................................................................................3

The English verb....................................................................................................................................................4

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs ......................................................................................................................5

Finite Verbs .......................................................................................................................................................5

Non-Finite Verbs ...............................................................................................................................................6

Auxiliary verbs ..................................................................................................................................................6

Linking verbs .....................................................................................................................................................7

Causative Verbs ................................................................................................................................................7

Stative and Dynamic / Action Verbs .................................................................................................................8

Phrasal verbs ....................................................................................................................................................9

What are irregular verbs? .............................................................................................................................. 10

Irregular verbs ............................................................................................................................................... 10

The Noun ........................................................................................................................................................... 11

Collective Nouns ............................................................................................................................................ 11

Noun Phrases ................................................................................................................................................. 12

Plurals ............................................................................................................................................................ 13

Gender: Masculine and Feminine Nouns ...................................................................................................... 16

Countable and uncountable nouns ............................................................................................................... 17

Subject ........................................................................................................................................................... 17

Dummy subject there .................................................................................................................................... 18

Adjectives .......................................................................................................................................................... 19

Participle Adjectives / Participial adjectives .................................................................................................. 19

Cumulative and Coordinate Adjectives ......................................................................................................... 20

Demonstratives - This, that, these, those ..................................................................................................... 21

Possessive Adjectives .................................................................................................................................... 21

Adjectival Nouns ............................................................................................................................................ 22

Comparatives and Superlatives ..................................................................................................................... 23

Adverbs .......................................................................................................................................................... 24

Adverbs of Frequency .................................................................................................................................... 26

Position of Adverbs ........................................................................................................................................ 27

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Pronouns............................................................................................................................................................ 28

Subject pronouns ........................................................................................................................................... 28

Object pronouns ............................................................................................................................................ 30

Reflexive pronouns ........................................................................................................................................ 30

Possessive Pronouns...................................................................................................................................... 32

Relative Pronouns .......................................................................................................................................... 32

Prepositions ....................................................................................................................................................... 33

Prepositions of place ..................................................................................................................................... 34

Prepositions of time ...................................................................................................................................... 36

Other Prepositions ......................................................................................................................................... 37

Conjunctions ...................................................................................................................................................... 38

Interjections ....................................................................................................................................................... 39

Exercise - Transitive and Intransitive Verbs....................................................................................................... 40

Exercise - Auxiliary Verbs ................................................................................................................................... 40

Exercise - Adverbs .............................................................................................................................................. 41

Exercise - Comparatives and Superlatives ......................................................................................................... 41

Exercise - Adjetives or Adverbs ......................................................................................................................... 41

Exercises - Adverbs of frequency. ...................................................................................................................... 42

Exercises - Possessive Adjectives. ...................................................................................................................... 42

Exercise - Linking Verbs ..................................................................................................................................... 43

Exercises: Phrasal Verbs .................................................................................................................................... 43

Exercises - Simple Past Tense. ........................................................................................................................... 44

Exercises - Plurals .............................................................................................................................................. 45

Exercise - Countable and Uncountable Nouns .................................................................................................. 47

Exercise - Participial Adjectives ......................................................................................................................... 47

Exercises - Prepositions of Place and Time........................................................................................................ 48

Exercise - at, on and in ....................................................................................................................................... 48

Exercise - Demonstratives ................................................................................................................................. 49

Exercise - Personal Pronouns ............................................................................................................................ 49

Exercise - Object Pronouns ................................................................................................................................ 50

Exercise - Reflexive Pronouns ............................................................................................................................ 50

Exercises - Possessive Pronouns. ....................................................................................................................... 51

Exercise - Conjunctions ...................................................................................................................................... 51

A list of irregular verbs ...................................................................................................................................... 53

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Parts of speech

In grammar, a part of speech (also called lexical categories, grammatical categories or word classes) is a linguistic category of words. In English there are eight parts of speech.

A list of parts of speech in English grammar include the following:

1. Verb. A verb is used to show an action or a state of being

go, write, exist, be

2. Noun. A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events, ideas and feelings. A noun functions as a subject or object of a verb and can be modified by an adjective.

John, lion, table, freedom, love ...

3. Adjective. Adjectives are used to describe or specify a noun or pronoun

good, beautiful, nice, my ...

4. Adverb. An adverb is used to modify a verb, adjective and other adverbs.

completely, never, there ...

5. Pronoun. A pronoun is used in the place of a noun or phrase.

I, you, he, she, it ...

6. Preposition. Prepositions are used before nouns to form a phrase that shows where, when, how and why

in, above, to, for, at ...

7. Conjunction. Conjunctions join clauses or sentences or words

and, but, when ...

8. Interjection . Interjections are used to show surprise or emotion.

oh!, Good Lord

Examples of parts of speech

Here are some examples of parts of speech:

My (adjective) friend (noun) speaks (verb) English (noun) fluently (adverb). Oh! (interjection) I ( pronoun) went (verb) to (preposition) school (noun) and (conjunction) I

( pronoun) met (verb) Fred (noun).

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The English verb

Verbs in English

A verb in syntax is a part of speech which conveys

1. action (bring, read, walk, run, learn) 2. or state of being (exist, stand)

Sentences in English have a main verb which is stated in a tense (simple present, simple past, simple future...)

Inflections

Verbs are inflected, modified in form, when conjugated. For example, verbs take s, ed or ing in some of its forms depending on the tense and the subject-verb agreement.

Agreement

In English a verb may agree with the person and number of its subject. For example, verbs take s in the third person singular of the simple present:

Bare Infinitive Third Person Singular

play he she it plays

work he, she, it works

When the verb to have conjugates in the third person singular of the simple present, the right inflection is has NOT haves

The verb to be has different inflections:

to be

I am

he, she, it is

we, you, they are

Transitive or intransitive verbs

Verbs can be classified according to whether they are transitive or intransitive verbs:

Intransitive: the verb only has a subject. For example: he runs - it falls.

Transitive: the verb has a subject and a direct object. For example: she speaks English - we visit him.

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Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Transitive verbs

Transitive verbs are verbs that require one or more objects.

Examples:

She cut the cake. They climbed the mountain. He gave her a flower.

The verbs cut, climbed, and gave have objects.

Transitive verbs Objects

cut the cake

climbed the mountain

gave her and a flower

Transitive verbs can be categorized into two types: monotransitive and ditransitive:

1. Monotransitive verbs are verbs that require exactly one object.

Example: He wrote a poem

2. Ditransitive verbs are verbs that may require two objects, a direct object and an indirect object.

Example: She offered him (first object) her car (second object).

Intransitive verbs

By contrast, intransitive verbs do not require an object.

They run. He died. She slept. It snows.

The verbs run, died, slept and snows have no objects. They are intransitive.

Finite Verbs

What is a finite verb?

A finite verb is a form of a verb that has a subject and exhibit tense and number in an independent clause or sentence. Finite verbs are distinguished from non-finite verbs which do not show a distinction in tense and number, and cannot stand alone as the main verb in an independent clause.

Examples:

They watched the match. - They is a subject; watched is a finite verb; the match is an object.

They are watching the match. - They is a subject; are is a finite; watching is a non-finite verb (which

does not exhibit tense); the match is an object.

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Non-Finite Verbs

What is a non-finite verb?

A non- finite verb is a form of a verb that does not have a subject and and does not exhibit tense and number in an independent clause or sentence. In English, the non-finite verb forms are infinitives andgerunds and participles. Non-finite verbs are distinguished from finite verbs which show a distinction in tense and number, and may stand alone as the main verb in an independent clause.

They are writing the letter. - They is a subject; are is a finite; writing is a non-finite verb (which does not

exhibit tense nor number); the match is an object.

They wrote the letter. - They is a subject; wrote is a finite verb; the letter is an object.

Auxiliary verbs

Basically, auxiliary verbs are function words, a type of closed class which is constituted of words that have a grammatical function as opposed to content words, which are an open class of lexical words. An auxiliary verb is used to add functional or grammatical content to the information expressed by another verb, considered to be the main verb. Auxiliary verbs are also called helping verbs.

I am writing a book. He has done the work. We will be there in a minute. Would you help me with this homework?

Can you open the door? Did you visit New York last holiday? Do you like chocolate? They must get there on time.

List of auxiliary verbs

be (am, are, is, was, were, being) can could do (did, does, doing)

have (had, has, having) may might must

shall should will would

Auxiliary verb or full verb?

To distinguish a full verb from an auxiliary verb, you can carry out the following test:

If the verb

1. allows subject-auxiliary inversion

2. and can take can take not in the negative form,

then it is an auxiliary verb.

You are going to travel to London. -- Are you going to travel to London? You are not going to travel to London. = are is an an auxiliary verb

You see what I mean. -- *See you what I mean. *You see not what I mean. = see is not an auxiliary verb; it is a full verb. (The asterisk * indicates that the sentence is not grammatical.)

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Linking verbs

Linking verbs (also referred to as copulas or copular verbs) don't show action like ordinary verbs. They rather link or connect the subject to a subject complement, the part of the sentence that follows the verb. This complement which contains additional information describes and identifies the subject.

Examples:

Larry looks happy. (looks is a linking verb; happy is a complement that describes and identifies Larry, the

subject)

The play was good. (was is a linking verb; good is a complement that describes and identifies the play, the

subject

List of linking verbs

appear be become

feel get grow

look prove remain

seem smell stay

sound taste turn

Some of the verbs listed above can function as linking verbs and as ordinary verbs. One trick that you can use to identify whether a verb is a linking verb or an ordinary verb is to see the relation between the subject and complement. If the relation is indicative of an equal sign (=), then it is a linking verb. Consider the following examples:

He looks angry. (He = angry | linking verb) He looked at the man. (He = at the man | action verb)

Examples:

look:

Nadia looked happy. (linking verb) Nadia looked at the window. (ordinary verb)

taste

The food tastes delicious. (linking verb) They tasted the food. (ordinary verb)

appear

She appeared quiet. (linking verb) She appeared in the room. (ordinary verb)

Causative Verbs

Causative structures indicate that one thing or person causes another thing or person to do something or be something.

Examples of causatives

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Have (give someone the responsibility to do something)

I had John fix the car I had my hair cut

Make (force someone to do something)

The teacher made the students work in groups Our boss made us work extra hours

Get (convince or trick someone into doing something)

He got the mechanic to repair the machine. She got him to read more.

Let (allow someone do something)

Jane let her son go out They let the children play in the yard

Other causative verbs

allow, help, enable, keep, hold, force, require, persuade

Stative and Dynamic / Action Verbs

Stative verbs

Stative verbs have undefined duration. They denote states rather than actions.

Examples of statives are:

want, know, have (when it means possession), think (when it means opinion), like, love, hate, need, prefer, agree, sound, hear disagree, wish, look (when it mean seem), smell, seem, include...

You cannot say:

I am knowing the truth. I am liking pizza. It is sounding like a great idea.

But you must say:

I know the truth. I like pizza. It sounds like a great idea.

Dynamic verbs

As opposed to a stative verb, a dynamic (or action) verb shows continued or progressive action on the part of the subject.

Examples of dynamic verbs are:

act, build, complete, design, develop, draw, fix, gather, handle, head, help, improve, interview, introduce, justify, listen, lead, measure, narrate, negotiate, orchestrate, originate, outline, perform, persuade, predict, regulate, record, save, show, study, target, transform, travel, treat, uncover, unveil, use, validate, value, visualize, widen, write, zap, zoom...

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These verbs can be used both in the simple and continuous forms.

Look at her! She is acting foolishly. OR She acts as a teacher in this movie.

The company is targeting young customers with this new product. OR We targeted a new market with that product.

Dynamic and stative

Some verbs can be both action verbs and dynamic verbs depending on their meaning:

1. Be

be = it is usually used as a stative verb - stative He's an excellent guitarist.

be = when it means behave or act, it can be used as a an action verb in the continuous form. - dynamic You are being silly.

2. Think

think = to express an opinion, to believe - stative I think it's a fantastic idea.

think = consider, to reason about or reflect on, ponder, to have or formulate in the mind - dynamic I am thinking about my friend

3. Have

have = to possess, to own - stative He has a beautiful car

have = when it doesn't mean own or possess - dynamic He's having lunch.

4. See

see = to perceive with the eye, to understand - stative I see what you mean.

see = to meet, to be in the company of, to escort, to attend - dynamic He's been seeing the same woman for eight years.

Phrasal verbs

Phrasal verbs are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. (The more formal a conversation or text, the less phrasal verbs are found).

Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and a particle (preposition, adverb). The particle can change the meaning of the verb completely. For example:

look up – consult a reference book (look a word up in a dictionary) look for – seek (look for her ring) look forward – anticipate with pleasure (look forward to meeting someone)

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There are no rules that might explain the meaning of phrasal verbs. All you can do is look them up in a good dictionary and study their meanings.

Position of the Particle:

In some cases the particle is placed either after the verb or after the object.

Write down the word Write the word down

If the object is a pronoun, however, the particle has to be placed after the pronoun (object).

Write it down. Your photo album. Put it down

Your jacket. Take it off

What are irregular verbs?

What is the difference between regular and irregular verbs?

A regular verb follows a typical pattern in its conjugation. For example, verbs such as close, live, watch, visit and play are regular. They consistently take s, ed and ing in the simple present, past simple, past participleand present participle. Check the following chart:

Infinitive Simple Present Simple Past Past participle Present Participle

close close(s) closed closed closing

live live(s) lived lived living

watch watch(es) watched watched watching

visit visit(s) visited visited visiting

play play(s) played played playing

Irregular verbs, on the other hand, don't follow the above pattern. They are inconsistent in their conjugation. Their simple past and past participle forms have different endings. See the chart below.

Infinitive Simple Present Simple Past Past participle Present Participle

come come(s) came come coming

cut cut(s) cut cut cutting

do do(es) did done doing

go go(es) went gone going

speak speak(s) spoke spoken speaking

spend spend(s) spent spent spending

write write(s) wrote written writing

Since the simple past and the past participle forms of irregular verbs are unpredictable, they have to be learned by heart.

Irregular verbs

Regular verbs have ed at the end of the simple past and past participle forms:

Infinitive Simple past Past participle

play played played visit visited visited work worked worked

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In contrast to the above examples of regular verbs, irregular verbs are verbs which don't follow the above pattern of conjugation.

Irregular verb forms can not be predicted, that's why you should learn them by heart. The best way to deal with them is as follows:

Use them in appropriate contexts (in your writing or in your conversation)

Write down examples in your exercise book.

Always keep a list of irregular verbs at your disposal. (Note that most language books include a section

at the end for irregular verbs.)

The Noun

A noun is a part of speech that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality, or action. A noun can function as a subject, object, complement, appositive, or object of a preposition.

Nouns can be singular or plural. The plural form of a noun is usually formed by adding s at the end of the noun. But this is not always the case. There are exceptions to the rule. Some plurals are irregular:

Singular Plural

fish fish

tooth teeth

man men

woman women

Different types of nouns

1. An abstract noun names an idea, event, quality, or concept (freedom, love, courage...) Concrete nouns name something recognizable through the sense (table, dog, house...)

2. Animate nouns refer to a person, animal, or other creature (man, elephant, chicken...) An inanimate noun refers to a material object (stone, wood, table...)

3. A collective noun describes a group of things or people as a unit (family, flock, audience...)

4. Common noun is the name of a group of similar things (table, book, window...) Proper nouns, however, refer to the name of a single person, place or thing (John, Joseph, London...)

5. Compound nouns refer to two or more nouns combined to form a single noun (sister-in-law, schoolboy, fruit juice)

6. Countable (or count) nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number- they can be counted. (friends, chairs, houses, boys...) Uncountable (or non count) nouns, however, can only be used in singular. They can't be counted. (money, bread, water, coffee...)

Collective Nouns

Collective nouns refer to words used to represent a group of people or things.

committee, crowd, flock, audience, group, team, choir, committee, police, crew, family, government...

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Are collective nouns plural or singular?

Collective nouns can take a singular or plural verb:

Singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or entity: Our team is the best.

Plural if we take the collective noun to mean a number of individuals. The crew are wearing new uniforms.

Noun Phrases

A noun phrase is a phrase which includes:

1. a noun (also called head) 2. and optionally modifiers.

Love is a beautiful feeling. (Love is a noun phrase without modifiers. However, a beautiful feeling is a

noun phrase that includes a noun, feeling, and the determiner a and the adjective beautiful)

My house is over there. (My house is a noun phrase which consists of the noun house and a modifier -

the possessive adjective my)

Possible noun modifiers

A noun phrase may optionally contain noun modifiers. If these modifiers are placed before the noun they are called pre-modifiers. However, if they are placed after the noun, they are called post-modifiers. Possible noun modifiers include the following:

1. Determiners:

articles (the, a), demonstratives (this, that) numerals (two, five, etc.)

possessives (my, their, etc.) quantifiers (some, many, etc.).

In English, determiners are usually placed before the noun;

2. adjectives (the delicious food)

3. complements, in the form of a prepositional phrase (such as: the student of physics), or a That-clause (the idea that the world is a small village )

Functions of a noun phrase

Noun phrases can function as subjects, objects:

1. That sophisticated woman is beautiful. (That sophisticated woman is a noun phrase that functions as a subject.)

2. I like the book that you bought. (the book that you bought is a noun phrase that functions as an object.)

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Plurals

English plural nouns

In order to change a singular noun to its plural form in English, you usually add "s". For example, the plural of book is books. The plural of table is tables. These are regular plurals.

But there are many nouns which don't follow this rule. For example the plural of fish is fish. The plural of tooth is teeth. These are irregular plurals

Regular plurals:

Form: Add "s" to the noun: NOUN + S

While many plural nouns follow this rule, the spelling sometimes differ.

Singular Plural Singular Plural

snake snakes lorry lorries

window windows potato potatoes

box boxes knife knives

boy boys

Spelling of plurals:

The plural form of most nouns is created simply by adding the letter "s".

more than one snake = snakes

more than one girl = girls

more than one window = windows

Nouns that end in -ch, x, s, z or s-like sounds, however, will require an es for the plural:

more than one witch = witches

more than one box = boxes

more than one gas = gases

more than one bus = buses

more than one kiss = kisses

Nouns that end in a vowel + y take the letter s:

more than one boy = boys more than one way = ways

Nouns that end in a consonant + y drop the y and take ies:

more than one baby = babies more than one lorry = lorries

A lot of nouns that end in o take es in the plural:

more than one potato = potatoes

more than one hero = heroes

o becomes oes

echo echoes tomato tomatoes

embargo embargoes torpedo torpedoes

hero heroes veto vetoes

potato potatoes

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Some nouns ending in o break the above rule and get os in the plural form:

o becomes os

auto autos pro pros

kangaroo kangaroos solo solos

kilo kilos soprano sopranos

memo memos studio studios

photo photos tattoo tattoos

piano pianos video videos

pimento pimentos zoo zoos

Other nouns ending in o get either os or oes i the plural forms:

o becomes os or oes

buffalo buffalos/buffaloes no nos/noes

cargo cargos/cargoes tornado tornados/tornadoes

halo halos/haloes volcano volcanos/volcanoes

mosquito mosquitos/mosquitoes zero zeros/zeroes

motto mottos/mottoes

Plurals of nouns that end in f or fe usually change the f sound to a v sound and add s or -es.

more than one knife = knives more than one leaf = leaves

more than one hoof = hooves more than one life = lives

more than one self = selves more than one elf = elves

Irregular plurals: There are several nouns that have irregular plural forms.

Singular Plural Singular Plural

fish fish goose geese

sheep sheep child children

barracks barracks man men

foot feet woman women

tooth teeth person people

goose geese mouse mice

tooth teeth

Plurals formed in this way are sometimes called irregular plurals or mutated (or mutating) plurals.

more than one child = children more than one woman = women more than one man = men

more than one person = people more than one goose = geese more than one mouse = mice

more than one barracks = barracks

more than one deer = deer

Other irregular plural forms include the following:

Some foreign nouns retain their plural. (Note that some of them adapted the s of the English plural form!)

Singular Foreign plural English plural

alga algae

amoeba amoebae amoebas

antenna antennae antennas

formula formulae formulas

larva larvae

nebula nebulae nebulas

vertebra vertebrae

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Nouns ending in us get a, i or the s of the English plural:

Singular Foreign plural English plural Singular Foreign plural English plural

corpus corpora

nucleus nuclei

genus genera

octopus octopi octopuses

alumnus alumni

radius radii

bacillus bacilli

stimulus stimuli

cactus cacti cactuses syllabus syllabi syllabuses

focus foci

terminus termini

fungus fungi funguses

Nouns ending in um get a, i or the s of the English plural:

Singular Foreign plural

English plural

Singular Foreign plural English Plural English plural

addendum addenda

medium media

bacterium bacteria

memorandum memoranda memorandums

curriculum curricula curriculums ovum ova

datum data

stratum strata

erratum errata

symposium symposia symposiums

symposium symposia symposiums

Nouns ending in ex or ix get ices or get the s of the English plural:

Singular Foreign plural English plural

apex apices apexes

appendix appendices appendixes

cervix cervices cervixes

index indices indexes

matrix matrices matrixes

vortex vortices

Nouns ending in is becoming es in plural:

Singular Plural form Singular Plural form

analysis analyses hypothesis hypotheses

axis axes neurosis neuroses

basis bases oasis oases

crisis crises parenthesis parentheses

diagnosis diagnoses synopsis synopses

emphasis emphases thesis theses

Nouns ending in -on becoming -a:

singular plural

criterion criteria

phenomenon phenomena

automaton automata

Nouns that are always singular:

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A handful of nouns appear to be plural in form but take a singular verb:

The news is bad. Gymnastics is fun to watch. Economics/mathematics/statistics is said to be difficult.

Some nouns never take the s of the plural and are always singular:

your luggage / baggage is so heavy I'd like to buy new furniture for the house you can find more information in our website.

Gender: Masculine and Feminine Nouns

Grammatical gender is a system of noun classification. A common gender classification includes masculine and feminine categories. Masculine nouns are words for men, boys and male animals. Feminine nouns are words for women, girls and female animals.

Masculine and feminine nouns

Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine Masculine Feminine

actor actress dad mum hero heroine poet poetess

author authoress daddy mummy host hostess policeman policewoman

bachelor spinster duke duchess husband wife prince princess

boy girl man woman king queen sir madam

bridegroom bride emperor empress man woman son daughter

brother sister father mother master mistress uncle aunt

conductor conductress god goddess murderer murderess wizard witch

count countess grandfather grandmother nephew niece waiter waitress

czar czarina heir heiress

Common gender nouns

Some nouns are used for both males and females. These nouns are referred to as common gender nouns. baby, bird, cat, cattle, child, companion, comrade,

cousin, dancer, deer, friend, guardian, guest, infant,

owner, parent, passenger, pig, president, pupil, relative,

sheep, singer, student, swan, teacher,

Animals

With animals, there is one general word for the animal. There are however many species of animals, particularly those domesticated, have been given specific names for the male, the female.

animal masculine feminine

rabbit buck doe horse stallion mare sheep ram ewe

pig boar sow chicken rooster hen

duck drake duck cattle bull cow goose gander goose

fox fox vixen tiger tiger tigress lion lion lioness

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Countable and uncountable nouns

You will learn about countable and uncountable nouns. but before you continue the lesson, look at the following chart and study the nouns.

Countable Uncountable Countable Uncountable

books money teachers juice

friends meat tables milk

Countable nouns (count nouns):

Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form. In plural, these nouns can be used with a number- they can be counted. (That's why they are called "countable nouns").

Example:

1 friend, 2 friends, 3 friends... 1 book, 2 books, 3 books...

Countable nouns take many.

Example: 100 friends – many friends

Uncountable nouns (uncount / non-count nouns):

Uncountable nouns can only be used in singular. These nouns cannot be used with a number- they can't be counted. (That's why they are called "uncountable nouns").

Examples:

I have a lot of money. (Not 1000 money) You say I drink a lot of milk. (Not 5 milk)

Uncountable nouns take much.

Example:

100 money – much money

Note: Of course you can count money, milk, meat; but then you would use the currency, liter, kilo, glass,...and say that you have got:

5 euros or dollars... (but not 5 money). 2 liters, pints, glasses... of milk (but not 2 milk) 3 kilos... of meat (but not 3 meat) 10 bottles of mineral water... (but not 10 mineral water)

Subject

The subject is one of the main two parts of a sentence. According to traditional grammar, a sentence consists of two parts:

a subject, a predicate which modifies the subject.

consider the following sentence: “Leila loves painting” Leila is the subject and likes soccer acts as the predicate

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The subject relates its constituent (a noun phrase) by means of the verb to any other elements present in the sentence (objects, complements and adverbials.)

Nurses are on strike. (subject with no determiners)

The big man hurt him. (a noun phrase introduced by a determiner)

Driving is what I like most. (Gerund)

To write poems is difficult. (Infinitive) That he worked hard is a fact. (a clause) I/you...like soccer. (subject pronouns) It rains often here. (dummy subject)

Dummy subject there

There used as a dummy subject

In English, the word there can be used as a pronoun, functioning as a dummy subject. There is hope. There are some students.

There occurred a terrible accident. There exist two major factors.

As in the examples above, there can be used with the verb to be in existential clauses, clauses that refer to the existence or presence of something. It can also be used with verbs like exist or occur.

It is noteworthy that the logical subject of the verbs mentioned above appears as a complement. Hope is there. Some students are there.

A terrible accident occurred there. Two major factors exist there.

Agreement

The dummy subject agrees in number with the logical subject: It takes a plural verb if the complement (the logical subject) is plural. It takes a singular verb if the complement (the logical subject) is singular.

In colloquial English, however, the contracted form there's is used for singular and plural complements.

There's two of them There's one of them.

Questions with there

When making questions, the dummy subject is inverted: There is a nice restaurant. Is there a nice restaurant?

Deictic or pronoun?

The word there can be a deictic adverb, referring to a place. For this reason, some uses of there can be ambiguous.

There is a restaurant.

This sentence may have two meanings:

1. There is a restaurant. A restaurant exists. (There is used here as pronoun)

2. There is a restaurant. A restaurant is in that place. (There is deictic referring to a place - it is adverbial)

In speech, the deictic there is given stress. However, when there is used as a pronoun, it is not stressed.

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Adjectives

What are adjectives?

1. An adjective is a word which modifies a noun or a pronoun. In the example below:

He's got a beautiful car

beautiful is an adjective modifying car (it gives more information about the noun car.)

2. Adjectives may come before a noun

He found a nice job

3. Adjectives may also come after certain verbs like be, feel, seem, look:

He is intelligent I feel happy

She seems unhappy They look fantastic

Adjectives versus adverbs

A distinction must be made between adjectives and adverbs.

1. An adjective modifies a noun or a pronoun. She lives in a big house.

2. An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. She sings well Her house is very big She did it really well

Comparatives and superlatives

Adjectives can be used for comparison: New York is bigger than Paris. This is the nicest student in the class.

Other noun modifiers

There are other noun modifiers which function very much like adjectives:

1. Nouns can function as adjectives. A noun can help describe an object. A business meeting

2. Past participle can also be used to modify a noun He was exhausted The hidden secret

3. Compound adjectives are used to modify nouns. They are called compound because they are made up of two or more words, usually with hyphens between them.

A heart-breaking news An English-speaking country .

Participle Adjectives / Participial adjectives

A participle is a word that may function as a verb or as adjective. It can be used in verb tenses or as a modifier.

Present participle The present participle ends in -ing form.

playing visiting working

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Past participle

The past participle ends in -ed if it is a regular verb. However it may end differently if it is irregular. See the list of irregular verbs.

painted deceived burnt

Adjectival participle

Adjectival participles are used like adjectives. They are derived from verbs and contrast with verbal participles, which are considered to be forms of verbs rather than adjectives.

a very frightening experience.

a very interesting book.

a working mother

a nicely written article.

a completely burnt house.

a newly painted room.

Cumulative and Coordinate Adjectives

Where to place adjectives?

Adjectives are placed:

before a noun which they modify or after a verb like be, feel, seem, look.

They bought a big house. They are nice.

Cumulative or coordinate adjectives

When adjectives pile up in front of a noun, however, you may sometimes have difficulty arranging them. Such a string of adjectives can be either cumulative or coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate Adjectives

These are adjectives that separately modify a noun. Their order can be scrambled and they can be joined by and. A comma is needed to separate each coordinate adjective. But if there is a the word and no comma is needed.

Example: While strolling in the woods, they found a strange, mysterious and frightened child.

Cumulative Adjectives

When adjectives pile up to jointly describe the noun and need to be arranged in a specific order, they are called cumulative adjectives. No commas are needed to separate the adjectives.

He bought a wonderful old French car.

Cumulative adjectives generally follow a certain order of arrangement.

Opinion: good, attractive, beautiful, delicious...

Size: large, small, enormous...

Age: old, new, modern, young...

Length or shape: long, short, square, round...

Color: red, blue, green...

Origin (nationality, religion): American, French, Muslim, Christian...

Material: plastic, woolen, wooden, cotton.. Purpose: electric (wire) , tennis (shirt)

It should be noted that long strings of cumulative adjectives tend to be awkward. It would be acceptable to use no more than two or three of them.

An attractive young American lady. A modern Japanese electric car. A big square blue box.

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Demonstratives - This, that, these, those

Demonstratives are words that show which person or thing is being referred to. In the sentence:

'This is my brother', 'this' is a demonstrative

The demonstratives in English are this, that, these, and those

Demonstrative pronouns vs demonstrative adjectives

A distinction must be made between demonstrative adjectives (or demonstrative determiners)

and demonstrative pronouns (or independent demonstratives).

A demonstrative adjective modifies a noun:

This apple is good. I like those houses. (This modifies 'apple' and those modifies 'houses')

A demonstrative pronoun stands on its own, replacing rather than modifying a noun:

This is good. I like those. (This and those don't modify any nouns they stand alone and replace other nouns)

Use of demonstratives

Demonstratives differ according to: distance (near or far), or number (singular or plural).

Here are the main distinctions:

This modifies or refers to singular nouns that

are near to the speaker.

That modifies or refers to singular nouns that

are far from the speaker.

These modifies or refers to plural nouns that

are near to the speaker.

Those modifies or refers to plural nouns that

are far from the speaker.

Demonstratives Singular Plural Near Far

This

-

-

That

- -

These -

-

Those -

-

Possessive Adjectives

Possessive adjectives - my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their - modify the noun following it in order to show possession.

I'll get my bag. Is this your luggage?

Possessive adjectives are often confused with possessive pronouns.

Your bike is blue. (your is an adjective which modifies bike) Mine is yellow. (mine is a pronoun which functions as the subject of the verb is)

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Subject Pronouns I you he she it we you they

Possessive Adjectives my your his her its our your their

Why didn't you clean your room? (your modifies the noun room)

Mary doesn't like her dress. (her modifies the noun dress)

The chameleon can change its color. (its modifies the noun color)

Things to remember:

1. Possessive adjectives are different from possessive pronouns.

This is your (possessive adjective) book and this is mine (possessive pronoun).

2. its, their are possessive adjectives.

Its color is beautiful. Their car is in their garage.

3. it's, they're and there are not possessive adjectives — its is a contraction of it is or it has; they're is a contraction of they are; there is an adverb of place.

It's not my book = It is not my book. My house is big. It's got five bedrooms = It has got five bedrooms. Nancy and Alan are from New York. They're my friends = They are my friends. Please, put the chair there. (adverb)

Personal pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Object pronouns

I my mine myself me you your yours yourself you he his his himself him she her hers herself her it its its itself it

we our ours ourselves us you your yours yourselves you they their theirs themselves them

Adjectival Nouns

An adjectival noun is an adjective that functions as a noun.

Before we give examples of adjectival nouns, let's see what nouns and adjectives refer to.

Nouns vs Adjectives

A noun is a part of speech that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality, or action.

An adjective is another part of speech which gives us more information about nouns. Adjectives modify nouns.

Adjectives Nouns Adjectives Nouns

Poor Long Ugly

John River Table

Considerable Bad

Courage Wrok

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Nominalization of Adjectives

It is sometimes possible that adjectives, by the process of nominalization, become adjectival nouns. That is, these adjectives function very much like nouns.

The ugly is coming.

The other is different.

The bad always loses

The rich must help the poor.

The words ugly, other, bad, rich in the above examples function as adjectival nouns.

Comparatives and Superlatives

Forming regular comparatives and superlatives

1. We use comparatives to compare two things or two people. (e.g She is taller than her husband.)

2. Superlatives are used, however, to compare to show the difference between more than two things or more than two people. (e.g Paris is the biggest city in France)

3. To form comparatives and superlatives you need to know the number of syllables in the adjective. Syllables are like "sound beats".

For instance “find" contains one syllable, but "finding" contains two — find and ing.

The rules to form comparatives and superlatives:

1. One syllable adjective ending in a silent 'e' — nice

Comparative — add 'r' — nicer Superlative — add 'st' — nicest

2. One syllable adjective ending in one vowel and one consonant — big

Comparative — the consonant is doubled and 'er' is added —bigger

Superlative — the consonant is doubled and 'est' is added—biggest

3. One syllable adjective ending in more than one consonant or more than a vowel — high, cheap

Comparative — 'er' is added — higher, cheaper

Superlative — 'est is added — highest, cheapest

4. A two syllable adjective ending in 'y' — happy

Comparative — 'y' becomes 'i' and 'er' is added — happier

Superlative — 'y' becomes 'i' and 'est' is added — happiest

5. Tow syllable or more adjectives without 'y' at the end — exciting

Comparative — more + the adjective + than — more exciting than

Superlative — more + the adjective + than — the most exciting

The Nile River is longer and more famous than the Thames.

Egypt is much hotter than Sweden.

Everest is the highest mountain in the world.

This is one of the most exciting films I have ever seen.

Peter (6 years old) Charley (5 months old)

Peter is older than Charley. Charley is younger than Peter.

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Irregular comparatives and superlatives

Adjectives Comparatives Superlatives

bad worse worst

far(distance) farther farthest

far(extent) further furthest

good better best

little less least

many more most

much more most

How to use comparatives and superlatives

Comparatives Superlatives

Comparatives are used to compare two things or two people: Alan is taller than John.

Superlatives are used to compare more than two things or two people. Superlative sentences usually use 'the': Alan is the most intelligent.

Similarities

To express similarities use the following structure:

… AS + ADJECTIVE + AS…

Mike is as intelligent as Nancy. Larry is as popular as Oprah.

Adverbs

An adverb is a word that modifies verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

Adverbs vs Adjectives

The difference between an adverb and an adjective is the following:

An adjective modifies a noun.

Example:

"John is tall." (The adjective tall modifies the noun John)

An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

Examples:

"That idea is simply ridiculous." (The adverb simply modifies the

adjective ridiculous)

"She sings nicely." (The adverb nicely modifies the verb sing)

"She did it really well." (the adverb really modifies the adverb well)

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Read the passage:

Mrs Smith immediately called the police when she saw the criminals assaulting the poor boy aggressively. It was the most horrible scene that she had ever witnessed in her life. She

had always lived peacefully in that neighborhood. No one had ever disturbed her quiet nights there.

The words " immediately, aggressively, peacefully, ever, always, there" are adverbs.

What are the different types of adverbs?

Basically, most adverbs tell you how, in what way, when, where, and to what extent something is done. In other words, they describe the manner, place, or time of an action. Here are some examples:

He speaks quietly. ( quietly is an adverb of manner.)

I live here. (here is an adverb of place.)

We'll leave tomorrow . (tomorrow is an adverb of time.)

She never sleeps late . (never is an adverb of frequency.)

Adverb rules:

1. Regular adverbs:

Adverbs in English often end in -ly.

These adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the end of an adjective:

ADJECTIVE + LY

Examples:

Adjective Adverb

slow slowly

beautiful beautifully

careful carefully

violent violently

Spelling rules:

true → truly (the silent e is dropped and add ly) happy → happily ( y becomes i and add ly.) possible → possibly (e after a consonant is dropped and ly is added.) full → fully (after ll and add y is added.) fanatic → fanatically (after adjectives ending in -ic add -ally - there is an exception: public-publicly)

2. Exceptions:

However, this is not the only way to form an adverb. Many adverbs do not end in -ly.

This is a list of adverbs that don't follow the rule:

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Adjective Adverb

fast fast

hard hard

late late

early early

daily daily

Some adjectives change their form when they become adverbs:

adjective adverb

good well

3. Things to remember:

Many words are not adverbs although they end in -ly. Here are examples of adjectives that end in -ly.

a kindly teacher a lonely girl

an elderly person a friendly policeman

To decide whether a word is an adverb ask questions with how, where and when.

How does James speak Spanish? He speaks Spanish fluently. Where do the kids play soccer? They play soccer here. When did she write the email to her husband? She wrote the email immediately.

Adverbs of Frequency

We use adverbs of frequency to say how often we do something. Adverbs of frequency are often used with the present simple because they indicate repeated or routine activities.

Always

Usually

Often

Sometimes

Seldom/rarely

Never

They often go out for dinner.

I never go to cinema. I don't like it.

I don't mind going to the theater. I sometimes go with my husband.

Never say never. (proverb)

She likes dancing. She always go to the night club to dance.

They usually quarrel. I rarely see them in good terms with each other.

Other adverbs of frequency include:

occasionally frequently

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Position of adverbs of frequency

Generally speaking adverbs of frequency come before the main verb except the main verb "to be": o I sometimes visit my uncle. o We have often seen him pass by the house. o They are seldom at work.

Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or end of a sentence:

o Sometimes they visit him. o I miss him occasionally.

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"): o We see them rarely. o John eats meat very seldom.

Adverbs of frequency include (form most often to least often):

1 always

2 usually

3 often

4 sometimes/occasionally

5 seldom/rarely

6 never

Position of Adverbs

1. Adverb of Manner Nicely, beautifully, slowly, carefully, awfully...

These adverbs come after the direct object or after the verb if there isn't any direct object.

He did the work efficiently. (The adverb of manner efficiently comes after the direct object the work.)

He drove the lorry carelessly. (The adverb of manner carelessly comes after the direct object the lorry.)

He spoke fluently. (The adverb of mannerfluently comes after the verb spoke.)

2. Adverbs of Place Here, there, behind, above...

Adverbs of place are like adverbs of manner. They come after the direct object or the verb.

I met him here. (The adverb of place here comes after the direct object him.)

He sat there. (The adverb of place there comes after the verb sat.)

3. Adverbs of Time

Recently, now, then, tomorrow, yesterday..."

Adverbs of time are usually put at the end of the sentence but they may also come at the beginning of the sentence.

I will show you the house tomorrow. Tomorrow, I will show you the house.

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4. Adverbs of Frequency

Always, never, seldom, usually...

Adverbs of frequency come before the main verb except the main verb "to be":

I sometimes visit my uncle.

We have often seen him pass by the house.

They are seldom at work.

Occasionally, sometimes, often, frequently and usually can also go at the beginning or at the end of a sentence:

Sometimes, they visit him.

I miss him occasionally.

Rarely and seldom can also go at the end of a sentence (often with "very"):

We see them rarely.

John eats meat very seldom.

Pronouns

What are pronouns?

Pronouns are words that substitute a noun or another pronoun. Examples of pronouns are he, she, who,

themselves...

Mike likes his daughter.

Mike and his daughter can be replaced by he and her:

He likes her

Types of pronouns

Subject pronouns (I, you, he, she, it, we, they)

Object pronouns (me, you, him, her, it, us, them)

Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves)

Possessive pronouns (mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs)

Demonstrative pronouns (this, that, those, these)

Relative pronouns (who, which, that, whose)

Subject pronouns

What are subject pronouns?

A subject pronoun, also called subjective or subject personal pronoun, is used as substitute for proper and

common nouns.

John is a doctor - He is a doctor

The laptop is on the desk - It is on the desk

A subject pronoun is used when the pronoun is the subject of the sentence.

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______ did the job.

I, you, he, she, it, we, and they all fit into the blank and are, therefore, subject pronouns.

A subject pronoun indicates:

number: singular or plural,

gender: male or female,

person: first, second or third person.

Examples

I (first person singular)

We (first person plural)

you (second person singular)

You (second person plural)

She (third person singular female)

They (third person plural)

He (third person singular male)

It (third person singular inanimate)

The words "I, you, he, she, it, we, you, they" are subject pronouns. They refer to a person or thing in speech or in writing.

Subject pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Object pronouns

I my mine myself me you your yours yourself you he his his himself him she her hers herself her it its its itself it

we our ours ourselves us you your yours yourselves you they their theirs themselves them

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Object pronouns

What are object pronouns?

An object pronoun, also called objective pronoun, functions as the object of a verb or preposition, as distinguished from a subject or subjective pronoun, which is the subject of a verb.

He begged her to live with him. (her is the object of the verb begged and him is the object of the preposition with)

She told them the truth. (them is the object of the verb told)

Object pronouns are used instead of object nouns, usually because we already know what the object is.

She's my friend. I really enjoy being with her. I like this film. I saw it last week.

Object Pronouns

me, you, him, her, it, us, them

Object pronouns come after either a verb (e.g "like") or a preposition (e.g "to").

I like you but you don't like me. Do you really hate her? She loves sitting next to him.

She always writes e-mails to us. He's talking to her about it.

Subject pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Object pronouns

I my mine myself me

you your yours yourself you

he his his himself him

she her hers herself her

it its its itself it

we our ours ourselves us

you your yours yourselves you

they their theirs themselves them

Reflexive pronouns

Reflexive pronouns are used when the object is the same as the subject. For example, in the sentence "he hurt himself", he and himself refer to the same person.

Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis. In this case, they are referred to as intensive pronouns. For example, in the sentence "I spoke to the president himself", the speaker emphasizes that he spoke to the president personally NOT somebody else.

"I always do my homework myself. Nobody helps me." "He never does his homework himself. The teacher always helps him."

In the above examples, the reflexive/intensive pronouns can be removed without changing the meaning.

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List of reflexive pronouns

Subject Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns

I myself

you yourself

he himself

she herself

it itself

we ourselves

you yourselves

they themselves

Uses of reflexive pronouns

1. Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and the object refer to the same thing:

He blames himself for what happened.

You might cut yourself. We will enjoy ourselves in the party.

2. Reflexive pronouns may be used as the object of a preposition:

He made a cup of coffee for himself. He was talking to himself. She did the job by herself.

Every morning...

I look at myself in the mirror.

3. Reflexive pronouns are also used for emphasis. In this case they are called intensive pronouns. Intensive pronouns can be removed without changing the meaning of the sentence.

I met the king himself. The president himself announced the news. He sent the letter himself

Personal pronouns Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns Reflexive pronouns Object pronouns

I my mine myself me

you your yours yourself you

he his his himself him

she her hers herself her

it its its itself it

we our ours ourselves us

you your yours yourselves you

they their theirs themselves them

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Possessive Pronouns

A possessive pronoun is a part of speech that attributes ownership to someone or something. Like any other

pronoun, it substitutes a noun phrase and can prevent its repetition. For example, in the phrase, "These glasses are mine, not yours", the words "mine" and "yours" are possessive pronouns and stand for "my

glasses" and "your glasses," respectively.

This is our house. It's ours. This is my bedroom. It's mine. This is my brother's bike. It's his.

Subject Pronouns I you he she it we you they

Possessive Adjectives my your his her its our your their

Pronouns mine yours his hers its ours yours theirs

The words "mine, yours, his, hers, its , ours, theirs" are possessive pronouns. They show who or what

something belongs to.

Note

1. A possessive pronoun differs from a possessive adjective.

What color is your brother's jacket?

His jacket is black.

(your and his are possessive adjectives; your and his modify the noun jacket in both examples)

What color is yours?

Mine is blue. (yours and mine are possessive pronouns - yours functions as a subject complement in the first

example; mine functions as a subject in the second example)

2. "It's" is not a possessive pronoun or adjective; it is a contraction of it is or it has.

It's not my book = it is not my book

It's got five bedrooms = it has got five bedrooms

Relative Pronouns

What are relative pronouns?

A relative pronoun is a pronoun that introduces a relative clause within a complex sentence.

In the example: Mike found the keys that he had lost.

that is a relative pronoun which introduces the relative clause that he had lost.

In English the relative pronouns are who, whom, which, whose, and that.

Relative pronouns

who - subject or object pronoun for people

They caught the lady who killed her baby. I know the man who you met.

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which - subject or object pronoun

I read the book which is on the table. I visited the town which you told me about.

which - referring to a whole sentence

They were unsuccessful which is disappointing.

whom - used for object pronoun for people, especially in non-restrictive relative clauses (in restrictive relative clauses use who)

The boy whom you told me about got the best grades in mathematics.

that - subject or object pronoun for people, animals and things in restrictive relative clauses (who or which are also possible)

I like the vase that is over there.

Prepositions

In grammar, a preposition is a word which is used before a noun, a noun phrase or a pronoun, connecting it to another word. In the sentences:

"We jumped in the lake" "Many shops don't open on Sundays."

"in" and "on" are prepositions

Generally speaking one can classify prepositions in three groups: prepositions of time,prepositions of place and other types of prepositions. Visit the pages below to study each type. We provide explanations along with some examples.

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Prepositions of place

Explanation Example

in

inside I watch TV in the living-room I live in New York Look at the picture in the book She looks at herself in the mirror. She is in the car. Look at the girl in the picture This is the best team in the world

at

used to show an exact position or particular place

table events place where you are to do something

typical (watch a film, study, work)

I met her at the entrance, at the bus stop She sat at the table at a concert, at the party at the movies, at university, at work

on

attached next to or along the side of (river) used to show that something is in a

position above something else and touching it.

left, right a floor in a house used for showing some methods of

traveling television, radio

Look at the picture on the wall Cambridge is on the River Cam. The book is on the desk A smile on his face The shop is on the left My apartment is on the first floor I love traveling on trains /on the bus

/ on a plane My favorite program on TV, on the radio

by, next to, beside,

near

not far away in distance The girl who is by / next to / beside the house.

between in or into the space which separates

two places, people or objects The town lies halfway between Rome

and Florence.

behind at the back (of) I hung my coat behind the door.

in front of further forward than someone or

something else She started talking to the man in front

of her

under lower than (or covered by) something

else the cat is under the chair.

below lower than something else. the plane is just below the the cloud

over

above or higher than something else, sometimes so that one thing covers the other.

more than. across from one side to the other. overcoming an obstacle

She held the umbrella over both of us. Most of the carpets are over $100. I walked over the bridge She jumped over the gate

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above

higher than something else, but not directly over it

a path above the lake

across

from one side to the other of something with clear limits / getting to the other side

She walked across the field/road. He sailed across the Atlantic

through from one end or side of something to

the other They walked slowly through the woods.

to in the direction of bed

We went to Prague last year. I go to bed at ten.

into

towards the inside or middle of something and about to be contained, surrounded or enclosed by it

Shall we go into the garden?

towards in the direction of, or closer to

someone or something She stood up and walked towards him.

onto used to show movement into or on a

particular place I slipped as I stepped onto the platform.

from

used to show the place where someone or something starts:

What time does the flight from Amsterdam arrive?

At, in and on

The prepositions at in and on can be confusing sometimes. The following is an explanation of how to use these prepositions.

At. At is used to locate something at a certain point:

at the bus station at the entrance at the crossroads

at the junction at the top of the

mountain

at John's house

We were waiting at the bus stop when it started to rain. He was at the entrance of the theater when he heard the noise.

In. In is used to locate something enclosed in a space:

In a box In a car

In a building In my pocket

In my bag In New York

In Spain

They found a lot of money in his pocket I 've lived in London for two years

On . On is used to indicate position above and in contact with the surface of something:

On the wall On the door

On the table On the ceiling

On the carpet On the page

On the cover

The picture on the wall is fantastic. You'll find more information about the camp on this page.

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Prepositions of time

Explanations Example

on days weekend (American English)

Many shops don't open on Sundays. What did you do on the weekend?

in

months / seasons / year morning / evening / afternoon period of time

I visited Italy in July, in spring, in 1994

In the evenings, I like to relax. This is the first cigarette I've

had in three years.

at

night weekend (British English) used to show an exact or a

particular time:

It gets cold at night. What did you do at the weekend? There's a meeting at 2.30 this

afternoon / at lunch time.

since from a particular time in the past

until a later time, or until now England have not won the World

Cup in football since 1966

for used to show an amount of time. I'm just going to bed for an hour or

so.

ago back in the past; back in time from

the present: The dinosaurs died out 65 million

years ago.

before at or during a time earlier than She's always up before dawn.

to used when saying the time, to mean

before the stated hour It's twenty to six.

past telling the time five past ten

to until a particular time, marking end

of a period of time It's only two weeks to Christmas.

from used to show the time when

something starts The museum is open from 9.30 to

6.00 Tuesday to Sunday.

till / until up to (the time that) We waited till / until half past six

for you.

by not later than; at or before She had promised to be back by five

o'clock.

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Other Prepositions

Explanation Example

from

used to show the origin of something or someone

used to show the material of which something is made

used to show a change in the state of someone or something

"Where are you from?" "I'm from Italy."

The desk is made from pine. Things went from bad to worse.

of

used to show possession, belonging or origin

used after words or phrases expressing amount, number or particular unit

a friend of mine a kilo of apples

by used to show the person or thing

that does something: I'm reading some short stories

(written) by Chekhov.

on

used for showing some methods of travelling

entering a public transport vehicle

It'd be quicker to get there on foot / on horse

get on the train

in entering a car / Taxi She got in the car and drove fast.

off leaving a public transport vehicle She got off the bus

out of leaving a car / Taxi She got out of the train

by

used to show measurements or amounts

travelling (other than walking or horseriding)

Their wages were increased by 12%. She went by car, by bus, by train

at age In theory, women can still have

children at the age of 50.

about on the subject of; connected with What's that book about?

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Conjunctions

A conjunction is a part of speech that joins two words, phrases or clauses together.

Coordinating Conjunctions

Correlative Conjunctions Common Subordinating Conjunctions

for and nor but or yet so

either...or neither...nor not only...but also both...and whether...or

after before although though even though as much as as long as as soon as because since so that

in order that if lest even if that unless until when where whether while

Coordinating conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions, also called coordinators, are conjunctions that connect two or more equal items.

He plays tennis and soccer

He works quickly but accurately

You'd better do your homework, or you'll get a terrible grade.

Correlative conjunctions

Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs.They work in pairs to coordinate two items. Examples of

correlative conjunctions include both...and..., either...or, not only... but also...

I didn't know that she can neither read nor write.

You can either walk to school or take the bus.

Both Sara and James are invited to the party.

Whether you watch TV or do your homework is your decision.

Not only are they noisy but they are also lazy.

Subordinating conjunctions

Subordinating conjunctions, also called subordinators, are conjunctions that join a dependent (or

subordinating) clause to an independent (or main) clause.

He reads the newspapers after he finishes work.

Even if you get the best grade in the writing test, you'll need to pass an oral test.

Although he is very old, he goes jogging every morning.

She didn't go to school because she was ill.

They went to bed since it was late

As soon as the teacher had arrived, they started work.

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"So", subordinating conjunction or coordinator?

"So" is a small English word that can have different meanings. As mentioned in the table above, it is

commonly used as a coordinator rather than as a subordinating conjunction. There are, however, instances

when "so" may introduce purpose and in this case "so" is used as a subordinating conjunction.

"I took my umbrella with me so I wouldn't get wet." " I stayed so I could see you."

Interjections

In grammar, an interjection is a part of speech or (a lexical category) which is used to show a short sudden expression of emotion. Examples of common interjections in English are hi and hey.

Using interjections

Interjections are rarely used in academic or formal writing. They are, however, common in fiction or artistic writing.

Interjections are often used with exclamation mark.

Examples of interjections

Ah - Ah, what a delicious meal!

Aha - Aha, now I see what you mean!

Alas - I love football but, alas, I have no talent as a player.

Eh - Eh? Say it again - I wasn't listening.

Er - "Is he handsome?" " Er, well - he's got a nice friendly sort of face though he's not exactly

handsome."

Hello - Hello, Paul. I haven't seen you for ages.

Hey - Hey! What are you doing with my car?

Hi - Hi, there!

Hmm - "He says he's doing it for our benefit." " Hmm, I'm still not convinced."

Oh - Is that for me? Oh, you're so kind!

Well - Well, what shall we do now?

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Exercise - Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

Decide whether the verbs in bold are transitive or intransitive 1. She was crying all day long. __________________

2. We showed her the photo album.__________________

3. The doctor advised me to exercise regularly. __________________

4. It was raining at that time. __________________

5. She laughed at the joke. __________________

6. She gave a cookie to the child. __________________

7. They slept in the street. __________________

8. I ate the cherries.__________________

9. My father doesn't drink coffee. __________________

10. He always keeps his money in a wallet. __________________

Exercise - Auxiliary Verbs

Choose the correct auxiliary 3. Tell me,____________ you coming to the party?

4. They ______________________the job.

5. What ____________you do every Sunday?

6. I_____________ like to watch TV. There is a good film on.

7. She_______________not want to stay at home. She wants to go out with her friends.

8. He___________________ called me twice this morning.

9. What__________she do in her free time?

10. Where ____________they go yesterday?

11. She________________ always wanted to meet him.

12. What______________they doing when you came in?

13. What __________you been doing?

14. Why __________come to the party yesterday?

15. I __________like his jokes. They made me sick.

16. Mercedes cars __________made in Germany.

17. I am mad about fish but I __________like roast chicken.

18. America __________discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1492.

19. They__________met her in Paris.

20. Where __________going when I met you?

21. Is it true that you __________making a trip to Africa next week?

22. She __________come yet; we're still waiting for her.

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Exercise - Adverbs

Find the adjective in the first sentence and fill in the blanks with the corresponding adverb.

1. James is careful. He drives____________.

2. The girl is slow. She walks____________.

3. Her English is perfect. She speaks English____________

4. Our teacher is angry. She shouts____________.

5. My neighbor is a loud speaker. He speaks____________.

6. He is a bad writer . He writes____________.

7. Jane is a nice guitar player. He plays the guitar____________.

8. He is a good painter . He paints____________.

9. She is a quiet girl. She does her job____________.

10. This exercise is easy. You can do it____________.

Exercise - Comparatives and Superlatives

Put the adjectives between brackets in the correct form

1. My brother has a (tidy) ___________room than me.

2. Australia is (big) ___________than England.

3. I'm (good) ___________now than yesterday.

4. She's got (little) ___________money than you, but she doesn't care.

5. He thinks Chinese is (difficult) ___________language in the world

6. Valencia played (bad) ___________than Real Madrid yesterday.

7. Cats are not (intelligent) ___________ as dogs.

8. Show me (good) ___________restaurant downtown.

9. (hot) ___________desert of all is the Sahara and it's in Africa.

10. Who is (talkative) ___________person in your family?

Exercise - Adjetives or Adverbs Write down the correct form of the words in brackets (adjectives or adverbs).

1. Liza is (quick)___________. She walks___________.

2. Nancy is a (careless) ___________girl. She drives her car___________.

3. The man is (nice) ___________. He behaves___________.

4. He was (bad) ___________injured. He had___________accident.

5. They can do the maths problems (easy) ___________. They think maths is an___________school subject.

6. Marie is a (good) ___________writer. She writes___________.

7. It's a (beautiful) ___________drawn picture. it looks___________.

8. Drivers must drive (slow) ___________in this road. It is a (dangerous) ___________road?

9. She smiled (happy) ___________. She had a___________face.

10. I did the homework (complete) ___________by myself. I'm an (autonomous) ___________student.

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Exercises - Adverbs of frequency.

Put the following adverbs of frequency in the correct order from the most often to the least often (1-6):

often

never

usually

seldom/rarely

always

sometimes

Rewrite the complete sentence using the adverb of frequency in brackets in its correct position.

1. They go to the movies. (often)___________________________________________

2. She listens to classical music. (rarely) ___________________________________________

3. He reads the newspaper. (sometimes) ___________________________________________

4. Sara smiles. (never) ___________________________________________

5. She complains about her husband. (always) ___________________________________________

6. I drink coffee. (sometimes) ___________________________________________

7. Frank is ill. (often) ___________________________________________

8. He feels terrible (usually) ___________________________________________

9. I go jogging in the morning. (always) __________________________________________

10. She helps her daughter with her homework. (never)_______________________________________

We watch television in the evening. (always) ___________________________________________

11. I smoke. (never) ___________________________________________

12. I eat meat. (seldom) ___________________________________________

13. I eat vegetables and fruits. (always) ___________________________________________

Exercises - Possessive Adjectives.

Replace the personal pronouns by possessive adjectives:

1. Where is (I) __________book?

2. Here is (we) __________teacher.

3. She goes to school with (she) __________brother.

4. (They) __________father works in a car factory.

5. (You) __________laptop is very expensive.

6. (He) __________favorite hobby is tennis.

7. (I) __________husband and I want to go to Paris.

8. We want to see (it) __________historical monuments.

9. Leila likes (she) __________dog !

10. (It) __________name is Bobby.

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Choose the right possessive adjective:

1. Two students didn't do__________mathematics homework.

2. I have a car.__________color is black.

3. We have a dog. __________name is Pancho.

4. Nancy is from England. __________ husband is from Australia.

5. Ann and Nadia go to a high school. __________ little brother goes to primary school.

6. Alan has a van. __________van is very old.

7. We go to a high school. __________high school is fantastic.

8. I like singing. __________mother sings with me.

9. François and Alain are French__________ family are from France.

10. Mary likes __________grandmother. She often visits her.

Exercise - Linking Verbs

Look at the following sentecens. They had an ordinary verb or a linking verb?

1. She looks fine.

2. She looked into the street.

3. He is the best soccer player in the world

4. She was great in her new performance.

5. He seems confused.

6. They tasted the pizza.

7. The pizza tasted good.

8. That sounds fantastic.

9. The bugle sounds loudly.

10. He grew tired of running.

Exercises: Phrasal Verbs

Complete the sentences with the words in the box.

passed away, do without, look forward to, called off, made up, carried away, break out, run out, put up with, keep up.

1. Don't smoke in the forest. Fires_____________easily at this time of the year.

2. I_____________seeing my friends again.

3. I'm afraid; we have_____________of apple juice. Will an orange juice do?

4. Your website has helped me a lot to_____________ the good work.

5. A friend of mine has_____________her wedding.

6. His mother can't_____________his terrible behavior anymore.

7. As an excuse for being late, she_____________a whole story.

8. I got _____________by his enthusiasm.

9. I just cannot_____________my mobile. I always keep it with me.

10. she was very sad because her father_____________last week.

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Complete the phrasal verbs with the correct particles. (up, off, on, down, away, in, down, for)

1. I don't know where my book is. I must look _____________ it.

2. Fill_____________the form, please.

3. The music is too loud. Could you turn_____________the volume, please?

4. Quick, get_____________the bus or you'll have to walk home.

5. Turn_____________the lights when you go to bed.

6. Do you mind if I switch _____________the TV? I'd like to watch the news.

7. The dinner was ruined. I had to throw it _____________.

8. When you enter the house, _____________your shoes and put_____________your slippers.

9. If you don't know this word, you can look _____________in a dictionary.

Complete the phrasal verbs according to their meanings in brackets.

1. _____________your shoes.(Remove)

2. Somebody has to_____________the baby. (Take care of)

3. She wants to_____________the truth? (Discover)

4. Where can I_____________the sweater? (See if it fits)

5. _____________. (be quick)

6. Why don't you_____________? (Take a seat)

7. I will_____________the train now. (Enter)

8. _____________the word in a dictionary. (Consult a dictionary)

9. I want to_____________the form. (Complete)

10. The firemen_____________the fire.(Extinguish)

Exercises - Simple Past Tense.

Put the verbs into the simple past:

1. Last year I (go) _____________to England on holiday.

2. It (be) _____________fantastic.

3. I (visit) _____________lots of interesting places. I (be) _____________with two friends of mine .

4. In the mornings we (walk) _____________in the streets of London.

5. In the evenings we (go) _____________to pubs.

6. The weather (be) _____________strangely fine.

7. It (not / rain) _____________a lot.

8. But we (see) _____________some beautiful rainbows.

9. Where (spend / you) _____________your last holiday?

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Write the past forms of the irregular verbs.

Infinitive Simple Past Infinitive Simple Past

1. meet 6. sing 2. drive 7. do 3. speak 8. sit 4. put 9. stand 5. write 10. run

Complete the table in simple past.

Affirmative Negative Interrogative

He wrote a book.

He did not sing

Was she pretty?

Put the sentences into simple past.

1. We move to a new house. →__________________________________________________________

2. They bring a sandwich. →_____________________________________________________________

3. He doesn't do the homework. →________________________________________________________

4. They sell cars. →_____________________________________________________________________

5. Does he visit his friends? →_____________________________________________________________

Write sentences in simple past.

1. Janet / miss / the bus →___________________________________________________________

2. she / tidy / her room →____________________________________________________________

3. Nancy / watch / not / television→___________________________________________________

4. she / read / a book →_____________________________________________________________

Choose "Was“ or "Were“:

1. The teacher _____________nice.

2. The students _____________very clever.

3. But one student _____________ in trouble.

4. We _____________sorry for him.

5. He_____________nice though.

Exercises - Plurals What is the correct plural of the word?

1. These (person) _____________ are protesting against the president.

2. The (woman) _____________over there want to meet the manager.

3. My (child) _____________ hate eating pasta.

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4. I am ill. My (foot) _____________ hurt.

5. Muslims kill (sheep)_______________________in a religious celebration.

6. I clean my (tooth) ________________________three times a day.

7. The (student ) ________________________are doing the exercise right now.

8. The (fish) ________________________ I bought is in the fridge.

9. They are sending some (man________________________to fix the roof.

10. Most (housewife)____________work more than ten hours a day at home.

11. Where did you put the (knife) ________________________?

On the (shelf) ________________________.

12. (Goose) ________________________ like water.

13. (Piano) ________________________are expensive

14. Some (policeman) ________________________came to arrest him.

15. Where is my (luggage) ________________________ ?

In the car!

Write down the correct form of the plural:

1. city -____________

2. house - ____________

3. boy - ____________

4. family -____________

5. life - ____________

6. photo - ____________

7. phone -____________

8. sandwich -____________

9. nurse -____________

10. elf -____________

11. phenomenon -____________

12. criterion -____________

13. village -____________

14. toy -____________

Complete with the right plural

1. The police caught the __________________.

2. What are __________________and________________?

They are animals!

3. I bought beautiful __________________yesterday.

4. Scientists formulate __________________before they carry out research.

5. I met the __________________in the garden.

6. Did you put your __________________in the car?

Yes I did.

7. These __________________are dangerous.

8. I found the __________________I was looking for.

9. It is difficult to change some religious __________________.

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Exercise - Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Decide whether these nouns (in bold) are countable (C) or uncountable (U)

1. The children are playing in the garden.

2. I don't like milk.

3. I prefer tea.

4. Scientists say that the environment is threatened by pollution.

5. My mother uses butter to prepare cakes.

6. There are a lot of windows in our classroom.

7. We need some glue to fix this vase.

8. The waiters in this restaurant are very professional.

9. My father drinks two big glasses of water every morning.

10. The bread my mother prepares is delicious.

11. Drivers must be careful; the road is slippery.

12. Some policemen are organizing road traffic to avoid any accidents.

13. I bought three bottles of mineral water for our picnic

14. I'd like some juice please!

15. Successful candidates will join the camp later this year.

16. A rise in oil prices is inevitable since there is more and more world demand for energy

17. The exercises on this website are interesting.

18. Dehydrated babies must drink a lot of water.

19. Adult illiterates learn through a special government program.

20. I met some nice people when I was walking along the beach.

Exercise - Participial Adjectives

Write the right answer (Participial adjectives ending in -ed or -ing)

1. It is a ____________job. (tired/tiring)

2. I always feel terribly ____________at the end of the day. (tired/tiring)

3. Why are you so _________about the new teacher? (excite)

4. I have got some ________________________news for you. (excite)

5. He came up with a________________________ remark. (disappoint)

6. The teacher was _______________________ by her students. (disappoint)

7. He was ________________________by her comment. (annoy)

8. He's got an ________________________way of smiling. (annoy)

9. I am ________________________ by the food. (disgust)

10. What a ________________________food! I can't eat it. (disgust)

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Exercises - Prepositions of Place and Time

Choose the right preposition of place:

1. ____________ the picture, I can see a family ____________ a kitchen.

2. There is a dish full of fruits ____________ the worktop.

3. The mother is standing ____________ her son and daughter.

4. She is holding a vase ____________ in her hand.

5. The son and the daughter are sitting ____________ the worktop smiling____________ each other.

6. There are beautiful cupbords ____________ the wall.

7. There is a window____________ the mother.

8. The woman is looking ____________ her daughter.

Choose the right preposition of time:

1. What are you doing____________ Saturday?

2. I am going to the countryside ____________ the weekend.

3. I haven't been to the countryside____________ December.

4. What time are you leaving?

I am leaving ____________ the afternoon. May be__________ three o'clock pm.I am coming

back ____________ Sunday evening. I'll catch the half____________ seven

train____________ Sunday. I'll be here____________ nine o'clock.

5. So you'll be there ____________ the whole weekend. I'll be missing you!

Exercise - at, on and in

Choose the correct preposition

1. Do you think it is a good idea to ban smoking _______public places?

2. Look at the picture _______the wall.

3. My house is _______the end of the street.

4. I stopped _______Nancy's house.

5. Do you like walking _______the garden?

6. I found my keys _______the desk.

7. I met him _______Paris.

8. He was crying _______the back of the classroom.

9. I saw the film_______TV.

10. These people live _______ my hometown.

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Exercise - Demonstratives

Complete with the right demonstrative. (This, that, these, those)

1. (Talking about a book in your hand) How could you buy something like________________________?

2. (With a bowl of cherries on your lap) ________________________cherries are delicious!

3. (During a long walk) I should have worn ________________________shoes I bought in Greece last

year; ________________________have never been comfortable.

4. Could you bring me ________________________book I left in the garden?

5. (From the marriage vows) To have and to hold from ________________________ day forward.

6. I hate ____________books which tell you: “__________is what you have to do to become rich."

7. (About a picture hanging on the wall) ____________are my children.

8. (About a picture you've just taken from your wallet) ____________________ is my wife.

10. Waiter, I'm sorry to say it but ____________ cake you have just served me is awful.

11. I met him two five hours ago ____________morning.

12. Look at ____________kids playning in the garden over there; they're so cute.

13. Take one of ____________files from that table.

14. He was sitting on ________________________rocking chair he had bought from the flea market.

15. Many parents complain about their children____________days.

16. Are you leaving ____________ weekend?

17. The jeans you have bought today are better than ____________you bought last month.

18. We used to do it differently in____________ days

19. You know the books I am carrying are just fantastic. I think ____________books will keep me company

during this summer holiday.

Exercise - Personal Pronouns Use the correct personal pronoun.

1. __________often reads books. (Leila)

2. __________ is watching TV. (Alan)

3. __________ is green. (the dress)

4. __________ are on the wall. (the pictures)

5. __________ is running. (the cat)

6. __________ are watching TV. (my sister and I)

7. __________ are in the garden. (the roses)

8. __________ is driving his car. (John)

9. __________ is from Bristol. (Liza)

10. __________ has got a brother. (Diana)

11. Have__________ got a car, Sue?

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Exercise - Object Pronouns Choose the right pronoun

1. "Is he marrying Leila?" "Yes, he is in love with_________________.

2. "Your son is making a lot of noise!" "I'll ask ________________ to be quiet."

3. "Please will you ask Robert to come in." "Sorry, I don't know___________________."

4. "Where are my glasses?" "You are wearing ___________________!"

5. "Do you like apples?" "I love ________________________!"

6. "Why is he always talking about Liza?" "He obviously likes ____________________!"

7. "Where is my book? Oh, dear! I've lost ____________"

8. "Is that Nancy's new boyfriend?" "Don't ask me, ask ________________________!"

9. "What is the title of that article?" "I'm afraid I can't remember __________________."

10. "Look at John! He seems so happy?" "His friends offered ____________a guitar for his birthday!"

11. "What are you going to do with those old papers?" "I'm going to recycle ___________________."

12. "Let's see the latest Spielberg movie!" "I have already seen __________________!"

13. "How are your kids? I haven't met_____________for ages!"

14. "Have you met Alan and Tim?" "No, I have never met ____________________."

15. "Do you want this book?" "Yes." "Well, take________________________."

16. "My mother is fantastic! I like _________________very much."

17. "Don't help me with this exercise! I can do ________________by myself."

18. "This fruit is poisoned! Don't eat ____________________ ."

19. "Take the children to bed. Don't let __________________ watch this movie. "

20. "Why is she helping John?" "She probably loves________________________."

Exercise - Reflexive Pronouns

Find the right reflexive pronoun:

Personal Pronoun Reflexive Pronoun

1. I 2. you 3. he 4. she 5. it 6. we 7. you 8. they

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Choose the correct reflexive pronouns:

1. Robert made this T-shirt _________________ .

2. Liza did the homework _________________ .

3. We helped_________________to some cola at the party.

4. Sara, did you write this poem _________________?

5. Yes, I wrote this poem ________________.

6. He cut _________________with the knife while he was doing the dishes.

7. The lion can defend _________________.

8. My mother often talks t _________________in the kitchen.

9. John and Alan, if you want more milk, help_________________.

10. The students were so noisy. Even Nancy and Leila were making a lot of noise ________________.

11. Did the children behave_________________?

12. I caught sight of_________________in the mirror.

Exercises - Possessive Pronouns.

Find the right possessive pronoun:

Personal Pronoun Possessive Pronoun

1. I

2. you

3. he

4. she

5. it

6. we

7. you

8. they

Choose the right answer (possessive adjective or possessive pronoun):

1. Jane has already eaten her lunch , but I'm saving _____________________until later

2. She has broken ____________________leg.

3. My mobile needs to be fixed, but____________________is working.

4. ____________________ computer is a Mac, but ____________________is a PC.

5. We gave them___________________telephone number, and they gave us ___________________.

6. ____________________pencil is broken. Can I borrow____________________?

7. ____________________car is cheap, but ____________________is expensive .

8. You can't have any chocolate! It's all____________________!

Exercise - Conjunctions

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Choose the correct conjunction.

1. I need to work hard ______________ I can pass the exam.

2. ______________ he was the best candidate, he didn't win the elections.

3. ______________ you come back from your trip, we'll meet to discuss the problem.

4. They said that the movie was fantastic ,______________ I watched it.

5. ______________ he was very ill, he didn't take any medicine.

6. I don't know ______________ I can buy a pair of jeans.

7. She went to the shops ______________ couldn't find anything that could fit her needs.

8. Everybody likes him because he is nice ______________ helpful.

9. ______________ he was angry with her, he didn't utter a word.

10. Keep quiet ______________ go out.

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A list of irregular verbs

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle

awake awoke awoken find found found

be was, were been fit fit fit

bear bore born flee fled fled

beat beat beat fling flung flung

become became become fly flew flown

begin began begun forbid forbade forbidden

bend bent bent forget forgot forgotten

beset beset beset forego (forgo) forewent foregone

bet bet bet forgive forgave forgiven

bid bid / bade bid / bidden forsake forsook forsaken

bind bound bound freeze froze frozen

bite bit bitten get got gotten

bleed bled bled give gave given

blow blew blown go went gone

break broke broken grind ground ground

breed bred bred grow grew grown

bring brought brought hang hung hung

broadcast broadcast broadcast hear heard heard

build built built hide hid hidden

burn burned / burnt burned / burnt hit hit hit

burst burst burst hold held held

buy bought bought hurt hurt hurt

cast cast cast keep kept kept

catch caught caught kneel knelt knelt

choose chose chosen knit knit knit

cling clung clung know knew know

come came come lay laid laid

cost cost cost lead led led

creep crept crept leap leaped / leapt leaped / leapt

cut cut cut learn learned / learnt learned / learnt

deal dealt dealt leave left left

dig dug dug lend lent lent

dive dived / dove dived let let let

do did done lie lay lain

draw drew drawn light lighted / lit lighted / lit

dream dreamed /

dreamt

dreamed /

dreamt

lose lost lost

drive drove driven make made made

drink drank drunk mean meant meant

eat ate eaten meet met met

fall fell fallen misspell misspelled /

misspelt

misspelled /

misspelt

feed fed fed mistake mistook mistaken

feel felt felt mow mowed mowed / mown

fight fought fought overcome overcame overcome

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Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle

overdo overdid overdone spill spilled / spilt spilled / spilt

overtake overtook overtaken spit spit / spat spit

overthrow overthrew overthrown split split split

pay paid paid spread spread spread

plead pleaded / pled pleaded / pled spring sprang / sprung sprung

prove proved proved / proven stand stood stood

put put put steal stole stolen

quit quit quit stick stuck stuck

read read read sting stung stung

rid rid rid stink stank stunk

ride rode ridden stride strode stridden

ring rang rung strike struck struck

rise rose risen string strung strung

run ran run strive strove striven

saw sawed sawed / sawn swear swore sworn

say said said sweep swept swept

see saw seen swell swelled swelled /

swollen

seek sought sought swim swam swum

sell sold sold swing swung swung

send sent sent take took taken

set set set teach taught taught

sew sewed sewed / sewn tear tore torn

shake shook shaken tell told told

shave shaved shaved / shaven think thought thought

shear sheared / shore sheared / shorn thrive thrived / throve thrived

shed shed shed throw threw thrown

shine shone shone thrust thrust thrust

shoe shod shod tread trod trodden

shoot shot shot understand understood understood

show showed showed / shown uphold upheld upheld

shrink shrank shrunk upset upset upset

shut shut shut wake woke woken

sing sang sung wear wore worn

sink sank sunk weave weaved / wove weaved / woven

sit sat sat wed wed wed

sleep slept slept weep wept wept

slay slew slain wind wound wound

slide slid slid win won won

sling slung slung withhold withheld withheld

slit slit slit withstand withstood withstood

smite smote smitten wring wrung wrung

sow sowed sowed / sown write wrote written

speak spoke spoken

speed sped sped

pend spent spent

spin spun spun

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