MADE BY-MADE BY-ADRIJA ADRIJA CHOWDHURYCHOWDHURYEC-4EC-4thth YEAR YEAR09508310030950831003BBDESGI, BBDESGI, LUCKNOWLUCKNOW

ABOUT HAL Type State-owned enterprise

IndustryAerospace and defence

Founded1940 (in 1964, company took on current name)

HeadquartersBangalore, Karnataka, India

Chairman Ashok Nayar

Products

Aerospace equipmentMilitary aircraftCommunication & Navigation equipmentSpace systems

Revenue US$2.35 billion (FY 2007)

Employees 30,000

HISTORY OF HAL> Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) came

into existence on 1st October 1964. The Company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with Aeronautics India Limited and Aircraft Manufacturing Depot, Kanpur

Late Mr. Seth Walchand Hirachand set up Hindustan Aircraft Limited at Bangalore in association with the erstwhile princely State of Mysore in December 1940

The Government of India became a shareholder in March 1941 and took over the Management in 1942.

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HAL- PRESENT SCENARIO MISSION OF HAL

“To become a global player in the aerospace industry”

> Hindustan Aeronautics Limited is the largest PSU under the Department of Defense Production and is a Navaratana Company.> Presently ranked 34th among the global defense companies>HAL is one of the largest aerospace companies in Asia with its annual turnover to be running above US$ 2 billion. > It has several facilities throughout India including Nasik, Korwa, Kanpur, Koraput, Lucknow, Bangalore and Hyderabad.

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SERVICES OF HAL

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ACCESSORIES DIVISION HAL LUCKNOW

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HAL LUCKNOW Established in 1970 with the primary objective of

manufacturing systems and accessories for various aircraft and engines and attain self sufficiency in this area

Presently turning out over 1100 different types of accessories

Started with manufacturing various Systems and Accessories-Hydraulics, Engine Fuel System, Air-conditioning and Pressurization, Gyro & Barometric Instruments, Electrical System items, Undercarriages, Electronic items all under one roof to meet the requirements of the aircraft, helicopters and engines being produced by HAL

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PRODUCTS OF HAL LUCKNOW Instruments Sensors, Gyros Flight instruments, electrical indicators, Fuel Gauge probes, Gyros,

sensors and Switches Electrical power generation and control AC/DC Generator, Control and

protection units, inverters, Transformers Rectifier units, AC/DC Electrical system, Actuators.

Land navigation systems Microprocessor controller Under carriage, wheels and breaks Hydraulic system and power control Pumps, Accumulators, Actuators, Electro-Selectors, Bootstrap Reservoirs

and various types. Environmental control system Pneumatics and oxygen system, cold air unit, water Extractors, valves. Ejection system-Ejection Seats, Release Units Engine fuel control systems Booster pumps, main and Reheat Fuel systems, Nozzle Actuators

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BASIC AERODYNAMIC FLIGHT THEORY

AERODYNAMICS-The word comes from two Greek words:

>Aerios = concerning the air.

>Dynamis = meaning powerfulAerodynamics is the study of objects in

motion through the air and the forces that produce or change such motion

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BASIC FLIGHT THEORY

FOUR BASIC FOURCES IN FLIGHT-Lift- The upward forceThrust- The forward forceWeight/Gravity- Gravity the

Downward forceDrag- The rearward force

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The Four Forces of Flight

The four forces act on the airplane in flight and also work against each other.

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THE FOUR FOURCES

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WHAT IS WEIGHT ???

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Weight counteracts lift.

The earth’s gravity pulls down on objects and gives them weight.

Newton’s 1st Law Applies

WHAT IS DRAG ???

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WHAT IS LIFT ???

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HOW LIFT IS GENERATED??? Newton’s Laws of Motion and Bernoulli’s

Principle are used to explain lift. Bernoulli – Bernoulli’s Principle states

that, as air speeds up, its pressure goes down.

He focused his studies on the curvature of the wing, and the differing air pressure over the top and bottom of the wing.

Newton – Newton’s Third Law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

He focused his studies on the deflection of air or fluid on an object and its reaction. (Newton’s 3rd Law)

To explain the lift phenomena we have to understand the meaning of Aerofoil structure04/07/23 17

AEROFOIL

An Aerofoil is a device that gets areaction from air moving over itssurface. When it is moved through theair it produces lift. Wings, horizontaland vertical tail surfaces and propellersare all examples of aerofoil 04/07/23 18

EQUATION INVOLVED IN FLIGHT THEORY

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WHAT IS THRUST ???

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SIMPLIFIED AIRCRAFT MOTION BALANCED FORCES

In order for an airplane to fly straight and level, the following relationships must be true:

Thrust = Drag Lift = WeightThis is called Straight and Level Flight

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SIMPLIFIED AIRCRAFT MOTION UNBALANCED FORCES

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AXES OF MOVEMENT OF ANY AIRCRAFT

Axis of Roll (Longitudinal Axis)

Axis of Pitch (Lateral Axis)

Axis of Yaw (Vertical Axis) Axis of Rotation:-

Intersect at the centre of gravity –The axes of movement of any aircraft are basically imaginary lines about which the aircraft may rotate about while flying

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EXPLAINATION OF ALL AXES

The Longitudinal Axis-

This is an imaginary line running length wise through the micro-light from bow to stern. Movement around this axis is called rolling.

The Vertical Axis- This is a line through the centre of gravity going

downwards and at right angles to the longitudinal axis. Movement around this axis is called yawing

The Lateral Axis- This is sometimes called the pitch axis. This is

the line through the centre of gravity and running span wise from wing tip to wingtip and at right angles to the longitudinal axis. Movement around this axis is called pitching04/07/23 24

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VARIOUS MOTIONS AROUND THE AXES

• Yawing along vertical axis– side to side motion

• Pitching along lateral axis – up and down motion (nose up and nose down)

• Rolling along longitudinal axis – rolling motion

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Pitch Around the Lateral Axis

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Roll Around Longitudinal Axis

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Yaw Around the vertical Axis

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AIRFRAME UNITS Propeller Power-plant ( jet engine) Cockpit Engine cowl Fuselage Wings Stabilizers-Horizontal

stabilizer and Vertical stabilizer

Flight control surfaces-ailerons, rudder, flaps, spoilers, elevators, slats

Landing gear-nose landing gear and main landing gear

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AIRFRAME UNITS

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FUSELAGE (BODY)

The body of the airplane that all the other parts are attached to.

Can be made of many different substances such as aluminum or wood

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WINGSThe part of the plane

that creates lift and controls roll.

Has a rounded leading edge and tapered trailing edge which helps create lift.

The wing design uses Bernoulli’s Principle.04/07/23 33

PROPELLER

Uses the principle of a wing to create thrust to move the airplane forward.

Can have different number of blades on propeller.

Design is similar to an airfoil

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POWERPLANT (JET ENGINE)

Turns the propeller at high RPM’s to increase thrust

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ENGINE COWLING

Cover to protect the engine and make the plane aerodynamic

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COCKPIT

Place where the pilot controls the airplane.

The airplane control, gauges, and indicators are held here.

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MAIN LANDING GEAR

A frame with wheels that allow the plane to take-off and land.

Some airplanes have retractable landing gear.

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NOSE LANDING GEAR

The front landing gear when the plane has three wheels to land.

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HORIZONTAL STABILIZER

Horizontal with the fuselage.

Helps airplane maintain level flight

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VERTICAL STABILIZER

Vertical to the horizontal stabilizer.

Helps to airplane maintain level flight

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FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

AILERONSELEVATORSRUDDERFLAPSSPOILERS

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AILERONS AILERON- The ailerons form

a part of the wing and are located in the trailing edge of the wing towards the tips. The control stick is connected by means of wires or hydraulics to the wing’s ailerons. By turning the stick, the pilot can change the positions of the ailerons

Located at the top of the trailing edge of the wings.

Controls rolling.04/07/23 43

ELEVATORS

Elevators are the movable control surfaces hinged to the trailing edge of the horizontal stabilizer. The control stick is connected by means of wires or hydraulics to the tail section’s elevators.

In line with and behind the horizontal stabilizer.

Controls pitching.04/07/23 44

The rudder is a moveable control surface attached to the trailing edge of the vertical stabilizer. The foot pedals are connected by means of wires or hydraulics to the rudder of the tail section. The rudder can also be used in controlling a bank or turn in flight.

Provides side to side control of airplane.

Controls yawing.

RUDDER

Located near at the trailing edge of the wing near the fuselage.

Change the shape of wing

Increase Lift and Drag

Used on takeoff and landing

The Flaps increase lift

FLAPS

SPOILERSSpoilers are located in the outer third of each wing. When deployed a spoiler kills the lift over that portion of the wing while the other wing retains full lift and induces roll.

They basically do the job of spoiling the lift.

Hence can be supposed as a braking system for any aircraft

HAL ACCESSORIES DIVISIONHAL ACCESSORIES DIVISION LUCKNOW LUCKNOW INSTRUMENT FACTORY

CLEAN ROOMSASSEMBLY AND TEST SHOP 2 & 3ELECTRO -ROTATING MACHINE

SHOP

CLEAN ROOMIn Clean room those subunits are assembled and tested that are sensitive to dust, temperature and humidity.All these parameters are kept under control because these can have an adverse effect on their functional efficiency.The required specification for the instruments assembled and tested are different

 

ASSEMBLY AND TEST SHOP 2 AND 3

The major products of H.A.L. are fighter aircrafts. An aircraft comprises of many smaller units or accessories, which play significant role in their successful flight .

Any fault, may lead to a catastrophic end. Here comes the role of assembly and test unit .it forms an integral part of any manufacturing unit.

The main instruments are KCN-2 compass system, flight data recorder, gyro-magnetic compass, fuel gauging system, radio magnetic indicator, DNDU (day and night dimmer unit), GPPU (ground power protection unit).

ELECTRO-MAGNETIC ROTATING SHOP

In the E.R.M department of the instrument factory the assembly and testing is done of the dc Starter Generators, AC Generator system, constant speed alternator, regulators, inverter of the Russian and French origin.These products are basically those products which take the principle of the electromagnetic rotating which can be elaborated as follows i.e., electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy or vice versa. These products are of mig-21 & mig-27 aircrafts which are of Russian origin and jaguar aircraft of France origin.

INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS OF AN AIRCRAFT

Instrument Systems:-

Just as in a car, there are instruments that monitor the engine, and instruments that monitor the drive. So in aircraft too there are certain instruments that monitor the flight. The groups of instrument systems are mainly-FUEL SENSING/ GUAGING PROBES SYSTEMFLIGHT INSTRUMENTS

PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS

GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTSAIRCRAFT ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

FUEL CONTENT GUAGING SYSTEMThe function of F.C.G is based upon the principle that the capacitance of two concentric

tubes (cylindrical in shape) is different when there is air in between and when there is aviation

fuel present in between them, it acts as a dielectric in between the gap. The capacitance increase or decrease as the level of fuel changes in the gap. This change in capacitance is measured by meter.

This system is also known as ‘Fuel low level warning sensors system’ as it gives emergency signal on lowering of fuel level within the tank

FLIGHT INSTRUMENTSThese instruments basically help in controlling and monitoring the flight parameters.

PITOT-STATIC INSTRUMENTS-

Pitot-static instruments are those that basically work on the principle of Pitot and static pressure.

STATIC PRESSURE-Static pressure is the pressure that is simply the aircraft’s surrounding pressure.

PITOT PRESSURE- Pitot pressure is the pressure that comes into scenario when aircraft flies and goes forward. It is generally the front pressure that acts against the body of the aircraft.

The three basic Pitot-Static instruments mainly assembled in the instrument panel of a cockpit are-

Airspeed Indicator, Altimeter and Vertical Speed Indicator

PITOT-STATIC SYSTEM

Airspeed Indicator (ASI)

Static and Pitot pressure principle based sourceAlso known as Mach meterMeasure the difference between static pressure and static pressure (impact pressure)Shows speed through air (not over ground)Shows Indicated Airspeed (IAS) in Knots or Miles Per Hour (MPH, older system) Aneroid capsule connected to pitot pressure. Case connected to static pressure. Aneroid capsule inflates with more airspeed, moving dial clockwise. Static pressure in case corrects for altitude.Pitot pressure pushes against a diaphragm inside the airspeed indicator, which will then be able to expand or contract accordingly. This linear movement of the diaphragm is then translated into needle movement.

ASI

ASI WORKING

CONCEPT OF DIAPHRAGM AND CAPSULE

DIAPHRAGM-Two capsule units together make one diaphragm.

CAPSULE-It is the heart of the large no of instrument for aircraft .It simply

consists of two diaphragm of beryllium and copper material for

better handling capability. We first cut the two pieces of

circular shape from the sheet and then make them as like bowl

shape and then joint both the capsules and thus diaphragm is

generated.

Airspeed Markings

Green ArcNormal Range (Lower limit = Vs)

Yellow ArcYellow ArcCaution Range (Lower limit = Vno)Caution Range (Lower limit = Vno)

Red LineRed LineNever Exceed Speed (Vne)Never Exceed Speed (Vne)

White ArcWhite ArcFlaps Range (Lower limit = Vfe)Flaps Range (Lower limit = Vfe)

Altimeter

ALTIMETERShows height in feet

Measures pressure of outside air (drops with altitude)

Aneroid capsules (like balloons) inside are set to standard pressure. As altitude changes, capsules expand and contract, moving needle on dial.

Static pressure is taken as only input

Manufacturer seals the aneroid wafer(s) at a specific pressure. As the static pressure fills in the area around these sealed wafers, they will be able to contract or expand accordingly.

As the aircraft moves into lower pressure a climb is indicated

As the aircraft moves into higher pressure a descent is indicated

Altimeter OperationAir moves out

Air moves in

Wafers expand

0 1 2 3

4 5

9 8 7

6

Wafers contract

0 1 2 3

4 5

9 8 7

6

0 1 2 3

4 5

9 8 7

6

Air moves out

Air moves in

Wafers expand

0 1 2 3

4 5

9 8 7

6

Wafers contract

0 1 2 3

4 5

9 8 7

6

0 1 2 3

4 5

9 8 7

6

Vertical Speed Indicator

Indicates speed up or down (rate of climb/descent) in feet per minute (FPM)Static pressure enters aneroid capsule and case. But pressure in case delayed. Capsule registers difference in pressure (as descent or climb) on dial.

• What does a VSI show?ClimbsDescentsLevel Flight

GYROSCOPIC INSTRUMENTS

GYROSCOPE-

A Gyroscope is an accurately balanced flywheel having a mass and freedom of in one or more axis which crossed on a point at right angle to each other and having the property of RIGIDITY & PRESSION

RIGIDITY- It is the ability of a gyroscope to resist any freedom with tends to change the direction of spin axis Rigidity depends upon- •Speed of gyro(in RPM) •Mass of the gyro(rotor) •The radius of gyro rotor/motor.PRECESSION-It is the angular change in the direction of plane of the spin of the rotor resulting from the application of external torque. The ratio of precession depends upon- •The magnitude of applying torque. •Rotor speed which is directly proportional to the applied torque and inversely proportional to the rotor speed.

ATTITUDE INDICATOR

Only instrument that gives immediate and direct indication of the airplane’s pitch and bank attitude.

Gives the rolling and pitching information

Also known as the Artificial horizon/ Vertical gyro/ Gyro horizon.

 

HEADING INDICATOR

Also known as the Directional Gyro (DG)

Displays magnetic heading without magnetic compass errors

Senses rotation about the aircraft’s vertical axis

Gives the yawing information

TURN CO-ORDINATOR (RATE GYRO)

Rate and Rolling information is achieved by this.

Slip and Skid parameters are determined

INSTRUMENT PANEL

ALTERNATOR CONTROL AND PROTECTION UNIT (A.C.P.U)

Alternator Control & Protection Unit regulates the alternator O/P voltage within specified limit under various rated load & speed conditions.

The unit is having built in protections against over/under voltage, over/under frequency, over load & feeder fault conditions.

Under these faulty conditions, the unit disconnects the alternator from AC electrical system by de – energizing the contractor & field.

A.C MASTER BOX Excluding the two alternators and protection unit and static inverter, primary AC distribution system consists of following boxes:

AC Master Box – 1

AC Master Box – 2

115 V AC Emergency Bus Relay

26 V AC Emergency Bus Relay

During normal operation (both alternator running), complete system – 1 is powered from alternator

1.In case of fault on alternator –1, all the buses of system –1 are connected to alternator –2, with

alternator –1 in failed condition, in the event of short circuits. On a main bus –1, it goes disconnected

from alternator –2. In case of both alternator fails to supply power to AC main buses, emergency

buses of system –1 are powered from static inverter.

In the Aircrafts, 2 AC MASTER BOX are present, if one of them gets fail then other works.

D.C MASTER BOX

DC Master Box is a part of dc power generation and distribution system for re-engine Cheetah Helicopter. It is designed for use with an independent starter/generator mounted on the engine accessories gearbox, and is interfaced with GCPU, battery, and external power source and control panel of DC power generator to the loads through its main bus. In the event of failure of starter/generator, the dc master box will activated the battery contactor, through which the on-board single battery (Ni-Cd 40 Ah) will get connected to the main bus & supply power to the emergency loads

FILTER TRANSFORMER UNIT

The Filter Transformer Unit (FTU - 01) is for Jaguar aircraft which gives single phase 26 V, 400 Hz low distortion O/P, synchronized with phase AB of the three – phase 200 VCC O/P, 400 Hz aircraft power source. The unit is being operated from three phase 200 VCC, 400 Hz aircraft power source. There are two no. of FTU’s in one A/C. in case of failure of one unit (FTU), the entire A/C load will be automatically transferred to another healthy unit (FTU).

CONCLUSIONThe joy of flying has fascinated the human race for centuries. Defense avionics major & Navratana PSU Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is in the business of building a whole range of aircraft helicopters and jet trainers. Besides, the company manufactures aircraft components, overhauls fighter planes and trains future pilot’s .its success in the design and development of light combat aircraft Tejas and advanced light helicopter Dhruv has won admiration. HAL is the backbone of India’s air defense and continues to occupy the strategic importance reflecting a new pace of growth.

 

Today the faster growing sector is the aviation sector & is likely to be a boon for the entire job market. It deals with the manufacture, design & development of aircrafts.

 

The project is based on the instruments that are used in the manufacture of the various aircrafts. A deep knowledge of these instruments is crucial in the perfect design & manufacture of the aircrafts. The project will benefit those who have interest in the instrument & will provide the reader with the deeper knowledge of the topic.

FLY SAFE……………….!!!!!

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