Napoleon, session ii, empire

Napoléonsession iiEmpire

Saturday, April 2, 2011

Napoléonsession iiEmpire


My power depends on my glory, and my glory on my victories.

--Napoleon


major topics for this session

! Sea Power

! The Second Coalition

! Le Premier Consul

! Marengo, 1800

! War or Peace?

! Code Civil

! Vive l’Empereur!


but before we look at the land battles...


Sea Power


Sea Power

Pittthe

Younger


Remember the three-legged stool?

British Foreign Policy

Maintenance of the balance of power on

the Continent

Sea Power

Keeping the mouth of the Scheldt River in weak and/or friendly

hands


Pitt’s Plan, 2nd rev. ed.

! 1758-during the Seven Years War, William Pitt the Elder devised the plan which led to victory:

! using British sea power, he would take the war to France’s colonies while keeping the French navy bottled up in port (leg #3)

! using the wealth of this sea-borne commerce, while denying it to the enemy, Britain would finance coalition allies, especially among the Germanies, to fight on land (leg #1)

! thus she would expand her empire while sparing her limited manpower

William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham PC

1708 – 1778


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Great_Britain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_Council_of_Great_Britain

Pitt’s Plan, 2nd rev. ed.

! 1758-during the Seven Years War, William Pitt the Elder devised the plan which led to victory:

! using British sea power, he would take the war to France’s colonies while keeping the French navy bottled up in port (leg #3)

! using the wealth of this sea-borne commerce, while denying it to the enemy, Britain would finance coalition allies, especially among the Germanies, to fight on land (leg #1)

! thus she would expand her empire while sparing her limited manpower

! 1792-William Pitt the Younger, his son (Prime Minister, 1783-1801 & 1804-06)followed a similar strategy

William Pitt the Younger

1759 – 1806


LEGHORN

ROME

NAPLES

ABOUKIR

ALEXANDRIA


A Naval Star is Born! 1758-the sixth of eleven children to Rev

Edmund and Catherine Nelson

! 1769-his mother died. She was the grandniece of Sir Robt Walpole and sister to Captain Maurice Suckling, RN

! 1771-age 13, a midshipman aboard his uncle’s ship, HMS Raisonnable

! prior to the American war he sailed as a junior officer aboard British merchant and warships

! 1776-1783--fought mainly in the Caribbean taking prizes and engaging Spanish, French and American warships and privateers

! 1787-at the end of his peacetime duty in the West Indies he met and married a young widow

! 1792-at war with France again, Nelson served under Admiral Jervis in the Mediterranean

Captain Horatio Nelson, painted by John Francis Rigaud in 1781, with Fort San Juan—the scene of his most notable achievement to date—in the background. The painting itself was begun and nearly finished prior to the battle, when Nelson held the rank of lieutenant; when Nelson returned, the artist added the new captain's gold-braided sleeves.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Francis_Rigaud

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Francis_Rigaud

BATTLE OF CAPE STVINCENT

-----14 FEBRUARY

1797



-----14 FEBRUARY

1797



-----14 FEBRUARY

1797


NELSON’S THREE GREAT VICTORIES“I had the happiness to command a Band of Brothers.”

! The Nile

1August 1798

! Copenhagen

2 April 1801

! Trafalgar

21 October 1805


More significant than [the Nile’s] tactical implications were the strategic results of the battle. Like all decisive naval victories, it exercised a powerful influence far beyond the scene of action. It had an impact in three major theaters of war.

Nelson’s victory reignited the war in Europe. Heartened by the isolation of Bonaparte and his army, France’s enemies were soon once more on the march. William Pitt the Younger was at last able to achieve his Second Coalition. Yet in spite of all the hopes with which it began, the coalition fell apart under the follies and jealousies of its members until once again England stood alone.

Potter, E.B. and Chester W. Nimitz, eds. Sea Power; A Naval History. 1960, p. 135.


That Hamilton Woman

George Romney Emma Hart [later, Lady Hamilton]in a straw hat. unknown date

Back at Naples, Nelson, exhilarated by the adulation he was everywhere accorded, and his judgement possibly clouded by his head wound, fell into two major errors. Accepting the hospitality of Ambassador Sir William Hamilton, he soon succumbed to the charms of Emma, Lady Hamilton. This passionate liason lasted until the end of Nelson’s life, to the scandal of his friends, the wreck of his marriage, and the near-ruin of his career.

ibid.


Emma Hamilton, a close friend of [Neapolitan] Queen Maria Carolina, soon enlisted Nelson in Her Majesty’s cause. This remarkable woman was the real ruler of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, her husband, King Ferdinand IV, being little more than a figurehead. Sister of the unhappy Marie Antoinette of France, Maria Carolina intensely hated everything republican and longed to strike out with all her strength, now that, as she fancied, France’s head was in the dust. In seeking to please Her Majesty, Nelson urged an attack on the Papal States [recently conquered by France], which he would support from the sea with his ships. Command of this operation fell to the Austrian General Mack, whose incompetence was exceeded only by his zeal. In November 1798 Mack’s force entered the Papal States with Nelson landing troops at Leghorn on the enemy rear. But on land France’s head was by no means in the dust, and she retaliated swiftly. Mack’s army came streaming back. “The Neapolitans have not lost much honour,” wrote Nelson ruefully, “for God knows they have but little to lose; but they lost all they had.”

ibid.

Nelson’s Other Error


Pitt’s Plan, Pinpricks on the Perimeter

! 1798-Nelson had destroyed the Toulon fleet at The Nile. Britain controlled the Mediterranean and would isolate the French Army of the East

! 1799-now Pitt planned to capture or destroy the Dutch fleet. The Batavian Republic had been allied with France since 1795

! the amphibious landing at Helder under General Abercromby began well but soon bogged down and had to be evacuated. The anticipated Russian reinforcements were too little, too late

! 19 November-under a favorable capitulation the last British troops were withdrawn

! but the “cutting-out” expedition under Admiral Mitchell was a great success. The Dutch fleet surrendered and its many ships were added to the Royal Navy

! this allowed Britain to end her long blockade of Holland and to assign the ships, her own and the captured Dutch, to other operations


From Eccentricity to Madness! 1788-when George III began to exhibit

signs of madness, Britain, at least, had a functioning constitutional monarchy to address the problem

! although Paul’s mother, Catherine the Great, had dabbled in constitutionalism, he was “Autocrat of All the Russias”

! so to the problem of coalitions was added the problem of “unenlightened despotism”

! 1799-as the Helder expedition mis-fired as a result of his leadership, he ordered Suvorov’s brilliant Italian campaign to take a new direction with equally poor results

! 1801-his murder would bring even more problems to Pitt’s coalition

Paul I !"#$%& I !%'()#$*+; (Pavel Petrovich) 1754 – 1801

Reign 1796 – 1801


Once more virtually without an ally, Britain was again driven to exploit her seapower…. Because Spain seemed the weakest link in the defense of Europe, the British Cabinet to attempt the capture of Cadiz. [a combination of weather and divided leadership caused Abercromby to call off this attack and propose another]Underestimating the number of French troops in Egypt, the War Ministry provided Abercromby with only 16,000 men. As usual, the British troops were poorly equipped…. The little army, carried in 28 transports and escorted by seven of the line and twelve smaller vessels, proceeded [to Turkey].The six weeks it took to assemble the animal transports proved the most fruitful of the campaign, for during the period the British soldiers and sailors engaged in intensive and realistic rehearsals, something that had been lacking in all previous amphibious assaults.

Potter & Nimitz, pp.140-141.

Britain Strikes Back in the South--Aboukir


PERMAC

! Preparation

! Embarkation

! Rehearsal

! Movement to the objective

! Assault

! Consolidation of the beachhead





2nd battle of Aboukir22 March 1801

Landing at Aboukir with 16,000 men, Britain's Sir Ralph Abercromby tried to push through the French positions sealing the narrow isthmus that led to Alexandria.

Strong defence, however, foiled the move and so the British withdrew and set up defensive works of their own.

A strong body of French reinforcements arrived and so General Jacques-Francois Menou decided to throw the British off with a daring night attack.

A local spy tipped off the British, but Menou's plan was sufficiently clever to render the early warning almost useless.

His men began an expected attack against the weaker British left wing but this was only a feint and the true target - the strong British right protected by Roman ruins and a redoubt - soon came under massive pressure.

Fortunately, for the redcoats, the troops there were led by the brilliant General Sir John Moore, who stemmed the assault and then ordered a bayonet-led counterattack by the 42nd Highlanders that sent the French into retreat - but advanced too far and was cut down by enemy horsemen.

The situation was still dangerous for the British but reinforcements arrived just in time and overwhelmed the exhausted French.

Menou lost 3000 men while the British suffered 1300 casualties, including the mortally wounded Abercromby who died a week later.

!


http://www.napoleonguide.com/moore.htm




DURING THE BATTLE AT ABOUKIR, French troops launched a night attack against the British. The British line was hard pressed by French infantry and cavalry. Here, the 42nd Regiment, the Black Watch, launches a bayonet attack on the flank of one of the French columns. In the event, they pursued too far and were themselves attacked and badly mauled by French cavalry later in the battle.






The Battle of Copenhagen2 April 1801


n Nelson's plan was for the British ships to approach the weaker, southern end of the Danish defenses in a line parallel to the Danish one.

n As the foremost ship drew alongside a Danish ship, it would anchor and engage that ship.

n The remainder of the line would pass outside until the next ship drew alongside the next Danish ship, and so on.

n Glatton, the ship after Nelson’s flag on Elephant, was commanded by William Bligh of Mutiny on the Bounty fame (1789)

n Troops would assault the Tre Kroner fortress once the fleet had subdued the Danish line of ships.

n Bomb vessels would sit outside the British line and bombard the Danes by firing over it.


A Napoleonic Bomb Ketch










n Nelson's plan was for the British ships to approach the weaker, southern end of the Danish defenses in a line parallel to the Danish one.

n As the foremost ship drew alongside a Danish ship, it would anchor and engage that ship.

n The remainder of the line would pass outside until the next ship drew alongside the next Danish ship, and so on.

n Glatton, the ship after Nelson’s flag on Elephant, was commanded by William Bligh of Mutiny on the Bounty fame (1789)

n Troops would assault the Tre Kroner fortress once the fleet had subdued the Danish line of ships.

n Bomb vessels would sit outside the British line and bombard the Danes by firing over it.

n Should the British be unable to subdue the stronger, northern defenses, the destruction of the southern ships would be enough to allow the bomb vessels to approach within range of the city and force negotiations to prevent the bombardment of the city.


! 1005-the Danish floating batteries began firing

! Nelson’s plan was effected despite the grounding of three of his ships of the line

! firing was heavy and the Danes resisted determinedly

! 1330-Nelson’s famous “blind eye” ploy

! 1400-finally, British gunnery prevailed

The official report by Olfert Fischer estimated the Danish-Norwegian casualties to be between 1,600 and 1,800 captured, killed or wounded. According to the official returns recorded by each British ship, and repeated in dispatches from Nelson and forwarded by Parker to the Admiralty, British casualties were 264 killed and 689 wounded





To the Brothers of EnglishmenThe Danes

‘Lord Nelson has directions to spare Denmark when no longer resisting, but if firing is continued on the part of Denmark, Lord Nelson will be obliged to set on fire the floating batteries he has taken, without having the power of saving the brave Danes who have defended them.’ Dated on board His

Britainnick Majesty’s Ship Elephant

Copenhagen Roads April 2nd: 1801

Nelson ??????? Vice

Admiral under the Command of

admiral Sir Hugh Parker


The SecondCoalition


The SecondCoalition

Russian Troops under Suvorov Crossing the Alps in 1799.

Vasily Surikov, 1899


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Suvorov


Russia invades Italy?

! August 1797-mad Tsar Paul (1754-1796-1801), son of Catherine the Great, through the irony of fate, had just been made the protector of the Knights of Malta

! June 1798-Bonaparte, on his way to Egypt, occupied Malta as a convenient base for his Oriental ambitions

! this proved the last straw convincing Paul to abandon his neutrality and join the Second Coalition. He promised 60,000 troops to Austria to reconquer northern Italy and another 45,000 to help Britain in North Germany and the Netherlands, the Helder expedition

! although the Peace of Campo Formio (October 1797) had left Britain alone, Nelson’s victory at the Nile (August 1798) had emboldened Austria’s prime minister, Baron von Thugut to tear up the peace treaty and join Pitt and Russia

! January 1799-Russia, Turkey, Portugal, Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Papal States had joined Britain in the Second Coalition


Austria’s Vengeful Diplomat

! of humble origins, Empress Maria Theresa gave him a scholarship to the School of Oriental Languages in Vienna

! he served ably in Turkey as an Austrian diplomat

! 1792-his advancement by Joseph II was resented by the aristocrats at court. He took every opportunity to seek extra territory for Austria, as in the Polish partitions

! “His hatred of France, and of the Revolution, was no doubt sincere. But while prepared to defend Europe from French aggression, it was with the implied intention that Austria should be rewarded for her exertions by increases of territory, and should be made the absolute mistress of Germany.” Wikipedia

! “he has to answer for the perverse policy of Austria in 1799 when Suvorov and the Russians were recalled from northern Italy for no visible reason except that Austria should be left in sole possession of the dominions of the king of Sardinia [Piedmont], with a good excuse for keeping them.” Ibid.

Johann Amadeus Franz de Paula Thugut

1736 –1818


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Sardinia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Sardinia

Russia’s Brilliant General! this general’s son was, like Teddy Roosevelt, a sickly child.

Like him, he deliberately “toughened up” by enlisting as a common soldier at age 17

! he served against the Swedes and the Prussians in the Seven Years War

! 1762-by the age of 33, he had risen to the rank of colonel

! 1768-he next served in Poland, dispersed the Polish forces under Pu!aski, captured Kraków paving the way for the first partition of Poland and reached the rank of major-general

! 1773–1774-The Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774 saw his first campaigns against the Turks, and particularly in the Battle of Kozluca, he laid the foundations of his reputation

! 1775-he was dispatched to suppress the Pugachev rebellion

! 1777-1783--he served in the Crimea and in the Caucasus, becoming a lieutenant-general in 1780, and general of infantry in 1783, upon completion of his tour of duty there

Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov Count Suvorov of Rymnik, Prince in Italy,

Count of the Holy Roman Empire

1729 – 1800


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_Pu%C5%82aski

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazimierz_Pu%C5%82aski

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krak%C3%B3w

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_partition_of_Poland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_partition_of_Poland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War,_1768-1774


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemelyan_Pugachev

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yemelyan_Pugachev

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimea

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caucasus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A2mnicu_S%C4%83rat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A2mnicu_S%C4%83rat

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire

Russia’s Brilliant General! 1787-1791-- he again fought the Turks during the Russo-

Turkish War of 1787–1792 and won many victories; he was wounded twice at Kinburn (1787), took part in the siege of Ochakov, and in 1788 won two great victories at Foc"ani and by the river Rimnik

! 1792-Suvorov was again transferred to Poland, where he took part in the Battle of Maciejowice, in which he captured the Polish commander-in-chief Tadeusz Ko!ciuszko.

! 1794-Suvorov's forces stormed Warsaw. He sent a report to his sovereign consisting of only three words: "Hurrah, Warsaw's ours!" (!"#, $#"%#&# '#%#!). Catherine replied in two words: "Hurrah, Fieldmarshall!" (rus. !"#, ()*+,-#"%#*!—that is, awarding him this title)

! 1796-at first, the new tsar Paul, retired him in disgrace. His goal was to overturn all of his mother’s policies

! February 1799-his tremendous skill was needed. At Austria’s specific request, Paul sent him to Italy to fight the French armies in the satellite republics






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Kinburn_(1787)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Kinburn_(1787)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochakov

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ochakov

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Foc%C5%9Fani

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Foc%C5%9Fani

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maciejowice

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Maciejowice

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadeusz_Ko%C5%9Bciuszko

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw

Suvorov Reverses Napoleon’s Victories

! 1799-although he was nearly seventy years old, Suvorov was one of the great soldiers of the age. He had won no fewer than sixty-three battles in the course of his long military career

! 19 April-he moved his army westwards in a rapid march towards the Adda River; covering over 300 miles in just eighteen days

! 27 April-he defeated Jean Victor Moreau at the Battle of Cassano

! 29 April-he entered Milan. Two weeks later, he moved on to Turin, having defeated Moreau yet again

! June-From Naples, General MacDonald moved north to assist Moreau. Trapped between two armies, Suvorov took the bold decision to concentrate his whole force against MacDonald, beating the French at the Trebbia River, close to the spot of Hannibal's great victory in 218 BC. Marching back to the north, the indomitable soldier chased the whole French Army of Italy back towards the Riviera, taking the powerful fortress of Mantua on 28 July

! Moreau was relieved of command, to be replaced by Joubert. Joubert was defeated and killed in battle with Suvorov at Novi to the north of Genoa.

shown here in a painting by George Dawe. Suvorov is depicted in his uniform of the Preobrazhensky

Regiment worn during the reign of Paul I of Russia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adda_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adda_River

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Victor_Moreau

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Victor_Moreau

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Cassano_(1799)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre_MacDonald

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Jacques-Joseph-Alexandre_MacDonald

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Trebbia_(1799)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hannibal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Trebia




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Italy_(France)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Italy_(France)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Riviera

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Riviera

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantua

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantua

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Catherine_Joubert


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Novi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Novi

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genoa

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Dawe




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preobrazhensky_Regiment




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia


Suvorov in Italy

Adda


Suvorov in Italy

Trebbia


Suvorov in Italy

Novi


One of the few great generals in history who never lost a battle along with the likes of Alexander the Great and Genghis Khan, he was famed for his military manual The Science of Victory and noted for the sayings "What is difficult in training will become easy in a battle", "The bullet is a fool, the bayonet is a fine chap", "Perish yourself but rescue your comrade!". He taught his soldiers to attack instantly and decisively: "attack with the cold steel–push hard with the bayonet!" His soldiers adored him. He joked with the men, called the common soldiers 'brother', and shrewdly presented the results of detailed planning and careful strategy as the work of inspiration.

Wikipedia

Years later when Moreau, who was also present at Novi, was asked about Suvorov, he replied "What can you say of a general so resolute to a superhuman degree, and who would perish himself and let his army perish to the last man rather than retreat a single pace."

Ibid.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genghis_Khan

As so often, the successful soldier was defeated not in battle, but by the intrigues of politicians. The Austrians and British, made distrustful by the success of the Russians in Italy, frustrated Suvorov's plan for an advance into France. Instead the emphasis switched to the campaign in the Low Countries. Despite all of his protests, Suvorov was ordered by Emperor Paul to transfer his troops to Switzerland, where they came under the command of the incompetent Alexander Korsakov, who was defeated by Andre Massena at the Second Battle of Zürich[25 Sept 1799]. Massena, with 80,000 men at his disposal, then advanced on Suvorov's remaining force of 18,000 regulars and 5000 Cossacks and Kalmyks. Suvorov could either retreat or be destroyed.

Although he succeeded in rescuing his army and did not lose a single battle, Suvorov's spectacular manoeuvring in Italy and Switzerland proved altogether useless. He was promoted to the rank of Generalissimo, the fourth in all of Russian history, and was recalled to Saint Petersburg by the jealous tsar Paul.

Op.Cit.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Monarchy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Castricum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Castricum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Korsakov

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Massena

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Massena

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Z%C3%BCrich

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Battle_of_Z%C3%BCrich

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossack

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cossack

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalissimo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalissimo

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg

Suvorov in Switzerland
























The severe military threat of the Second Coalition during the summer of 1799 had provided Bonaparte with his justification for abandoning the Army of the Orient in Egypt and returning to save the Republic. Although the crisis had passed with the Second Battle of Zürich (September) and the evacuation of the Helder expedition (November), France was still at war with all her enemies except Russia. Paul had withdrawn from the alliance with Austria in October, 1899. His relations with Britain soured over the next year, beginning with the failure of their joint expedition against the Batavian Republic. Events in Italy would begin the end of the Second Coalition (1798-1802)


Le Premier Consul


Le Premier Consul


First, Second and Third Consuls

! November 1799-after the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon succeeded in sidelining Sieyès & Ducos, his provisional fellow consuls

! now, his challenge was to walk the “tightrope” between the extreme Right of the royalists and the extreme Left of the Jacobin Republicans

! he chose the crypto-royalist Lebrun and the former jacobin Cambacérès as his consuls

Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, Napoleon Bonaparte and Charles-François Lebrun (left to right).


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Jacques_R%C3%A9gis_de_Cambac%C3%A9r%C3%A8s

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun,_duc_de_Plaisance

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lebrun,_duc_de_Plaisance

First, Second and Third Consuls

! November 1799-after the coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon succeeded in sidelining Sieyès & Ducos, his provisional fellow consuls

! now, his challenge was to walk the “tightrope” between the extreme Right of the royalists and the extreme Left of the Jacobin Republicans

! he chose the crypto-royalist Lebrun and the former jacobin Cambacérès as his consuls

! 8 December-the Constitution of the Year VIII created the position of Premier Consul (First Consul) among the three

! needless to say, Bonaparte assumed that more powerful post. He took up residence in the Tuileries

! 7 February 1800-a popular referendum confirmed him with 99.9% of the vote


Taking over as First Consul, Napoleon found France gone wormy with deserters, draft dodgers, Royalist gangs, assorted fugitives from justice and ordinary bandits, often tolerated or even protected by local authorities. Meanwhile too many gendarmes were engaged in such boyish pranks as robbing the stagecoaches they had been told off to guard. Napoleon’s boot heel came down on this squirming mess. The semi-autonomous local officials were replaced by prefects, appointed by the central government and directly responsible to it. The gendarmerie was purged and then rebuilt with picked ex-soldiers who had made at least four campaigns and were twenty-five or older and literate.

Esposito, Swords Around a Throne, p. 412.


La Vendée; the final act

! 1796- after the defeat of the Vendéean armies by Hoche, the royalists in western France no longer controlled territories

! the cities were largely republican

! but royalist guerilla warfare, along with ordinary brigandage, continued to tie down military forces

! the term Chouan (from the nickname of Jean Cottereau) was given to these rebels. Their recognition signal was the owl’s cry

! 1800-Napoleon applied a successful counter-insurgency strategy from the beginning of the First Consulate

! December-the last attempt by the royalist Chouans was the assassination attempt de la rue Saint-Nicaise


Napoleon’s close call with terrorism

! 10 October 1800- the “conspiracy of daggers” was an earlier “plot” which police chief Fouché created with an agent provocateur and then used to discredit the Jacobin opposition

! four of those arrested were condemned to death and executed (30 Jan 1801)

! 24 December 1800-a real bomb plot by the royalist Chouans kills and wounds only innocents as it detonates prematurely

! a so-called machine infernal, a wagon with a barrel filled with gunpowder and bullets, was to explode as Napoleon’s carriage passed on its way to the opera













! despite Fouché’s accurate assessment that the plotters were royalists, Napoleon used the event to finish accounts with the Jacobin left

! 4 January 1801-130 citizens whose names are indicated, suspect of carrying partial responsibility for the terrorist attempt of 3 Nivôse, the explosion of the machine infernale, shall be placed under special surveillance outside the European territory of the Republic. The 130 unfortunate suspects were deported from France to Guiana without trial and without the right of appeal


Bonaparte’s chief of police! 1792-elected a deputy in the Convention

! 1793-with Collot d’Herbois, brutally repressed the rebellion at Lyon

! 1794-99--sided with both the Thermidorians and Sieyes in their coups

! served Napoleon throughout the Consulate and the Empire as his ruthless chief of police

! 1802-04--briefly removed from office in a restructuring of the police, Napoleon made him a senator and continued to use his talents Joseph Fouché

1st Duc d'Otrante (Duke of Otranto)

1759 - 1820


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otrante






! 1802-04--briefly removed from office in a restructuring of the police, Napoleon made him a senator and continued to use his talents

! Feb-Mar 1804--the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy restored him to power

Joseph Fouché1st Duc d'Otrante (Duke of Otranto)

1759 - 1820








! 1802-04--briefly removed from office in a restructuring of the police, Napoleon made him a senator and continued to use his talents

! Feb-Mar 1804--the Cadoudal-Pichegru conspiracy restored him to power

Joseph Fouché1st Duc d'Otrante (Duke of Otranto)

1759 - 1820




"Marked at the outset by fanaticism, which, though cruel, was at least conscientious, Fouché's character deteriorated in and after the year 1794 into one of calculating cunning. The transition represented all that was worst in the life of France during the period of the Revolution and Empire. In Fouché the enthusiasm of the earlier period appeared as a cold, selfish and remorseless fanaticism; in him the bureaucracy of the period 1795-1799 and the autocracy of Napoleon found their ablest instrument.

Yet his intellectual pride prevented him sinking to the level of a mere tool. His relations to Napoleon were marked by a certain aloofness. He multiplied the means of resistance even to that irresistible autocrat, so that though removed from office, he was never wholly disgraced. Despised by all for his tergiversations, he nevertheless was sought by all on account of his cleverness. He repaid the contempt of his superiors and the adulation of his inferiors by a mask of impenetrable reserve or scorn. He sought for power and neglected no means to make himself serviceable to the party whose success appeared to be imminent.Yet, while appearing to be the servant of the victors, present or prospective, he never gave himself to any one party. In this versatility he resembles Talleyrand, of whom he was a coarse replica. Both professed, under all their shifts and turns, to be desirous of serving France. Talleyrand certainly did so in the sphere of diplomacy; Fouché may occasionally have done so in the sphere of intrigue."

The 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica


Assassination of the Duke of Enghien

! a descendent of Louis XIV and the nephew of Philippe Égalité, a Prince du Sang

! July 1789-emigrating with his father and grandfather a few days after after the fall of the Bastille, he was an officer in the corps commanded by his grandfather the Prince of Condé

! February 1801-after the Peace of Lunéville, he took up residence with his new bride in Ettenheim in Baden near the Rhine

! 1804-hearing that d’Enghien was connected to the Cadudal-Pichegru plot, Bonaparte ordered him kidnapped and brought to France

! 15 March-French dragoons crossed the Rhine secretly, surrounded his house and brought him to the Chateau de Vincennes near Paris

Louis Antoine de Bourbon(Duke of Enghien, "duc d'Enghien" pronounced [dɑ,ɡɛ,]; the i is silent)

1772 – 21 March 1804


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:IPA_for_French


Assassination of the Duke of Enghien

! a descendent of Louis XIV and the nephew of Philippe Égalité, a Prince du Sang

! July 1789-emigrating with his father and grandfather a few days after after the fall of the Bastille, he was an officer in the corps commanded by his grandfather the Prince of Condé

! February 1801-after the Peace of Lunéville, he took up residence with his new bride in Ettenheim in Baden near the Rhine

! 1804-hearing that d’Enghien was connected to the Cadudal-Pichegru plot, Bonaparte ordered him kidnapped and brought to France

! 15 March-French dragoons crossed the Rhine secretly, surrounded his house and brought him to the Chateau de Vincennes near Paris

! 21 March-secretly tried, found guilty, he was taken to the moat and shot before a prepared grave

! "C'est pire qu'un crime, c'est une faute"--Meurthe (?) Fouché (?) Talleyrand (?)

Louis Antoine de Bourbon(Duke of Enghien, "duc d'Enghien" pronounced [dɑ,ɡɛ,]; the i is silent)

1772 – 21 March 1804




...the news was heard with horror within France as well as in the rest of Europe. The Marquise of Nadaillac described the “universal revulsion” and set down a subversive ballad being hawked around the very streets of Paris in 1804:

“ I lived very long on borrowing and charity,Of Barras, vile flatterer, I married the whore;I strangled Pichegru, assassinated Enghien,And for such noble efforts obtained me a crown.”

Chandler, pp. 309-310


Marengo, 1800


Marengo, 1800


As the year 1800 opened, France’s position, both politically and militarily, was grim indeed. Bonaparte’s offer of peace to the Second Coalition had been rebuffed, and the English and the Royalists had again sparked the Vendée into revolt. France could count as allies only unenthusiastic Spain, Holland (Batavian Republic), and Switzerland (Helvetian Republic). Vaubois was blockaded on Malta and Kleber isolated in Egypt. French armies on the Continent supposedly numbered 280,000, but desertion had drained this total to a possible 150,000. Because of the semicollapse of local government, only one-third of the conscripts levied ever reported….

On 25 January, Bonaparte secretly ordered Berthier, his minister of war, to organize a Reserve Army of 60,000 around Dijon.

Esposito & Elting, West Point Atlas, commentary on MAP 35


St Gothard

Simplon

Great St Bernard

Little St Bernard

" Bonaparte had chosen Massena to head the starving Army of Italy

" April 1800-his remaining 36,000 men had been on half-rations for 2 months

" his mission was to hold Genoa, both to delay the invasion of southern France and to draw the Austrians away from the Alpine passes

" 13 May-the Reserve Army began its advance through the Great St Bernard

" four other forces would make feints through the other passes

" Melas destruction was his primary objective; the rescue of Massena was secondary

Brenner-->


# 17 May-Lannes seized Aosta driving Haddick’s Croats ahead of him

# 19 May-Fort Bard, built on a crag, could not be taken by assault







# however, mountain trails allowed infantry and cavalry to bypass the Austrian fort. The artillery couldn’t

# 22 May-Lannes took the fortified town of Ivrea and its guns!

# 20 May-Massena learned of the approaching relief. The Genoese were eating rats and grass, threatening revolt

# 24 May-Melas, enroute to Turin, learns that thousands of French were passing Fort Bard, orders Elsnitz to fall back toward Genoa


๏ 26 May-the Reserve Army (32,000 men and 8 cannon) assembled around Ivrea

๏ Bonaparte now ordered an advance on Milan, stuffed with supplies

๏ 31 May-Melas orders a concentration on Alessandria

๏ 4 June-Ott, anxiously accepts Massena’s surrender terms. The French abandoned the city but not as prisoners,could continue to fight

๏ Suchet drives Elsnitz back in disarray

๏ Ott garrisons Genoa, then moves to join Melas

MILAN

ALESSANDRIA


๏ As his cavalry units bring in intelligence, Bonaparte realizes he has been hasty in dispersing his forces

๏ he begins his own concentration to oppose Melas in Alessandria

๏ Massena orders Suchet to hold up at Acqui

๏ Bonaparte reorganizes his forces to give a corps to Desaix

๏ he underestimates Melas’ strength and prepares to attack


๏ As his cavalry units bring in intelligence, Bonaparte realizes he has been hasty in dispersing his forces

๏ he begins his own concentration to oppose Melas in Alessandria

๏ Massena orders Suchet to hold up at Acqui

๏ Bonaparte reorganizes his forces to give a corps to Desaix

๏ he underestimates Melas’ strength and prepares to attack

๏ he wants to prevent his enemy from entering Genoa, where the British navy could make a successful siege almost impossible


Battle of Marengo, morning of 14 June 1800


A Desperate Plea

By this time aides-de-camp were spurring furiously after Lapoype and Desaix [whom Bonaparte had detached eastward to cut Melas’ line of communication] with orders of urgent recall; Bonaparte’s message to the latter allegedly ran:I had thought to attack Melas. He has attacked me first. For God’s sake come up if you can

Fortunately Desaix, held up by a swollen river, was not beyond recall and received the message at one p.m., but Lapoype was reached only at six in the evening and proved unable to intervene, even in the last stages of the battle.

Chandler, p. 291


Battle of Marengo, afternoon of 14 June 1800



The Austrians had lost heavily in the 12 hours of fighting: 15 colours, 40 guns, almost 3,000 taken prisoner, and 6,500 dead or wounded. French casualties (killed and wounded) were on the order of 4,700 and 900 missing or captured, but they retained the battlefield and the strategic initiative. Desaix's body was found among the slain.


The Austrians had lost heavily in the 12 hours of fighting: 15 colours, 40 guns, almost 3,000 taken prisoner, and 6,500 dead or wounded. French casualties (killed and wounded) were on the order of 4,700 and 900 missing or captured, but they retained the battlefield and the strategic initiative. Desaix's body was found among the slain.


ConsequencesBonaparte needed to depart for Paris urgently and the next morning sent Berthier on a surprise visit to Austrian headquarters. Within 24 hours of the battle, Melas entered into negotiations (the Convention of Alessandria) which led to the Austrians evacuating northwestern Italy west of the Ticino river, and suspending military operations in Italy.

Bonaparte's position as First Consul was strengthened by the successful outcome of the battle and the preceding campaign. After this victory, Napoleon could breathe a sigh of relief. The generals who had been hostile to him could see that his luck had not abandoned him. Thus, he had surpassed Schérer, Joubert, Championnet, and even Moreau, neither of whom had been able to inflict a decisive blow to the Coalition. Moreau's victory at Hohenlinden, which was the one that in reality had put an end to the war, was minimised by Bonaparte who, from then on, would pose as a saviour of the fatherland, and even of the Republic. He rejected offers from Louis XVIII, who had considered the Consulate to be a mere transition towards the restoration of the king. Thanks to the victory at Marengo, Napoleon could finally set about reforming France according to his own vision.

Wikipedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticino_river




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Consul

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Consul

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barth%C3%A9lemy_Louis_Joseph_Sch%C3%A9rer



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_%C3%89tienne_Championnet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_%C3%89tienne_Championnet

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Victor_Marie_Moreau

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Hohenlinden

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVIII_of_France

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Consulate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Consulate

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I#Reforms




Consequences


Consequences


War or Peace?


War or Peace?

The Peace of Amiens, 1802 by Dominique (Guillaume Dominique Jacques)Doncre


A typical Gillrayirreverentcaricature

The first Kiss this Ten Years! __or__the meeting of Britannia & Citoyen FrancoisSaturday, April 2, 2011

A typical Gillrayirreverentcaricature

The first Kiss this Ten Years! __or__the meeting of Britannia & Citoyen FrancoisSaturday, April 2, 2011

Prince of Peace?

God of War?

or somehow, both?


From the field of Marengo [Bonaparte] had dispatched an appeal to the Emperor [of Austria],

The cunning of the English has neutralized the effect which my simple and frank advances must otherwise had on Your Majesty’s heart. War has become actual. Thousands of Frenchmen and Austrians are no more…. The prospect of a continuance of such horrors is so great a distress to me, that I have decided to make another personal appeal to you…. Let us give our generation Peace and tranquility

The Emperor continued to resist the growing pressures to accept peace. Negotiations dragged on … through most of the summer, but then a new subsidy treaty signed with Pitt induced Austria to continue the struggle…. The First Consul was induced by political considerations to remain in Paris, and so the coup de grâce had to be delegated to others. On December 3, Moreau defeated the Archduke John … at the great victory of Hohenlinden, and the war with Austria was practically over. The negotiators met again at Leoben, while Murat drove the Neapolitan army out of the Papal States and French troops reoccupied Tuscany. On February 8, operations were finally brought to a close with the signing of the Peace of Luneville.

Chandler, p. 302


Terms of the Peace of Lunéville, 9 February 1801

! "there shall be, henceforth and forever, peace, amity, and good understanding" among the parties

! Austria was required to enforce the conditions of the earlier Treaty of Campo Formio, 1797

! certain Austrian holdings in Germany were relinquished and Austria recognized French control of the left bank of the Rhine “in complete sovereignty.” France renounced any claim to territories east of the Rhine

! contested boundaries in Italy were set, the Grand Duchy of Tuscany (ruled by a Habsburg) was awarded to the French. The duke was compensated with lands in Germany

! both agreed to respect the independence of the Batavian, Cisalpine, Helvetic and Ligurian republics

! in northern Italy, the two semi-independent bishoprics of Trento (Trent) and Bressanone (Brixen) were secularized and annexed to Austria


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Campo_Formio





Trent

Brixen




New World Ambitions

! December 1801-preliminary peace negotiations with Britain opened the sea lanes to France, the troops were idle and the officers eager for a chance for glory, merchants for profits

! Bonaparte sent his brother-in-law, Pauline’s husband, General Charles Leclerc, and 31,000 men, regulars and “disciplinary,” to Saint-Domingue (Haiti)


New World Ambitions




New World Ambitions



! his plan was to reestablish French sovereignty, using the rebel leader, Toussaint L’Overture, as his capitaine general


New World Ambitions




! promising that the former slaves would remain free under French rule, and that Toussaint’s officers would keep their rank,Leclerc hoped to succeed by a divide-and-rule strategy

! 5 February 1802-as negotiations failed, Leclerc launched an amphibious attack and attempted to reconquer Haiti by force. Yellow fever and guerilla tactics killed over two-thirds of the force. Leclerc himself died in November

! As Napoleon despaired of regaining this foothold, he saw little reason to hang on to Louisiana


New World Ambitions




! promising that the former slaves would remain free under French rule, and that Toussaint’s officers would keep their rank,Leclerc hoped to succeed by a divide-and-rule strategy

! 5 February 1802-as negotiations failed, Leclerc launched an amphibious attack and attempted to reconquer Haiti by force. Yellow fever and guerilla tactics killed over two-thirds of the force. Leclerc himself died in November

! As Napoleon despaired of regaining this foothold, he saw little reason to hang on to Louisiana

! so he made an offer to US envoy Robert Livingston to sell the whole territory









Reaching Peace with Britain

! Bonaparte first made truce proposals to British foreign secretary Lord Grenville as early as 1799

! Because of the hardline stance of Grenville and Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, their distrust of Bonaparte, they were rejected out of hand

! February 1801-Pitt resigned and was replaced by the more accommodating Henry Addington

! 30 September-a preliminary agreement was reached. British hopes soared: withdrawal of the income tax imposed by Pitt, a reduction of grain prices and a revival of markets


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_Bonaparte

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Grenville,_1st_Baron_Grenville


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pitt_the_Younger


Reaching Peace with Britain

! Bonaparte first made truce proposals to British foreign secretary Lord Grenville as early as 1799

! Because of the hardline stance of Grenville and Prime Minister William Pitt the Younger, their distrust of Bonaparte, they were rejected out of hand

! February 1801-Pitt resigned and was replaced by the more accommodating Henry Addington

! 30 September-a preliminary agreement was reached. British hopes soared: withdrawal of the income tax imposed by Pitt, a reduction of grain prices and a revival of markets

! 9 December-this premature enthusiasm played into Talleyrand’s hands.

! The Dutch government in exile joined in negotiations seeking compensation and to determine the status of Cape Colony

! February 1802-as the Saint-Domingue was approaching Haiti, French ally Spain joined to negotiate over her lost West Indian islands

! the British negotiators were under pressure to reach “peace at any price”

! 25 March-the final terms were settled following a five hour negotiating session ending at 3 a.m.






Peace at Last

! the treaty, beyond confirming “peace, friendship, and good understanding,” called for:

! restoration of prisoners and hostages

! the United Kingdom to return Cape Colony and captured Dutch West Indian islands to the Batavian Republic

! the UK to withdraw its forces from Egypt and restore it to the Turkish sultan

! UK to receive Trinidad and Tobago (from Spain) and Ceylon (from the Dutch)

! France to withdraw its forces from the Papal States

! the island of Minorca to be returned by Britain to Spain

! the House of Orange-Nassau to be compensated for its losses in the Netherlands


Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker is a colossal heroic nude statue by the Italian artist Antonio Canova, of Napoleon I of France in the guise of the Roman god Mars. He holds a gilded Nike or Victory standing on an orb in his right hand and a staff in his left. It was produced between 1802 and 1806 and stands 3.45 metres to the raised left hand. Once on display in the Louvre in Paris, it was purchased from Louis XVIII in 1816 by the British government, which granted it to the Duke of Wellington. It is now on display in Robert Adam's stairwell at the Duke's London residence, Apsley House.

Wikipedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_nudity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroic_nudity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Canova

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonio_Canova





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_(mythology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_(mythology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_(mythology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nike_(mythology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_(mythology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victory_(mythology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orb

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louvre

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVIII

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVIII

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington




http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Adam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsley_House

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsley_House

Code Civil


Code Civil


As events turned out, the ending of the European struggle in 1802 was destined to afford the major protagonists only a brief breathing space before the recommencement of hostilities. Nevertheless, the First Consul utilized the pause to exploit his role as “peacemaker” so rapidly and successfully as to attain the summit of his political career….Military glory is but a transient affair, but the recasting of the French State proved by far the most lasting monument to Napoleon’s genius, and as it also provided the sinews for the hard-fought wars still to come, the subject deserves a passing glance in these pages.

Chandler, p.307


Was Napoleon a loyal son of the

Revolution or its destroyer?


Napoleonic Reforms

! The principal argument for the former view is the series of reforms which he introduced applying the Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man:

! centralized administration of the departments

! encouragement of economic development


Napoleonic Reforms




He gave government subsidies to the French woolen industryso that it came to rival the silk. He wanted to displace British imports.


Napoleonic Reforms




! reform of the police and court system. Repeal of the infamous Law of Suspects

! 1801-the Concordat with the Catholic Church and the Organic Articles which regulated public worship in France and extended religious toleration


Under a vague symbol representing the Deity, Bonaparte

grants religious toleration to every

sort of creed


Main terms of the Concordat:

■ A declaration that "Catholicism was the religion of the great majority of the French" but not the official state religion, thus maintaining religious freedom, in particular with respect to Protestants

■ The Papacy had the right to depose bishops, but this made little difference, because the French government still nominated them

■ The State would pay clerical salaries and the clergy swore an oath of allegiance to the State


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papacy


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop











■ Catholic clergy would staff the schools and universities, but as government employees under state regulations

■ The Church gave up all its claims to Church lands that were confiscated after 1790

■ The Sabbath was reestablished as a "festival", effective Easter Sunday, 18 April 1802. The rest of the French Republican Calendar, which had been abolished, was not replaced by the traditional Gregorian Calendar until 1 January 1806








http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath_in_Christianity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabbath_in_Christianity

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Republican_Calendar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Republican_Calendar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_Calendar

Pope Pius VII! as bishop of Imola, he cooperated with the

Cisalpine Republic

! "Christian virtue makes men good democrats.... Equality is not an idea of philosophers but of Christ...and do not believe that the Catholic religion is against democracy,"

! March 1801-the College of Cardinals chose him as a compromise candidate after months of stalemate

! 15 July 1801-he had the difficult responsibility of negotiating the Concordat

! October 1804-Napoleon’s uncle Joseph Cardinal Fesch negotiated the difficult request to have the pope come to Paris for Napoleon’s coronation

! 2 December 1804-against the advice of the Curia, the pope was present for this famous event 1742-born as Count Barnaba Niccolò

Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, was Pope,

1800-1823.

painting by Jacques-Louis David, 1807


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope


Pope Pius VII! as bishop of Imola, he cooperated with the

Cisalpine Republic

! "Christian virtue makes men good democrats.... Equality is not an idea of philosophers but of Christ...and do not believe that the Catholic religion is against democracy,"

! March 1801-the College of Cardinals chose him as a compromise candidate after months of stalemate

! 15 July 1801-he had the difficult responsibility of negotiating the Concordat

! October 1804-Napoleon’s uncle Joseph Cardinal Fesch negotiated the difficult request to have the pope come to Paris for Napoleon’s coronation

! 2 December 1804-against the advice of the Curia, the pope was present for this famous event

! more dramatic conflicts would follow

1742-born as Count Barnaba Niccolò

Maria Luigi Chiaramonti, was Pope,

1800-1823.

painting by Jacques-Louis David, 1807




Patron of Education and the Arts

Here he and Josephine establish a Ministry of Culture


Education Reform under Bonaparte

! 1802-every Commune would have an elementary school and every Department should contain at least one secondary academy

! the large cities were to open lycées (preparatory schools for the universities)

! state control over the content taught:

! math and science were strongly encouraged

! most liberal arts were either completely banned or severely curtailed. Modern History out, instead there was a great deal about Charlemagne, whom Napoleon intended to emulate.

! teachers, lay and clerical, were strictly supervised. State examinations were required for both teachers and students.


Napoleonic Reforms

! The principal argument for the former view is the series of reforms which he introduced extending the Revolution’s Declaration of the Rights of Man:




! but,

! 1802-institution of the Legion of Honor as a substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of chivalry, to encourage civilian and military achievements


Napoleonic Reforms





! but,

! 1802-institution of the Legion of Honor as a substitute for the old royalist decorations and orders of chivalry, to encourage civilian and military achievements

! amnesty plus restoration of (unsold) property to émigrés who would return to France. As many as 40,000 would avail themselves of this adding their abilities to military and civil life


A new aristocracy?

Most of the jacobin left denounced the Legion of Honor and, especially, the return of the émigrés as a repudiation of égalité, the second of the Revolution’s Holy Trinity. They saw Bonaparte creating a new unequal social order.

However, another bedrock principle of the Revolution was Article 1 of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August 1789): 1. Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.

This had led to the principle of les carrières s'ouvrent au talent (careers are open to talent). Bonaparte argued that the social distinctions which he created were indeed based on talent, not birth. The titles which he, his family and his marshals held were rewards based on merit. An arguable point, especially in the case of his family!

And having social rewards for merit was just such a general good.

jbp


The European Response to Égalité

“We come to give you liberté and égalité,” growled old Marshal Lefebvre in a Franconian town. “But don’t lose your heads about it---the first person who stirs without my permission will be shot!” This naive proclamation, of course, illustrates the growing tyranny of Napoleonism. But it also offers a clue as to why so many thousands of Poles, Germans and Italians fought for the conqueror of their own free will. They could not forget that Lefebre himself, beginning as a private in the Royal Army, had taken fifteen years to reach the rank of sergeant. After the Revolution he needed only half that time to win a marshal’s baton and a title. His wife, though retaining her hearty mannerisms, had stepped up meanwhile from battalion washerwoman to Duchess of Danzig. Frenchmen, in other words, were freemen as compared to European masses whose serfdom had been tempered only by the whims of benevolent despotism. Already an uneasy stirring could be felt throughout the Old World, as if these masses vaguely sensed the approach of some springtime of the human race.

Lynn Montross, War Through the Ages, p. 509


Napoleonic Reforms





! 1083-codification of the laws, beginning with the Civil Code (1804), followed by Commercial (1807), Criminal (1808), and Penal Code (1810)-->equality before the law


Main features of the Civil Code

! a comprehensive rewrite; its structure was much more rational; it had no religious, i.e. Christian, content; and it was written in the vernacular, French

! a fundamental change in the nature of the civil law system; it made laws much clearer and much more accessible

! the Revolutionaries had taken a negative view of judges making law to benefit their own (upper) class

! this is reflected in the Napoleonic Code prohibiting judges from deciding a case by way of introducing a general rule (Article 5) In theory, there is thus no case law in France

! Laws could be applied only if they had been duly promulgated, and only if they had been published officially thus no secret laws were authorized

! It prohibited ex post facto laws (i.e., laws that apply to events that occurred before them)

! 1807-the name was changed to the Code Napoléon. It remains the basis of French law today and has influenced the laws of those countries which fell under French rule or influence during the Napoleonic era


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_law

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_post_facto

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex_post_facto

Today the Code Napoleon is the basis of the legal system of more than ninety countries besides France.


Vive l’Empereur!


Vive l’Empereur!


Napoléon Ier sur le trône impérialJean Auguste Dominic Ingres

1806in place of the Bourbon fleur de lys Napoleonreached back to the Merovingian kings and chose the symbol of golden bees to decorate

his robe


A contemporary poster depicting the balloon released from the

cathedral at the time of Napoleon’s coronation


“I swear to maintain the integrity of the territory of the Republic, to respect and enforce respect for the Concordat and freedom of religion, equality of rights, political and civil liberty, the irrevocability of the sale of national lands; not to raise any tax except in virtue of the law; to maintain the institution of Legion of Honor and to govern in the sole interest, happiness and glory of the French people”


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordat_of_1801

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordat_of_1801

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legion_of_Honor




Sacre de l'empereur Napoléon Ier et couronnement de l'impératrice Joséphine dans la cathédrale Notre-Dame de Paris, le 2 décembre 1804

Jacques-Louis David, 1805-1808


The thrice glorious and thrice august Emperor Napoleon is crowned and enthroned. Vive l’Empereur! (Long live the Emperor!)


Napoleon, surrounded by dignitaries, left the cathedral while the choir sang "Domine salvum fac imperatorem nostrum Napoleonem" -- "God save our Emperor Napoleon".
