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The 19th Century Europe class looks at the movement from liberalism to democracy in Western European states on the eve of World War I
Citation preview
Nineteenth Century Europepart 2
1871-1914session 4
FROM LIBERALISM TO DEMOCRACY:POLITICAL PROGRESS IN WESTERN EUROPE
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
GREAT BRITAIN
Broadening the franchise-- Depression, Parties, & Parliament--Toward a Labor Party--Revival & Relapse of Liberalism--The Irish Question from Gladstone to World War I--British Democracy in 1914
BELGIUM, THE NETHERLANDS, AND SWITZERLAND
NORTHERN EUROPE
Denmark, Norway, Sweden
SOUTHERN EUROPE
Spain, Portugal, Italy
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Broadening of the Franchise
1884--a new act extended the urban workers gains of 1867 to the countryside (farm tenants & agricultural laborers)
1885--the Redistribution Act increased the House of Commons to 607 members elected from districts of roughly equal size
there was little more to ask for unless one believed women should have the vote
that idea was already being pressed but would not prevail before the war
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Emmeline Pankhurst(1858-1928)
dynamic, ultimately successful, leader of women’s suffrage in Britain
ca. 1913
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Long Depression, 1873-1896
continental financial panics in 1873 and 1882 triggered general economic downturns followed by partial recoveries at the end of each decade
America had the “honors” for the”Panic of ’93”
although the hard times had a long term beneficial effect:introduction of new technology and labor-saving devices
rationalization of industry
this provided scant solace to the working class who experienced great hardship
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Charles Booth, social scientist
born to a wealthy Unitarian ship- owning family in Liverpool
after a prosperous international business career, he became a philanthropist
he walked London with policemen collecting data on the poor
he included his cousin Beatrice Potter in his labors
Life and Labour of the People, 1889
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Overdoing ItPunch December 22, 1883
“What? Going already? Surely you’re not going to walk!” “Oh, dear no! Lord Archibald is going to take us to a dear little slum he’s found near the Minories--such a fearful place! Fourteen poor things sleeping in one bed and no window!--and the Mackintoshes are to keep out infection, you know, and hide one’s diamonds, and all that!”
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
the Webbs
Sidney James Webb1859-1947
1st Baron Passfield
Beatrice Potter Webb1858-1943
cousin to Charles Booth
The world is so full of a number of plebsI am sure we should all be as happy as Webbs
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
the Fabian Society--1884
took its name from Roman general Fabius Cunctator (Delayer), the victor over Hannibal in Italy
“the inevitability of gradualism” was their slogan
charter members:the Webbs and George Bernard Shaw (GBS)
HG Wells, Graham Wallas, Virginia Woolf, Emmeline Pankhurst
Annie Besant and future PM Ramsey MacDonald
their socialism was non-Marxist, democratic
in 1945 there were 230 Fabians in the House of Commons
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
How to address “the Social Question” (poverty)voluntarism or politics?
similar to labor’s dilemma: direct action or politics?
the Fabians and the Labour Party chose one route
William and Catherine Booth (no relation to Charles)
chose the other
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
from the Salvation Army’s website
The Salvation Army began in 1865 when William Booth, a London minister, gave up the comfort of his pulpit and decided to take his message into the streets where it would reach the poor, the homeless, the hungry and the destitute.
His original aim was to send converts to established churches of the day, but soon he realized that the poor did not feel comfortable or welcome in the pews of most of the churches and chapels of Victorian England. Regular churchgoers were appalled when these shabbily dressed, unwashed people came to join them in worship.
Booth decided to found a church especially for them — the East London Christian Mission. The mission grew slowly, but Booth's faith in God remained undiminished.
In May of 1878, Booth summoned his son, Bramwell, and his good friend George Railton to read a proof of the Christian Mission's annual report. At the top it read: THE CHRISTIAN MISSION is A VOLUNTEER ARMY. Bramwell strongly objected to this wording. He was not a volunteer: he was compelled to do God's work. So, in a flash of inspiration, Booth crossed out "Volunteer" and wrote "Salvation". The Salvation Army was born.
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Deborah Kerr as Major Barbara in the 1941 film GBS1856-1950
Shaw’s 1905 play, Major Barbara, shocked audiences because it seemed to attack Christianity and the Salvation Army
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
iconoclast
1891--this extended essay began his public role as Devil’s advocate
at the height of Victorian idealism, he proposed the following analogies:
ideals = idols
idealism = idolatry
in the guise of analyzing the plays of Henrik Ibsen, he posed this attack on the most cherished beliefs of his age
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The major parties made some attempt to correct the most obvious of these [social] ills. But their record of accomplishment was limited, partly because the were distracted by other issues, and more, perhaps, because the majority of their members did not agree that correction of these conditions [poverty] was a legitimate concern of the government.
Craig, p. 288
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Disraeli’s Tory Democracy (1874-1880)
In the single year, 1875:
liberalized laws against trade-union activities
Sale of Food and Drugs Act
Artisan’s Dwelling Act
Public Health Act
but Dizzy’s poor health limited his energy
1876, transferred to the House of Lords as Lord Beaconsfield
after his death the party drifted away from Tory Democracy
1804-1881
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Primrose League, 1883-2004
said to be Disraeli’s favorite flower
Randolph Churchill, one of its founders
“to uphold God, Queen, and Country and the Conservative cause”
“well over 1 million paid members by 1890”
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
the 1880s; the direction of the Tory PartyLord Randolph Churchill vs Robert Gascoyne Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury
Prime Minister; July 1885-Feb 1886, Aug 1886-Aug 1892, June 1895- July 1902
3rd son of the 7th Duke of MarlboroughMP 1870-1886, Chancellor of the
Exchequer, Aug-Dec, 1886Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Gladstone & “the social question”
the majority of the Liberal Party “never freed themselves from their old faith in laissez-faire”
Gladstone’s own zeal for reform seemed satisfied with the Education Act of 1870
he concentrated on the Irish Question in his later ministries; 1880-85, 1886, & 1892-95
The G.O.M.1809-1898
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Joseph Chamberlain, Liberal Reformer
the party’s outstanding advocate for the poor
successful businessman, 1873, reform mayor of Birmingham, father of Neville and Austen Chamberlain
1876, MP--alarmed his fellow Liberals with his “radicalism”
1885, split over Irish policy, led out Liberal Unionists who cooperated with the Conservatives
1836-1914
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
the parties did improve social conditions
regulated business practices dangerous to health and safety
provided new social services and utilities
facilitated the creation of public parks and libraries
1880, made elementary education compulsory, increased state subsidy to both private and public schools
provided for the care of the mentally ill and seriously disabled
“this would have staggered the generation of 1830”
much of this was done reluctantly and to head off the radicals
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Social Democratic Federation
1884, the SDF was founded, the first sizable socialist organization since Robert Owen’s time
Hyndman had the support of Eleanor Marx and her dreadful lover, but not Engels
his 1881 England for All failed to credit Marx
no matter, the SDF’s appeal for revolution never caught on and by the late 1880s, the party was a spent force Henry Hyndman
(1842-1921)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Fabians’ “gas & water socialism”
the 1840s saw cholera epidemics, “the Great Stink,” & miasmas
the London death rate was greater than at any time since the Black Death
reformers faced up to the need for urban planning for the first time
Joseph Bazalgette constructed London’s first drainage system upgrade since Roman times
Thomas Crapper made his famous contribution
public health imperatives forced government into areas which had formerly been left to private enterprise
Work on the Fleet Street Sewer, 1845from the Illustrated London News
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Fabians call for a Labor Party
originally a middle class movement, the Fabians preach the inevitability of socialism
frustrated by the deaf ear of the two parties, the Fabians despair of the middle class
1893, in an article in the Fortnightly Review, Sidney Webb and GBS call upon the working classes
“to abandon Liberalism
to form a Trade Union party of their own
to raise £30,000
and sponsor 50 candidates for parliament”
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Founding of the Independent Labour Party
Hardie, miner, organized one of the first effective unions in Scotland
1893, he founded an organization
to sponsor independent candidates for Parliament who would work for
“the collective ownership and control of production, distribution and exchange”
the ILP was hampered by the older unions’ distrust of both political action and socialism
the newer more radical unions finally prevailed
James Keir Hardie 1856-1915
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Birth of the Labor Party
1899, a Trades Union Congress resolution calls for a conference to consider the question of parliamentary representation
February, 1900 union delegates meet with Fabians, the ILP, the SDF
they found a Labour Representation Committee (LRC,soon to be called the Labour Party)
its secretary is J. Ramsay MacDonald (1866-1937)
the purpose is to present a slate of candidates for future parliamentary elections
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Taff Vale, 1900-01
railwaymen on the South Wales line decided to strike
the railroad brought suit against the union in 1901
the House of Lords awarded £ 23,000 in damages, bankrupting the union
the case strengthened the LRC
affiliation rose from 350,000 in 1901 to 850,000 in 1903
photo of a vintage engine onthe Taff Vale line
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Outcomes from the Taff Vale decision
it seemed to wipe out Disraeli’s legislation of 1875 and effectively outlaw the strike as a weapon
unions now realized that there had to be a political program as well as a direct action strategy
the LRC had 29 successful candidates in the election of 1906
that year the Trade Disputes Act effectively revoked Taff Vale
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Jerusalem, Labor’s Anthem
Among the leaders of the labor movement in the 1880s and the 1890s, there were a number of Methodist ministers and chapel members, a fact that may explain the moral fervor of the movement and their enthusiasm for William Blake’s moving hymn:
Bring me my Bow of burning gold:Bring me my Arrows of desire:Bring me my Spear: O clouds unfold!Bring me my Chariot of fire.
I will not cease from mental fight,Nor shall my Sword sleep in my hand,Till we have built JerusalemIn England’s green and pleasant land.
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Revival and Relapse of Liberalism
Punch (April 28, 1909)
Rich Fare-The Giant Lloyd-Gorgi-busterFee, fi, fo, fat,
I smell the blood of a plutocrat;Be he alive or be he dead,
I’ll grind his bones to make my bread.
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
1906 elections--end of Conservative dominance
when Chamberlain’s Liberal Unionists went over to the Tories and the Radical wing turned to labor, it looked like the end for the Liberal Party
after Gladstone’s last ministry, 1892-1895, the Conservatives (Unionists) seemed to govern indefinitely
but, as always, the pendulum began to swing back
the Boer War, 1899-1903, began to erode imperialism’s appeal
the Education Act of 1902 angered the nonconformist base
1903, Chamberlain attacked free trade and split the Tories
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The new Liberal cabinet, 1906
PM, Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, (d.1908)Chancellor of the Exchequer, H.H. Asquith (PM in 1908)Foreign Office, Sir Edward GreyWar Minister, R.B. HaldaneBd of Trade, David Lloyd George (to the exchequer, 1908)Winston S. Churchill (succeeding DLG at the Bd of Trade)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
DLG, “The Welsh Wizard”
born to humble circumstances in the mine country
known for his radical distrust of inherited wealth and privilege, his opposition to the Boer War and the Education Act of 1902
surprises everyone with constructive leadership
Merchant Shipping Act of 1906--improved sailors’ working conditions
created a Port of London Authority to supervise rational development of the harbor
1863-1945
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Haldane Army Reforms
Haldane used his knowledge of French and German practice to address the weaknesses shown in the Boer War
he had the good fortune of the king’s support in this area where it counted for much
he restructured the army on continental lines and created an expeditionary force
Britain now had its first General Staff modeled on Germany’s and filled with capable men: Sir Wm Robertson, Henry Wilson & Douglas HaigR. B. Haldane (1856-1928)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Admiral Fisher’s Navy Reforms
unlike the Army reforms which actually saved money, the Anglo-German naval race was fiercely attacked by the Radicals
the new battleship type, HMS Dreadnought, made all capital fleets obsolete overnight
Britain had gone overnight from an overwhelming lead to 1 to 0
the result was a redoubling of efforts on both sides of the North Sea “Spy” caricature in
Vanity Fair, 1902Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Naval Scare of 1908
“The Admiralty requested six, the economizers countered with four,
so we compromised with eight”
Churchill
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Background to the Constitutional Crisis of 1911
the Radicals biggest impediment was not military expenditures
rather it was the relentless opposition of the House of Lords
1888-1892, not a single Conservative measure was defeated in the Lords
but, 1892-1895, nearly every measure of the Liberal ministry which aimed at social reform was blocked by the upper house
now the pattern was repeating after 1906
the final blow was the defeat of the Lloyd George budget of 1909
a civil war had been fought to secure the House of Commons control of the purse!
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
“The People’s Budget”
when he became Chancellor of the Exchequer he decided to challenge the economic status quo
“you must stir up public opinion by violent means, so that the public will react upon legislation”
raised the income tax, especially on unearned income
increased death duties (inheritance taxes)
land taxes on “unearned increment”
“a War Budget...against poverty and squalidness”
DLG in 1908
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The gauntlet thrown down...
the Lords obliged DLG by defeating the budget, November, 1909
despite the best efforts of the Liberals to demagogue the issue they lost seats in the next two elections and had to rely on the Labor Party for a majority (so called “LibLab coalition”)
Asquith demonstrated great skill in holding things together
February, 1910, a bill was introduced to exclude the Lords from interfering with any money bill whatsoever, giving Commons the right to pass any measure into law, despite the Lords’ veto, by passing it in three successive parliamentary sessions
this became the Reform Act of 1911, only with the new king’s threat to “pack” the House of Lords if they defeated it
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
National Insurance Act of 1911
the only significant social legislation passed before the war
essentially conservative, modeled on Bismarck’s of the 1880s
insured workers against accident, sickness, and unemployment
funded by contributions of workers and employers
the lack of bold social initiatives by the Liberals explains why Labor has replaced them DLG as Queen Victoria
the Bystander’s displeasureWednesday, November 11, 2009
The Irish QuestionFrom Gladstone to World War I
Sir Edward Carson signingthe Ulster Solemn League
and Covenant, 1912
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Ireland’s Troubles
the agricultural depression hit Irish tenants hard
1879, Michael Davitt founds the National Land League to promote peasant ownership
1880, 2110 families evicted, Capt. Boycott gives his name to the resistance practice
1881, Gladstone’s second ministry offered the “Three Fs”(fixity of tenure, fair rents & free sale) in a second Land Reform Act
still, violent protests produced a coercion (Protection of Persons and Property) Act that same year
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Founder and Leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party
Irish Protestant landowner, nationalist political leader and Home Rule advocate
contemporary appraisals
Gladstone--the most remarkable person he had ever met
HH Asquith--one of the three or four greatest men of the nineteenth century
Lord Haldane--the strongest man the House of Commons had seen in 150 years
son of a wealthy Anglo-Irish landowner in County Wicklow Charles Stewart Parnell (1846-1891)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Kilmainham Treaty, 2 May 1882
Parnell, Davitt, and many of the Land League leaders were jailed under the 1881 act
from jail they issued a No Rent Manifesto calling for a nationwide rent strike
as protests continued Gladstone negotiated with Parnell
Parnell agreed to revoke the manifesto in return for government’s pledge that 100,000 “rent arrears” cases could be appealed
Parnell also went on record against violent protests
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Phoenix Park Murders, 6 May 1882
four days after the Kilmainham Treaty, six armed terrorists stabbed to death two high ranking British officials
one, Lord Cavendish, arriving in Dublin that day, was married to Gladstone’s niece
through the use of informants the murderers were arrested and hanged
Parnell condemned the killings and became even more popular as a voice of moderation
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Home Rule, the only answer
when Gladstone formed his third ministry in 1886, he offered a bill for Irish Home Rule
it called for an Irish parliament and executive in Dublin
only military, foreign and fiscal policy would remain in British hands
this provoked Joseph Chamberlain’s secession and that, the defeat of the bill
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Parnell and Katharine O’Shea, 1890
despite Gladstone’s defeat, he continued to negotiate with Parnell over a Home Rule bill
matters were disrupted by a divorce proceedings brought by Captain O’Shea naming Parnell as correspondent
Gladstone felt compelled to break with him and Parnell’s own INL party split
Irish Catholic authorities were divided
he married Kathrine after the divorce only to die in her arms a year later of a heart attack at age 45
1846-1891
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Gladstone’s Second Home Rule Bill
in spite of the Parnell scandal, he persisted in his fourth ministry (1892-1894)
the bill actually passed in Commons only to die in the House of Lords
Gladstone’s zeal convinced many that Irish home Rule was inevitable
it was only natural that it would be put forward again when the Liberals returned to power in 1906
Irish Loyalist Rally against Home Ruleat the Royal Albert, 1893, ILN
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
John Edward RedmondSean Eamonn Mac Reamoinn
leader of the INL after the 1890 splitleader of the Irish Parliamentary
Party, 1900-1918
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Third Home Rule Bill, April, 1912
after 1906 the Liberal agenda had Home Rule as a low priority
the 1910 election changed that. John Redmond’s Irish Nationalists held the balance of power in Commons
Redmond’s help with the ’09 budget and the Lords bill of 1910 came at the price of Asquith’s introduction of the Third Home Rule Bill
25 May 1914, passed the 3rd time in Commons over the Lords’ dissent
18 Sept 1914, received the Royal Assent, put aside for no longer than the duration of the war
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
“Ulster will fight, and Ulster will be right!”
after the Reform Act of 1911, unionists could no longer count on the Lords to defeat the Third Home Rule bill of 1912
instead arms were bought and distributed to the Ulster Volunteers
in 1912 Carson spoke against the bill in Commons and across Ireland
“Home Rule is Rome Rule!
he was the first signer of the Ulster Covenant, September, 1912
Sir Edward Carsonphoto ca. 1900
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Irish Nationalist Party supported the Asquith Government. Redmond defined the nationalist position when he said:
Ireland to-day is full of hope and expectation. Beware how you dash that hope to the
ground. Rebellion is threatened. Rebellion is justified in high quarters. The rebellion of a
portion of the population of four counties [lesser Ulster], because they disapprove of the act
of the imperial parliament before any wrong has been done, and before any oppression has
been attempted, would be a crime and a calamity. Rebellion by over three-fourths of a people
of a country distracted, tortured and betrayed, deprived of the rights of freemen, and
condemned to a barren policy of coercion, would be too horrible a thing to contemplate; and
it is because this is so that I rejoice with all my heart to believe and to know that the future
of this bill is safe, and that the future of Ireland is assured.
1914--the conflict is joined
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Curragh “Mutiny”-- March , 1914
three armed forces existed in Ireland in the spring of 1914:
the Ulster Volunteer Force, (UVF) as many as 100,000, well armed & drilled
the [South]Irish National Force, lacking arms and training,
the [British army]“Troops of the Irish Command”, under General Padget, stationed outside Dublin in the Curragh
16 March--Bonar-Law, leader of the Conservative opposition in Commons: “What about the army? If it is only a question of disorder, the army will and ought to obey, but if it is a question of civil war, the soldiers are citizens like the rest of the people. The army will be divided, and that force be destroyed on which we depend for our national safety.”
20 March--Asquith summoned Padget to London, ordered him to prepare for unrest
22 March--the British commander,”stern and pompous, smoking a cigar” summoned his officers as tensions rose and gave an ultimatum: any not willing to use force to keep order should resign his commission immediately
57 of the 70 accepted the invitation to resign. Many were Ulster Protestant Unionists.
shocked at this, Asquith gave a “Guarantee” the army would “maintain order” not “crush political opposition in Ulster”
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Summer of 1914
most Britishers were focused on their vacation plans
those who were not, were anxiously following developments in Ireland
the assassination of an Austrian archduke in a place none had heard of passed virtually unnoticed
when war suddenly came it seemed only reasonable to postpone the operation of the Home Rule Act
the IRA thought otherwise as they would show on Easter, 1916
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
British Democracy in 1914
A suffragette addressinga crowd in Reading during
the election of 1913
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
progress since 1867
movement “from the philosophy and institutions of liberalism to… political and economic democracy”
the Lords could only delay, not block measures
local government had been transformed from an aristocratic system to elected county, district and borough councils
the welfare state of the Fabians seemed near
finally, self government and dominion status came to Canada (1867) Australia (1900) New Zealand (1907) and the Union of South Africa (1909)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
the dark side
an increase in the size, function and cost--> bureaucratization
organized groups “deliberately abandoned that reliance on law, reason and compromise… the heart of liberal philosophy”
members in the House of Commons howled down the PM as he introduced the Parliament Bill in 1911
army officers refused to go to Ulster in 1914
workers in the years 1912-1914 listened to syndicalist leaders and conducted the bitterest strikes in memory
the Women’s Suffrage Movement indulged in a frenzy of vandalism, personal assault, and exhibitionism in 1913-1914
“the civil and parliamentary systems under which [Englishmen] had dwelt so long seemed to be brought to the rude challenge of force [and] to be exposed to menace and brutality”--W.S. Churchill, 1914
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
three constitutional monarchs
Leopold I(1790-1831-1865)
helped consolidate the neutral position in which his country had been placed by the great powers in 1831 by cultivating good relations with his neighbors
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
three constitutional monarchs
Leopold II(1835-1865-1909)
threw his abundant energies into economic enterprise and was the founder of Belgium’s rich colonial empire
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
three constitutional monarchs
Albert I(1875-1909-1934)
perhaps the best loved of Belgian sovereigns, was the soldier king who vainly tried to stem the German invasion of his country in 1914
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Belgian economic development--closest to Britain’s
like Britain, the movement was from laissez faire capitalist liberalism to trade union and socialist demands for democracy
the original constitution had placed power in the hands of a bourgeois oligarchy with a franchise based on wealth
1893 saw universal suffrage for 25 year old males with supplementary votes for the most highly educated and taxed
the Catholic party dominated and by 1914 the Socialists outnumbered the Liberals
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Belgian economic development--closest to Britain’s
1899, proportional representation was introduced to assure the representation of all shades of opinion
the year before saw the Flemish language given equal status with French, the language of the majority
elementary education was extended to the masses in the 1880s
1890, factory regulation began
1900, old age pensions
1903, workman’s compensation for accidents
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Slower progress towards democracy
Perhaps because its economy remained predominantly agricultural and commercial rather than industrial, as in the case of Belgium, or because, in contrast to Great Britain, its prosperity was more continuous throughout these years, Holland’s progress… was slower….
! no constitution until 1849! William III (1849-1890) retained considerable power throughout his
long reign! suffrage was severely limited. Even after reforms (1887, 1896) only
14%of the male population could vote! education was contested between the Liberals who favored free
secular elementary schools and the religious parties, Protestant and Catholic
! no significant Labor or Socialist parties before the war
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Battle of Sempach, 9 July 1386
There was a man in that small band of patriots who had the courage to accept
certain death for his country, one of those rare souls who appear from time to time in
the centuries and win undying fame by an act of self-martyrdom. Arnold of Winkelried
was his name, a name which history is not likely soon to forget, for by an impulse of
the noblest devotion this brave patriot saved the liberties of his native land.
Seeing that there was but one hope for the Swiss, and that death must be the lot
of him who gave them that hope, he exclaimed to his comrades, in a voice of thunder,
—
"Faithful and beloved confederates, I will open a passage to freedom and victory!
Protect my wife and children!"
With these words, he rushed from his ranks, flung himself upon the enemy's
steel-pointed line, and seized with his extended arms as many of the hostile spears as
he was able to grasp, burying them in his body, and sinking dead to the ground.
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Direct Democratic Tradition
Swiss mercenaries had a reputation for valor and honor since medieval times
their fight for freedom from the Habsburg HRE began the tradition of neutrality
the love of liberty began the political tradition of direct democracy
the initiative and referendum exist at the federal and cantonal levels
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
The Swiss Confederation 1814-48(Boundaries of the [26] Cantons established by the Congress of Vienna)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Early 19th Century Developments
strong democratic movements in the cantons produced:
extension of popular liberties
widening of the franchise
reform of local justice
demands for a stronger central power were resisted by the Catholic Sonderbund (special or particular league)
the result was the Sonderbundkrieg of 1847 and a new federal constitution in 1848
the Jesuits were banished from Switzerland
postcard ca 1890Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Battle of Geltwil, 12 November 1847The war only lasted from 3-29 November, produced fewer than 100 casualties. General Dufour ordered his troops to spare the injured, anticipating the founding of Red Cross in
which he participated, 1859.
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Constitutional Revision, 1874
enlarged the powers of the central government to include providing free elementary education
referenda on the national as well as cantonal levels
introduced compulsory military service, structured so as to protect Swiss democracy
foreign commentary remarked that this neither threatened domestic liberty nor the general peace of Europe
One for all All for oneWednesday, November 11, 2009
Industrialization Leads to Socialism
after 1870 industrialism grew: watchmaking, textiles, luxury goods and confections
as socialist politics advanced, Swiss liberty attracted political refugees, as had England’s and Belgium’s before
anarchism headquartered here, the German socialists during Bismarck’s persecution, Lenin on the eve of the warinternational organizations were attracted as well: International Red Cross (1863), International Postal Union (1874), and the International Telegraph Union (1865)
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
19th Century History
Denmark suffered two major reductions in territory:1815--The Congress of Vienna took away Norway and gave it to Sweden
1864--Schleswig and Holstein were lost in the war with Germany
progress toward liberalism and democracy was retarded:most of the population were peasants, i.e.,conservative in political matters
King Christian IX (1863-1906) resisted genuine parliamentary government
Denmark was the scene of a constitutional conflict like Prussia’s of the 1860s:
the issue was military spending
the king successfully defied the constitution and the lower house
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Belated Democratic Reform, 1915
by the turn of the century democratic pressures had built:urban middle classes, Social Democrats, a youth movement, and prosperous farmers
the new constitution, delayed until 1915, provided for:extension of the suffrage to all men and most women
widening of the competence of the lower house
by measures similar to England’s in 1911--effective abolition of the veto of the upper house
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Norway and Sweden--A Stormy Relationship
1814, Sweden voluntarily relinquishes Finland to Russia on the understanding that Norway would be ceded to her
Marshall Bernadotte, the Swedish regent, was forced to take Norway by conquest
he found it necessary to recognize Norway’s Fundamental Law, based on the liberal Spanish constitution of 1812
so Norway claimed to be “free, indivisible, and independent” even though united with Sweden
but Sweden had a feudal, aristocratic government, committed to the royal prerogative
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Norway and Sweden--No Community of Interests
Sweden, especially after 1870, moved rapidly to industrial maturity (Rostow’s Stage 4)
maritime Norway remained predominantly agricultural and commercial
as her carrying trade grew, the Storting (parliament) insisted on a separate consular service from Sweden’s
decades of acrimony led to a unilateral declaration of independence in 1905 confirmed by a plebiscite
Norway became an independent constitutional monarchy
1907, Norway became the first nation to give the vote to women
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Sweden’s Road to Democracy
Bernadotte ruled as Charles XIV (1818-1844)
his royal absolutism gradually gave way under Oscar I (1844-1859) and Charles XV (1859-1872)the constitutional laws of 1864 abolished the old estated and set up a bicameral legislature with considerable power
1909, universal manhood suffrage was introduced, followed in later years by woman suffrage and proportional representation
as in other countries, advancing industrialization brought power to the socialist parties
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
1908 – The Royal Dramatic Theatre in Stockholm, Sweden's national stage for "spoken drama", opened with playwright August Strindberg's play Master Olof. (from Wikiʼs Main Page, 18 Feb 2009)
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In… the countries discussed [so far], substantial progress toward democracy had been made by 1914 and, even where there was a tendency toward an increased use of violence in politics, it was not so marked as to threaten the existing political regimes…. None of this was true of the states of southern Europe, where progress towards democracy was minimal, violence uncontrolled, and the stability of established governments always in question.
Craig, p. 398
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Incompetence or Worse at the Top
we’ve already noted Fernando VII (1813-1833) and Isabella II (1833-1868), deposed by a military coup
1870, the failed Hohenzollern Candidature was followed by an invitation to Amadeo, second son of Victor Emanuel of Italy
after two years of renewed Carlist wars, Amadeo abdicated
a brief republican interval (Feb, 1873-Dec, 1874) when on Christmas Eve the army declared for Isabella’s son Alfonso XII
the ruling classes ignored the peasant masses and both Marxism and anarchy, along with Basque and Catalonian separatism were the beneficiaries
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Imperial Decline
beginning with the Napoleonic period, Spain’s rich New World empire began its independence wars
by the time of the Monroe Doctrine (1823) only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained
from the 1860s on, Cuban rebellions added to Spain’s problems
war with America (1898) cost Spain the Philippines and Guam as wellthe conservatism of the Spanish church added anticlericalism to the devil’s brew of Marxism, anarchy, and separatism
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“...different [from Spain] though equally violent”
first half century, wars between rival claimants to the throne and frequent insurrections
the reigns of Pedro V (1853-1861) and Louis I (1861-1889) seemed to be moving toward liberal parliamentary government
Carlos I (1889-1908) changed that
his self-indulgent, absolutist financial mismanagement and defiance of parliament led to his assassination
a republic was proclaimed in 1910
a constitution modeled on the Third French Republic couldn’t make up for social and economic challenges and “quarrelsome political parties more intent on plotting revolts than solving problems”
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Agostino Depretis (1813-1887)
born in Lombardy, colleague of Mazzini, Garibaldi & Cavour
Minister of the Navy during the defeat at Lissa, 1866
headed a Sinistra (Left) cabinet, 1873 until his death, in and out of power four times
began the policy of Trasformismo (Transformation)
undermined fiscal policy with extravagant public works
began Italy’s imperialist venture in 1885
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Trasformismo
the method by which a politician could prolong the life of parliament and his own hold on power by disregarding party labels, making bargains with deputies, left or right, for whatever votes they could command, and thus piecing together parliamentary majorities
it atomized existing political groups and turned parliament into an amorphous mass of deputies led by a ministry whose members changed constantly
coherence and continuity of policy were impossible
Depretis and Crispi raised it to an art form
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This system could be made to work only by avoiding the big questions about which differences of opinion were inevitable. There were lots of these. Sicily and southern Italy were underdeveloped and needed many reforms to become economically viable. Italy wanted to industrialize but lacked the coal and iron which would ease this transition. Industry needed a literate working class but Italy’s educational level was the lowest in western Europe. It’s rate of population increase, on the other hand, was the highest.
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Francesco Crispi (1819-1901)
returned to his native Sicily with the Thousand in 1860, friend of Mazzini and Garibaldi
twice PM (1887-1891) and (1893-1896)
in his first government also Foreign Minister, chose Germany over France
led to a tariff war with prolonged depression for Italy
his second political downfall in 1896 resulted from economic hard times plus the humiliation of Adowa in Ethiopia
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a 40% drop in Italian exports, the result of the tariff war with France, created agricultural depression in Italy
public works and railway construction plummeted
between 1880 and 1920 four million Italians immigrated to the United States
in 1893 peasant unrest led to attacks on manor houses and police stations resulting in bloodshed
the silk industry in the north also suffered, leading to urban unrest
repression provoked anarchist acts, cf. King Umberto’s assassination
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Umberto Ranieri Carlo Emanuele Giovanni Maria Ferdinando Eugenio di Savoia, called il Buono (the Good) but no friend of liberalism
deeply loathed in far left circles, especially among anarchists, because of his conservatism and support of the Milanese Bava-Beccaris massacre in 1898
there were two previous attempts on his life
finally killed by anarchist Gaetano Bresci
Leon Czolgosz carried and frequently read a newspaper account of the deed. He used the assassination of Umberto as his inspiration to kill William McKinley in September, 1901
Umberto I (1844-1878-1900)
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Giovanni Giolitti (1842-1928)
Piedmontese, six times Interior Minister five times Prime Minister
his first government, between Crispi’s two terms was marred by scandal
after the king’s assassination there was hope for a “liberal spring” and a renewal of the Sinistra
the anarchists were strong in the rural south but the Marxists were becoming revisionists and willing to seek political solutions
from 1903-15 he dominated the scene
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Giolitti’s Parliamentary Dictatorship
he often held the Interior Ministry as well as the PM’s portfolio during this time
“Italy soon relapsed into the empty acrobatics of trasformismo”
in 1911 all males over the age of 30 gained the vote
“But Giolitti proceeded to demonstrate that the new electorate could be manipulated by fraud and violence…”
some measure of necessary reform:factory laws, legalization of unions and collective bargaining
state aid for agricultural cooperatives
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Undesired Consequences
Giolitti’s unsavory methods destroyed Cavour’s connubio of the 1850s. He brought disrepute to the liberal center
this gave new life to the extremist parties which now--thanks to Giolitti’s franchise legislation-- could win mass support
1912, the left wing socialists, including Mussolini, revolted against the revisionists. “democracy a bourgeois experiment”
they would dominate the party for the next 12 years until Mussolini would destroy it
the right would preach themes which would echo in years to come in the Fascist state
the poet and adventurer Gabriele d’Annunzio appealed to Italy’s youth to seek life in violent action
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On the eve of the war, therefore, the confident voices in Italian politics… were those of the extremists of the right and left, all proclaiming the imminent destruction of a regime that had been unable to make any genuine progress toward a viable democracy and whose political processes seemed now to be affected by creeping paralysis.
Craig, p.315
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