Health, Energy Health, Energy Systems, Training and Systems, Training and

Improving Improving PerformancePerformance

Semester 2Semester 2

Term 4Term 4

Physical ActivityPhysical Activity

Defined as participation in some sort Defined as participation in some sort of bodily exercise, either on a of bodily exercise, either on a recreational or occupational basis.recreational or occupational basis.

PlayPlay

““An enjoyable experience derived An enjoyable experience derived from behaviour which is self-from behaviour which is self-initiated, tolerant of abilities, and initiated, tolerant of abilities, and develops rules spontaneously. It develops rules spontaneously. It does not have a predetermined does not have a predetermined ending with a victor or reward.”ending with a victor or reward.”

(Singer, 1975)(Singer, 1975)

Sport is a human activity that involves Sport is a human activity that involves “specific organisational and historical “specific organisational and historical background of rules which define the background of rules which define the object and limit the pattern of human object and limit the pattern of human behaviour; it involves competition or behaviour; it involves competition or challenge and a definite outcome challenge and a definite outcome primarily determined by physical primarily determined by physical skill.”skill.”

(Singer, 1975)(Singer, 1975)HealthHealth vs. vs. Physical FitnessPhysical Fitness

Health is a state of complete physical, Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social and emotional mental, social and emotional wellbeing.wellbeing.

Health can be defined as Health can be defined as TOTAL TOTAL FITNESSFITNESS. .

Health

Social Wellbeing

Emotional Wellbeing

Mental Wellbeing

Physical Wellbeing

A strong relationship and interaction A strong relationship and interaction exists between the 4 aspects.exists between the 4 aspects.

Examples.Examples.

Self esteem (Emotional) & Body Self esteem (Emotional) & Body image (Physical)image (Physical)

Academic performance (Mental) & Academic performance (Mental) & Activity levels (Physical)Activity levels (Physical)

Depression (Mental) & Exercise Depression (Mental) & Exercise (Physical)(Physical)

Physical Fitness can be described Physical Fitness can be described as the ability of the body to as the ability of the body to function efficiently and function efficiently and effectively allowing an individual effectively allowing an individual to perform daily tasks with ease, to perform daily tasks with ease, leaving enough energy for leaving enough energy for unexpected emergencies and unexpected emergencies and active leisure time.active leisure time.

World Health Organisation World Health Organisation HEALTH relates to the total HEALTH relates to the total

person, person, while FITNESS relates to the while FITNESS relates to the

physical attributes of a person.physical attributes of a person.

INTRODUCTIONINTRODUCTIONExercise Physiology is the description Exercise Physiology is the description

and explanation of functional and explanation of functional changes brought about by single changes brought about by single (acute) or repeated exercise (acute) or repeated exercise sessions (chronic exercise or sessions (chronic exercise or training), often the object of training), often the object of improving the exercise response.improving the exercise response.

In this definition the description of In this definition the description of functional changes refers to what functional changes refers to what happens to the body and the happens to the body and the explanation refers to understanding explanation refers to understanding how the changes occur.how the changes occur.

For example,For example, we know that repeated lifting of we know that repeated lifting of heavy weights usually results in greater heavy weights usually results in greater ability to lift even heavier weights. ability to lift even heavier weights.

This functional change brought about by This functional change brought about by repeated bouts of exercise can be repeated bouts of exercise can be explained partly by an increased growth of explained partly by an increased growth of muscle tissue and partly by an improved muscle tissue and partly by an improved ability of the nervous system to cause ability of the nervous system to cause greater number of muscle fibres to contract greater number of muscle fibres to contract simultaneously for the greatest possible simultaneously for the greatest possible force of contraction of the entire muscle. force of contraction of the entire muscle.

This understanding of how weight lifting ability This understanding of how weight lifting ability develops has led to better training develops has led to better training programs to improve the lifting programs to improve the lifting performance.performance.

ENERGYENERGY

Energy is the capacity to generate activity, to produce Energy is the capacity to generate activity, to produce or do work.or do work.

The Human body produces and uses energy in order The Human body produces and uses energy in order to perform a variety of tasks including:to perform a variety of tasks including:

The maintenance of vital autonomous functions The maintenance of vital autonomous functions such as electrical brain activity, breathing and such as electrical brain activity, breathing and circulation, body temperature regulation and circulation, body temperature regulation and hormonal activity.hormonal activity.

The digestive process.The digestive process. Physical activity.Physical activity.

Energy comes originally from the food we eat.Energy comes originally from the food we eat.Through digestion, food is broken down and stored in Through digestion, food is broken down and stored in

our cells in the form of chemical energy reserves our cells in the form of chemical energy reserves waiting to be used.waiting to be used.

Energy is measured in units, that is, kilojoules or Energy is measured in units, that is, kilojoules or calories.calories.

FUEL FOR EXCERCISEFUEL FOR EXCERCISE

Our body’s energy needs come from Our body’s energy needs come from the breakdown of the nutrients the breakdown of the nutrients carbohydrates, fats and proteins, in carbohydrates, fats and proteins, in the food we eat.the food we eat.

Carbohydrates Carbohydrates – preferred source – preferred source of fuelof fuel

ProteinProtein – normally not used as fuel – normally not used as fuel but for growth and repairbut for growth and repair

FatsFats - acts as a concentrated fuel - acts as a concentrated fuel source in muscles. It is the body’s source in muscles. It is the body’s main source of fuel at rest and main source of fuel at rest and during prolonged sub maximal during prolonged sub maximal exercise.exercise.

Water, minerals and vitaminsWater, minerals and vitamins (although not used directly for fuel)(although not used directly for fuel)

However, the energy released during However, the energy released during the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats the breakdown of carbohydrates, fats and proteins is not immediately and proteins is not immediately used. Instead an important energy used. Instead an important energy rich chemical compound known as rich chemical compound known as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is formed.formed.

Energy is released when ATP is Energy is released when ATP is broken down. The ATP stored in the broken down. The ATP stored in the muscles is used up within seconds, muscles is used up within seconds, so it is vital to keep making ATP so so it is vital to keep making ATP so the muscles can keep contracting.the muscles can keep contracting.

Energy for muscular activity comes Energy for muscular activity comes from the chemical compound from the chemical compound ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPATE (ATP). ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPATE (ATP). This compound contains an This compound contains an adenosine molecule with three (tri) adenosine molecule with three (tri) phosphate groups attached. phosphate groups attached.

ATP stored in the muscles is very small ATP stored in the muscles is very small and lasts only 1 – 2 seconds. The and lasts only 1 – 2 seconds. The body is able to replenish as quick as body is able to replenish as quick as it is broken down. This is achieved it is broken down. This is achieved by resynthesising (rebuilding) ATP by resynthesising (rebuilding) ATP through the break down of reserve through the break down of reserve fuels.fuels.

ATP DEPLETIONATP DEPLETION

As the duration of exercise increases As the duration of exercise increases and as the reserves of ATP stored in and as the reserves of ATP stored in the muscles runs out, our body the muscles runs out, our body needs to find new ways of needs to find new ways of resynthesising ATP, otherwise we resynthesising ATP, otherwise we would collapse from exhaustion. would collapse from exhaustion.

The body solves this problem by going The body solves this problem by going back to the stored nutrients to back to the stored nutrients to resynthesise more ATP.resynthesise more ATP.

These stored nutrients are used in a These stored nutrients are used in a particular order as illustrated below:particular order as illustrated below:

ATP DEPLETIONATP DEPLETION

THREE ENERGY SYSTEMSTHREE ENERGY SYSTEMS

1.1. The ATP-PC System also called the alactacid The ATP-PC System also called the alactacid systemsystem

2.2. The Lactic Acid System also call anaerobic The Lactic Acid System also call anaerobic glycolysisglycolysis

3.3. The Aerobic System also called the oxygen systemThe Aerobic System also called the oxygen system

Which Energy System is Used and When?Which Energy System is Used and When?There are many factors which determine which energy There are many factors which determine which energy

system is used and when, depending on:system is used and when, depending on: Whether the individual is resting or exercising (or Whether the individual is resting or exercising (or

both)both) The duration of the exerciseThe duration of the exercise The intensity of the exerciseThe intensity of the exercise The athlete’s level of fitness at the timeThe athlete’s level of fitness at the time

The body needs a combination of the three energy The body needs a combination of the three energy systems to supply energy for most activities systems to supply energy for most activities particularly team games.particularly team games.

ATP-PC SYSTEMATP-PC SYSTEM

This system provides energy for activities of This system provides energy for activities of short duration (up to 10 seconds) and high short duration (up to 10 seconds) and high intensity (85-100% maximal effort). The intensity (85-100% maximal effort). The ATP-PC system is an anaerobic system ATP-PC system is an anaerobic system (without oxygen) because the body does (without oxygen) because the body does not have enough time to deliver the oxygen not have enough time to deliver the oxygen for energy production in less than 10 for energy production in less than 10 seconds. It is sometimes called the Alactic seconds. It is sometimes called the Alactic System because no lactic acid is produced System because no lactic acid is produced during this kind of energy production.during this kind of energy production.

For this reason it is the predominant system For this reason it is the predominant system used in short bursts of activity such as 100-used in short bursts of activity such as 100-metre sprint, high jump, running to first metre sprint, high jump, running to first base, fast bowling in cricket and shot put. base, fast bowling in cricket and shot put.

When chemical bonds of the ATP molecule When chemical bonds of the ATP molecule are broken, energy is released. Because are broken, energy is released. Because there is only a limited supply of ATP in there is only a limited supply of ATP in muscles, it must be resynthesised from muscles, it must be resynthesised from ADP + Pi (Pi is a free phosphate molecule), ADP + Pi (Pi is a free phosphate molecule), which also requires energy. This energy is which also requires energy. This energy is obtained from the breakdown of a obtained from the breakdown of a phosphate compound stored in muscles phosphate compound stored in muscles called creatine phosphate or PC. called creatine phosphate or PC.

As rapidly as ATP is broken down during As rapidly as ATP is broken down during muscular contractions, it is being muscular contractions, it is being resynthesised by from ADP + Pi by the resynthesised by from ADP + Pi by the energy provided by the breakdown of PC energy provided by the breakdown of PC stored in the muscles. This process occurs stored in the muscles. This process occurs without the use of oxygen.without the use of oxygen.

Once the supply of CP runs low Once the supply of CP runs low and we stop exercising it takes and we stop exercising it takes about 2 minutes to replenish the about 2 minutes to replenish the stores. Oxygen is used to stores. Oxygen is used to rebuild the CP, which is why we rebuild the CP, which is why we breathe heavily after a sprint or breathe heavily after a sprint or high intensity burst.high intensity burst.

ATP-PC SystemATP-PC System

ATP-PC SystemATP-PC System

A high-energy phosphate bond is broken to release energy to rebuild ATP from ADP and Pi.

LACTIC ACID SYSTEMLACTIC ACID SYSTEMThis is also a system that requires This is also a system that requires no no

oxygenoxygen. Also known as Anaerobic . Also known as Anaerobic Glycolysis, this system becomes active Glycolysis, this system becomes active when we require energy beyond the when we require energy beyond the capacity of the ATP-PC system. The capacity of the ATP-PC system. The Lactic Acid system provides energy for Lactic Acid system provides energy for high intensity activities lasting from 10 high intensity activities lasting from 10 seconds up until 2 – 3 minutes in some seconds up until 2 – 3 minutes in some elite athletes.elite athletes.

For this reason it is the predominant system For this reason it is the predominant system used in used in longer bursts of high intensitylonger bursts of high intensity activity such as 400-metre and 800-metre activity such as 400-metre and 800-metre running events running events

It is a chemical pathway used to It is a chemical pathway used to produce ATP from the partial produce ATP from the partial breakdown of glucose with a by-breakdown of glucose with a by-product of lactate (lactic acid). It product of lactate (lactic acid). It uses carbohydrates for as its main uses carbohydrates for as its main fuel source for rebuilding ATP. fuel source for rebuilding ATP. Carbohydrates are broken down in Carbohydrates are broken down in the digestive system into glucose. the digestive system into glucose. Most of the glucose is distributed via Most of the glucose is distributed via the bloodstream, into muscles (in the bloodstream, into muscles (in large quantities) and the liver (to be large quantities) and the liver (to be stored as glycogen or if in excess as stored as glycogen or if in excess as adipose tissue or fat). adipose tissue or fat).

A process called glycolysis dissolves or breaks down the A process called glycolysis dissolves or breaks down the sugar (glycogen and glucose) into pyruvic acid. During sugar (glycogen and glucose) into pyruvic acid. During this breakdown, energy is released which is used to this breakdown, energy is released which is used to resynthesise ATP. (Because oxygen is not present, the resynthesise ATP. (Because oxygen is not present, the breaking down of glycogen is incomplete, resulting in the breaking down of glycogen is incomplete, resulting in the formation of a waste product called lactic acid). Due to formation of a waste product called lactic acid). Due to the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted into the absence of oxygen, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid, with no further energy being released for ATP lactic acid, with no further energy being released for ATP resynthesis. When lactate and hydrogen ions accumulate resynthesis. When lactate and hydrogen ions accumulate in the muscles during high intensity exercise, muscular in the muscles during high intensity exercise, muscular contractions are inhibited due to fatigue and soreness contractions are inhibited due to fatigue and soreness (stiffness). A high amount of lactic acid in the muscles (stiffness). A high amount of lactic acid in the muscles during exertion causes muscular fatigue. The body can during exertion causes muscular fatigue. The body can tolerate increasing levels of lactic acid production only tolerate increasing levels of lactic acid production only until the lactate accumulation rate is greater than the until the lactate accumulation rate is greater than the body’s ability to remove it. Lactate cannot get out into the body’s ability to remove it. Lactate cannot get out into the bloodstream because the bloodstream is saturated ie. bloodstream because the bloodstream is saturated ie. Has a higher concentration of lactate than the muscle cell. Has a higher concentration of lactate than the muscle cell. When this occurs it is called the Lactate Threshold. This When this occurs it is called the Lactate Threshold. This level for everyday people is about 70% of their maximum level for everyday people is about 70% of their maximum heart rate and for elite athletes it is 90% of their maximum heart rate and for elite athletes it is 90% of their maximum heart rate. Once an athlete passes this threshold they heart rate. Once an athlete passes this threshold they must reduce or stop their muscular effort. The lactic acid must reduce or stop their muscular effort. The lactic acid is only dissipated when the athlete ceases exercise. is only dissipated when the athlete ceases exercise.

In all-out efforts such as the 400m run In all-out efforts such as the 400m run or the 100m swim, these athletes or the 100m swim, these athletes may reach their lactate threshold may reach their lactate threshold towards the end of the race, which towards the end of the race, which can be endured when the end is so can be endured when the end is so near, but a team game athlete is near, but a team game athlete is placed in a different situation. placed in a different situation. Lactate threshold can happen at any Lactate threshold can happen at any time during the game due to differing time during the game due to differing intensities and longer duration so intensities and longer duration so therefore substitution or time outs therefore substitution or time outs need to be utilized effectively.need to be utilized effectively.

Anaerobic GlycolysisAnaerobic Glycolysis

Anaerobic GlycolysisAnaerobic Glycolysis

The Aerobic or Oxygen SystemThe Aerobic or Oxygen System

This system requires oxygen and is also known as This system requires oxygen and is also known as aerobic glycolysis. The oxygen system provides aerobic glycolysis. The oxygen system provides energy for prolonged physical activity of 2 – 3 energy for prolonged physical activity of 2 – 3 minutes or more of low to moderate intensity (sub minutes or more of low to moderate intensity (sub maximal exercise). Energy is produced in the maximal exercise). Energy is produced in the presence of oxygen, which has been transported presence of oxygen, which has been transported from the lungs through the blood and into the from the lungs through the blood and into the mitochondria in the muscle cells. It takes the body mitochondria in the muscle cells. It takes the body 2-3 minutes to increase its oxygen consumption 2-3 minutes to increase its oxygen consumption from the resting level to a higher level in response from the resting level to a higher level in response to the demands of shorter and more explosive to the demands of shorter and more explosive exercise. This system can create 38 molecules of exercise. This system can create 38 molecules of ATP from 1 molecule of oxygen (anaerobic ATP from 1 molecule of oxygen (anaerobic glycolysis can only create 2). This extra amount is glycolysis can only create 2). This extra amount is possible because the abundance of oxygen allows possible because the abundance of oxygen allows a more complete breakdown of glucose as pyruvic a more complete breakdown of glucose as pyruvic acid and can be broken down further rather than acid and can be broken down further rather than being converted to lactic acid.being converted to lactic acid.

For this reason it is the predominant system For this reason it is the predominant system used in continuous activity of sub maximal used in continuous activity of sub maximal intensity such as 1500-metre swimming, intensity such as 1500-metre swimming, long distance running.long distance running.

The intensity of these activities does not The intensity of these activities does not exceed 85% of the maximal heart rate so exceed 85% of the maximal heart rate so enough oxygen will be present after 2-3 enough oxygen will be present after 2-3 minutes to prevent lactic acid from minutes to prevent lactic acid from accumulating and the glycogen can be accumulating and the glycogen can be completely broken down. This allows completely broken down. This allows energy to resynthesise a substantial energy to resynthesise a substantial amount of ATP. The waste products amount of ATP. The waste products carbon dioxide, water and heat are by-carbon dioxide, water and heat are by-products of the complete chemical products of the complete chemical breakdown of glycogen (and fat). breakdown of glycogen (and fat).

Any activities that exceed intensity levels of Any activities that exceed intensity levels of 85% of maximal heart rate, promote the 85% of maximal heart rate, promote the accumulation of lactic acid, which results in accumulation of lactic acid, which results in fatigue. This means that the body cannot fatigue. This means that the body cannot sustain activity at this intensity and requires sustain activity at this intensity and requires recovery. This is referred to as the recovery. This is referred to as the anaerobic threshold. Performance anaerobic threshold. Performance improves when athletes can tolerate high improves when athletes can tolerate high levels of lactic acid, which can be achieved levels of lactic acid, which can be achieved through training.through training.

Aerobic glycolysis chemical reactions, like all Aerobic glycolysis chemical reactions, like all energy systems, are conducted within energy systems, are conducted within muscle cells. Aerobic glycolysis however muscle cells. Aerobic glycolysis however occurs within a specialised component of occurs within a specialised component of muscle cells called mitochondria. ATP muscle cells called mitochondria. ATP produced in the mitochondria is transported produced in the mitochondria is transported to myosin cross bridges when required, to to myosin cross bridges when required, to provide the energy for muscular provide the energy for muscular contraction. contraction.

AEROBIC GLYCOLYSISAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS

AEROBIC GLYCOLYSISAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS

THE RELATIONSHIP THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE 3 ENERGY BETWEEN THE 3 ENERGY

SYSTEMSSYSTEMS

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE 3 ENERGY SYSTEMSTHE 3 ENERGY SYSTEMS

Area On Chart Performance Time Major Energy System(s)Involved

Example

A Less Than 30 Seconds ATP-PC System 100m Sprint

B 30 to 90 SecondsATP-PC System

Lactic Acid System200m - 400m Sprint

100m Swim

C 90 Seconds to 3 MinutesLactic Acid System

Oxygen SystemBoxing (3m Rounds)

800m Run

D Over 3 Minutes Oxygen SystemAerobics Class

Marathon

ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC ANAEROBIC AND AEROBIC GLYCOLYSISGLYCOLYSIS

Anaerobic and Aerobic ThresholdsAnaerobic and Aerobic Thresholds

These thresholds relate to their respective energy These thresholds relate to their respective energy systems.systems.

The first stage involves aerobic metabolism and is The first stage involves aerobic metabolism and is generally characterized by heart rates below 130 generally characterized by heart rates below 130 bpm. Blood lactate levels don’t change much from bpm. Blood lactate levels don’t change much from resting levels and ventilation only slightly increases.resting levels and ventilation only slightly increases.

The second stage or The second stage or Aerobic ThresholdAerobic Threshold occurs at occurs at about 40 – 60% of VO2 max or a heart rate of about 40 – 60% of VO2 max or a heart rate of between 130 – 150 bpm. This level can be between 130 – 150 bpm. This level can be maintained for up to 3 – 4 hours as blood lactate maintained for up to 3 – 4 hours as blood lactate and ventilation slowly increases.and ventilation slowly increases.

If the exercise intensity is increased, heart rate, blood If the exercise intensity is increased, heart rate, blood lactate and ventilation will rise sharply. This effort lactate and ventilation will rise sharply. This effort can be maintained no longer than a few minutes. can be maintained no longer than a few minutes. This is called This is called Anaerobic ThresholdAnaerobic Threshold. .

THE HEATH – CARTER THE HEATH – CARTER ANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPEANTHROPOMETRIC SOMATOTYPE

The technique of somatotyping is used to The technique of somatotyping is used to appraise body shape and composition. appraise body shape and composition.

It is expressed in a three-number rating It is expressed in a three-number rating representing endomorphy (relative representing endomorphy (relative fatness), mesomorphy (relative fatness), mesomorphy (relative musculoskeletal robustness) and musculoskeletal robustness) and ectomorphy (relative linearity or ectomorphy (relative linearity or slenderness) – always in the same order.slenderness) – always in the same order.

Each component is rated. Ratings of ½ to Each component is rated. Ratings of ½ to 2 ½ are considered low, 3 to 5 are 2 ½ are considered low, 3 to 5 are moderate, 5 ½ to 7 are high and 7 ½ and moderate, 5 ½ to 7 are high and 7 ½ and above are very high.above are very high.

For example: a 3-7-1 rating may be that of For example: a 3-7-1 rating may be that of a weight lifter (high musculature which has a weight lifter (high musculature which has tendencies to mesomorph composition) tendencies to mesomorph composition) and a swimmer as 2-5-3and a swimmer as 2-5-3

Ten anthropometric measurements are needed to Ten anthropometric measurements are needed to calculate the anthropometric somatotype.calculate the anthropometric somatotype.

1.1. Stature (height). Taken against a height scale or Stature (height). Taken against a height scale or stadiometer. Take height with the subject standing stadiometer. Take height with the subject standing straight, against an upright wall or stadiometer, straight, against an upright wall or stadiometer, touching the wall with heels, buttocks and back. touching the wall with heels, buttocks and back. Orient the head in the Frankfort plane (the upper Orient the head in the Frankfort plane (the upper border of the ear opening and the lower border of border of the ear opening and the lower border of the eye socket on a horizontal line), and the heels the eye socket on a horizontal line), and the heels together. Instruct the subject to stretch upward and together. Instruct the subject to stretch upward and to take and hold a full breath. Lower the headboard to take and hold a full breath. Lower the headboard until it firmly touches the vertex.until it firmly touches the vertex.

2. Body mass (weight). The subject, wearing minimal 2. Body mass (weight). The subject, wearing minimal clothing, stands in the center of the scale platform. clothing, stands in the center of the scale platform. Record weight to the nearest tenth of a kilogram. A Record weight to the nearest tenth of a kilogram. A correction is made for clothing so that nude weight correction is made for clothing so that nude weight is used in subsequent calculations.is used in subsequent calculations.

Skinfolds. Raise a fold of skin and subcutaneous Skinfolds. Raise a fold of skin and subcutaneous tissue firmly between thumb and forefinger of the tissue firmly between thumb and forefinger of the left hand and away from the underlying muscle at left hand and away from the underlying muscle at the marked site. Apply the edge of the plates on the marked site. Apply the edge of the plates on the caliper branches 1 cm below the fingers of the the caliper branches 1 cm below the fingers of the left hand and allow them to exert their full pressure left hand and allow them to exert their full pressure before reading at 2 sec the thickness of the fold. before reading at 2 sec the thickness of the fold. Take all skinfolds on the right side of the body. The Take all skinfolds on the right side of the body. The subject stands relaxed, except for the calf skinfold, subject stands relaxed, except for the calf skinfold, which is taken with the subject seated.which is taken with the subject seated.

3. Triceps skinfold. With the subject's arm hanging 3. Triceps skinfold. With the subject's arm hanging loosely in the anatomical position, raise a fold at loosely in the anatomical position, raise a fold at the back of the arm at a level halfway on a line the back of the arm at a level halfway on a line connecting the acromion and the olecranon connecting the acromion and the olecranon processes. processes.

4. Subscapular skinfold. Raise the subscapular 4. Subscapular skinfold. Raise the subscapular skinfold on a line from the inferior angle of the skinfold on a line from the inferior angle of the scapula in a direction that is obliquely downwards scapula in a direction that is obliquely downwards and laterally at 45 degrees.and laterally at 45 degrees.

5.5. Supraspinale skinfold. Raise the fold 5-7 cm Supraspinale skinfold. Raise the fold 5-7 cm (depending on the size of the subject) above the (depending on the size of the subject) above the anterior superior iliac spine on a line to the anterior superior iliac spine on a line to the anterior axillary border and on a diagonal line anterior axillary border and on a diagonal line going downwards and medially at 45 degrees. going downwards and medially at 45 degrees. (This skinfold was formerly called suprailiac, or (This skinfold was formerly called suprailiac, or anterior suprailiac. The name has been changed anterior suprailiac. The name has been changed to distinguish it from other skinfolds called to distinguish it from other skinfolds called "suprailiac", but taken at different locations.)"suprailiac", but taken at different locations.)

6.6. Medial calf skinfold. Raise a vertical skinfold on Medial calf skinfold. Raise a vertical skinfold on the medial side of the leg, at the level of the the medial side of the leg, at the level of the maximum girth of the calf.maximum girth of the calf.

7. Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, right. The 7. Biepicondylar breadth of the humerus, right. The width between the medial and lateral epicondyles width between the medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus, with the shoulder and elbow of the humerus, with the shoulder and elbow flexed to 90 degrees. Apply the caliper at an flexed to 90 degrees. Apply the caliper at an angle approximately bisecting the angle of the angle approximately bisecting the angle of the elbow. Place firm pressure on the crossbars in elbow. Place firm pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.

8.8. Biepicondylar breadth of the femur, right. Seat the Biepicondylar breadth of the femur, right. Seat the subject with knee bent at a right angle. Measure the subject with knee bent at a right angle. Measure the greatest distance between the lateral and medial greatest distance between the lateral and medial epicondyles of the femur with firm pressure on the epicondyles of the femur with firm pressure on the crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous crossbars in order to compress the subcutaneous tissue.tissue.

9.9. Upper arm girth, elbow flexed and tensed, right. The Upper arm girth, elbow flexed and tensed, right. The subject flexes the shoulder to 90 degrees and the subject flexes the shoulder to 90 degrees and the elbow to 45 degrees, clenches the hand, and elbow to 45 degrees, clenches the hand, and maximally contracts the elbow flexors and extensors. maximally contracts the elbow flexors and extensors. Take the measurement at the greatest girth of the arm.Take the measurement at the greatest girth of the arm.

10.10. Calf girth, right. The subject stands with feet slightly Calf girth, right. The subject stands with feet slightly apart. Place the tape around the calf and measure the apart. Place the tape around the calf and measure the maximum circumference.maximum circumference.

From these measurements you can calculate the From these measurements you can calculate the anthropometric somatotype byanthropometric somatotype by

Entering the data onto a somatotype formEntering the data onto a somatotype form Entering the data into equations derived from the rating Entering the data into equations derived from the rating

formform

SUITABILITY OF PHYSIQUESUITABILITY OF PHYSIQUETRIATHLETETRIATHLETETriathletes are more muscular than runners but with Triathletes are more muscular than runners but with

less leg development than cyclists and less upper less leg development than cyclists and less upper body development than swimmers. Low body body development than swimmers. Low body weight improves the power-to-weight ratio.weight improves the power-to-weight ratio.

HOCKEYHOCKEYShort legs boost balance and stability, allowing players Short legs boost balance and stability, allowing players

to pivot. They also can prevent back injuries. to pivot. They also can prevent back injuries. Speed and aerobic endurance are musts.Speed and aerobic endurance are musts.

SWIMMERS SWIMMERS Long arms and legs act as levers, allowing swimmers Long arms and legs act as levers, allowing swimmers

to produce greater force in the water. Like flippers, to produce greater force in the water. Like flippers, big hands and feet propel the swimmer faster.big hands and feet propel the swimmer faster.

DISTANCE RUNNERDISTANCE RUNNERLight frames and low body fat levels conserve energy Light frames and low body fat levels conserve energy

because the runner carries less weight. Muscles because the runner carries less weight. Muscles will ideally be slow twitch (or fatigue resistant), will ideally be slow twitch (or fatigue resistant), aiding enduranceaiding endurance

DISCUSDISCUSAbove average height allows a high release position, which adds Above average height allows a high release position, which adds

distance to throws. A strong, heavy body boosts the throwers distance to throws. A strong, heavy body boosts the throwers momentum. Must be muscular in upper and lower body but can momentum. Must be muscular in upper and lower body but can carry a little fat.carry a little fat.

SPRINTERSPRINTERAll over muscle and lower body fat levels give sprinters their All over muscle and lower body fat levels give sprinters their

explosive powers. Muscles must be fast twitch, meaning they explosive powers. Muscles must be fast twitch, meaning they contract quickly. Height does not matter, so long as stride length contract quickly. Height does not matter, so long as stride length is efficient.is efficient.

NETBALLERNETBALLERFor mid court players, powerful legs enable leaps to intercept high For mid court players, powerful legs enable leaps to intercept high

passes and sprint speed to chase the ball. End court players are passes and sprint speed to chase the ball. End court players are usually in the top 10 percent, with long arms for shooting and usually in the top 10 percent, with long arms for shooting and defending.defending.

WEIGHT LIFTERWEIGHT LIFTERShort legs lower the weight lifters centre of gravity (CoG), improving Short legs lower the weight lifters centre of gravity (CoG), improving

stability. Short arms reduce the arc through which the weight stability. Short arms reduce the arc through which the weight must be lifted. A stocky, thick set adds power, but also stabilises must be lifted. A stocky, thick set adds power, but also stabilises and protects the joints.and protects the joints.

GYMNASTGYMNASTLong limbs in relation to the body boost the gymnasts power-to-ratio. Long limbs in relation to the body boost the gymnasts power-to-ratio.

Low body fat results in better muscle definition. Broad shoulders Low body fat results in better muscle definition. Broad shoulders and narrow hips promote maximum upper body strength. Small and narrow hips promote maximum upper body strength. Small compact gymnasts use less energy in difficult training regimescompact gymnasts use less energy in difficult training regimes

BODY TYPES – SOMATOTYPEBODY TYPES – SOMATOTYPE

There are three basic body types:There are three basic body types:

1. Endomorph:1. Endomorph:

Oval-shaped person with concentration of Oval-shaped person with concentration of weight in the centre of the body, abdominal weight in the centre of the body, abdominal sag, flabby limbs and poorly toned sag, flabby limbs and poorly toned muscles.muscles.

Prone to being fat because of an excellent Prone to being fat because of an excellent food absorption system.food absorption system.

2. Mesomorph:2. Mesomorph:Big-chested person endowed with dense Big-chested person endowed with dense

muscle and huge, strong bones. muscle and huge, strong bones. Although the body mass is well Although the body mass is well proportioned, this body type has a proportioned, this body type has a tendency to accumulate adipose tissue in tendency to accumulate adipose tissue in later adult years, particularly if inactive.later adult years, particularly if inactive.

Prone to muscularityProne to muscularity..

3. Ectomorph:3. Ectomorph:

Extreme thinness, protruding neck, sunken Extreme thinness, protruding neck, sunken chest, round shoulders, undersized chest, round shoulders, undersized musculature and a fragile skeletal musculature and a fragile skeletal system.system.

Thin because of a poor food assimilation Thin because of a poor food assimilation system system

Everyone has some part of Everyone has some part of each of the three types, but each of the three types, but those high in endomorphic those high in endomorphic

characteristics must regulate characteristics must regulate caloric intake to avoid caloric intake to avoid

overweight.overweight.

ACTIVITYACTIVITY

Going through the magazines find 3 Going through the magazines find 3 pictures for each pictures for each Somatotype Somatotype and and past them on the paper given to you.past them on the paper given to you.

Explain the characteristics you see for Explain the characteristics you see for each one as to why they fit in that each one as to why they fit in that Somatotype.Somatotype.

Use arrows to point to these Use arrows to point to these characteristics on the pictures to characteristics on the pictures to make it clearer.make it clearer.

EVOLUTIONEVOLUTION

MANMAN evolved from quadrupedal to evolved from quadrupedal to bipedal through adaptations of bipedal through adaptations of the musculoskeletal system over the musculoskeletal system over millions of years.millions of years.

FOUR LEGGED ANIMALSFOUR LEGGED ANIMALS have have a skeletal system similar in a skeletal system similar in shape to a bridge. They have shape to a bridge. They have an arched backbone to support an arched backbone to support internal structures.internal structures.

THROUGH EVOLUTION: Changes to an upright postureTHROUGH EVOLUTION: Changes to an upright posture

1.1. VertebraeVertebrae adapted to the vertical weight bearing adapted to the vertical weight bearing stress, thus the vertebral arch evolved to an “S” stress, thus the vertebral arch evolved to an “S” shape.shape.

2.2. There became more There became more burden on the pelvisburden on the pelvis, thus the , thus the shape of the pelvis changed to be able to support shape of the pelvis changed to be able to support the weight of the upper body.the weight of the upper body.

3.3. The The footfoot changed shape to permit bending and changed shape to permit bending and twisting movements of the spine. The feet were twisting movements of the spine. The feet were required more for weight bearing and less for required more for weight bearing and less for grasping and so the toes shortened. The arch of grasping and so the toes shortened. The arch of the foot had to bear more stress under the body the foot had to bear more stress under the body weight.weight.

4.4. The individual vertebrae changed shape to permit The individual vertebrae changed shape to permit bending and twisting movements of the spine. This bending and twisting movements of the spine. This change in shape has actually weakened the change in shape has actually weakened the vertebral column, particularly in the lumbar region vertebral column, particularly in the lumbar region where herniated discs are common due to stress.where herniated discs are common due to stress.

POSTUREPOSTURE

STATIC AND DYNAMIC POSTURESTATIC AND DYNAMIC POSTURE

STATICSTATIC posture is when a person is in equilibrium or posture is when a person is in equilibrium or motionless.motionless.

DYNAMICDYNAMIC posture is when an individual is in motion. posture is when an individual is in motion.

GOOD POSTURE:GOOD POSTURE:

Definition:Definition: A state of muscular and skeletal A state of muscular and skeletal balance, which protects the supporting structures of the balance, which protects the supporting structures of the body against progressive deformity or injury.body against progressive deformity or injury.

Advantages:Advantages: Mechanically functional and economical Mechanically functional and economical

WHY GOOD POSTURE?WHY GOOD POSTURE?

Allows internal organs to be supported well.Allows internal organs to be supported well. Gives impression of enthusiasm, confidence and initiativeGives impression of enthusiasm, confidence and initiative..

CENTRE OF GRAVITYCENTRE OF GRAVITYThe center of gravity is the point through which gravity acts. The center of gravity is the point through which gravity acts. It passes between the hips and forward of the sacrum.It passes between the hips and forward of the sacrum.

WE MAINTAIN BALANCE BY?WE MAINTAIN BALANCE BY?Eyes – visual cuesEyes – visual cuesMiddle Ear – equilibriumMiddle Ear – equilibriumReceptors in our joints and musclesReceptors in our joints and muscles

WHEN ARE WE MOST STABLE?WHEN ARE WE MOST STABLE?We are most stable in the sitting position because we have a We are most stable in the sitting position because we have a

wide base of support and a lowered Centre of gravitywide base of support and a lowered Centre of gravityWe are least stable whilst standing because we have a small We are least stable whilst standing because we have a small

base of support and a raised Centre of gravity.base of support and a raised Centre of gravity.

GRAVITYGRAVITY pulls on bones and joints. Therefore: pulls on bones and joints. Therefore: With a well aligned body, the bones take pressure With a well aligned body, the bones take pressure

of resisting gravity and muscles maintain correct of resisting gravity and muscles maintain correct alignment.alignment.

With a poorly aligned body, the muscles and With a poorly aligned body, the muscles and ligaments bear the strain of the effects of gravity. ligaments bear the strain of the effects of gravity. The muscles are unbalanced and strained which The muscles are unbalanced and strained which leads to postural deviations.leads to postural deviations.

STRUCTURE STRUCTURE is related to is related to FUNCTION:FUNCTION:Functional deviations due to soft tissue response to Functional deviations due to soft tissue response to

exercise can become structural deviations, which exercise can become structural deviations, which result in permanent changes in bone shape. This result in permanent changes in bone shape. This requires surgery or some other medical intervention requires surgery or some other medical intervention (e.g. leg braces) to correct.(e.g. leg braces) to correct.

POOR POSTUREPOOR POSTURE

DefinitionDefinitionThe faulty relationship of the various The faulty relationship of the various

segments of the body, producing segments of the body, producing increased stress on the supporting increased stress on the supporting structures. structures.

Poor posture makes it more difficult to Poor posture makes it more difficult to maintain efficient balance over the maintain efficient balance over the base of support and causes sagging, base of support and causes sagging, which will permanently stretch which will permanently stretch muscle groups.muscle groups.

WHAT CAUSES POOR POSTURE?WHAT CAUSES POOR POSTURE?

Poor standing, sitting, walkingPoor standing, sitting, walking Poor nutrition (e.g. rickets causes bow Poor nutrition (e.g. rickets causes bow

legs)legs) Lack of exercise (muscle atrophy – waste)Lack of exercise (muscle atrophy – waste) Fatigue/sicknessFatigue/sickness Clothing – high heeled shoes cause Clothing – high heeled shoes cause

lordosislordosis Poorly designed furniture – shape of chairs Poorly designed furniture – shape of chairs

to promote good sitting postureto promote good sitting posture Specific sports – gymnastics (lordosis); Specific sports – gymnastics (lordosis);

breastroke (round shoulders)breastroke (round shoulders) Emotional/Self esteem Factors – hunch Emotional/Self esteem Factors – hunch

shouldersshoulders

SYMPTOMSSYMPTOMS

Symptoms of poor posture can include: Symptoms of poor posture can include:

Rounded shoulders Rounded shoulders Potbelly Potbelly Bent knees when standing or walking Bent knees when standing or walking Head that either leans forward or backward Head that either leans forward or backward Back pain Back pain Body aches and painsBody aches and pains Muscle fatigue Muscle fatigue Headache.Headache.

Postural MechanismsPostural Mechanisms

Poor posture interferes with a number of the body's postural Poor posture interferes with a number of the body's postural mechanisms, including: mechanisms, including:

Slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres Slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres Muscle strength and length Muscle strength and length Nervous system feedback on the body's position in space.Nervous system feedback on the body's position in space.

Slow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibresSlow-twitch and fast-twitch muscle fibres

Skeletal muscle is made up of two types of muscle fibre - slow-twitch Skeletal muscle is made up of two types of muscle fibre - slow-twitch and fast-twitch. Generally, slow-twitch muscle fibres are found in and fast-twitch. Generally, slow-twitch muscle fibres are found in the deeper muscle layers. They help us to maintain posture the deeper muscle layers. They help us to maintain posture without too much effort, and contribute to balance by 'sensing' without too much effort, and contribute to balance by 'sensing' our position and relaying this information to the brain. Fast-twitch our position and relaying this information to the brain. Fast-twitch muscle fibres are used for movement and activity. muscle fibres are used for movement and activity.

Slow-twitch fibres burn energy slowly and can keep working for a Slow-twitch fibres burn energy slowly and can keep working for a long time without tiring. However, fast-twitch fibres quickly run long time without tiring. However, fast-twitch fibres quickly run out of steam. Poor posture causes muscle fatigue because it out of steam. Poor posture causes muscle fatigue because it calls on the fast-twitch fibres instead of slow-twitch fibres to calls on the fast-twitch fibres instead of slow-twitch fibres to maintain the body's position.maintain the body's position.

Muscle strength and lengthMuscle strength and length

Over time, poor posture that demands Over time, poor posture that demands support from fast-twitch fibres support from fast-twitch fibres causes the deeper supporting causes the deeper supporting muscles to waste away from lack of muscles to waste away from lack of use. Weak, unused muscles tend to use. Weak, unused muscles tend to tighten, and this shortening of tighten, and this shortening of muscle length can compact the muscle length can compact the bones of the spine (vertebrae) and bones of the spine (vertebrae) and worsen posture.worsen posture.

Nervous system feedback on the body's position in Nervous system feedback on the body's position in spacespace

The deeper layers of muscle are concerned with 'sensing' our The deeper layers of muscle are concerned with 'sensing' our position in space and relaying this information to the position in space and relaying this information to the

brain. If this function is taken over by muscles that mainly brain. If this function is taken over by muscles that mainly contain fast-twitch fibres, the brain gets an incomplete contain fast-twitch fibres, the brain gets an incomplete picture. The brain assumes that the body needs to be picture. The brain assumes that the body needs to be propped up to counteract the effects of gravity, so it propped up to counteract the effects of gravity, so it triggers further muscle contraction. This adds to the triggers further muscle contraction. This adds to the general fatigue and pain felt by the person with poor general fatigue and pain felt by the person with poor

posture.posture.

Listen to your bodyListen to your body

Good posture feels effortless, which is why traditional 'good Good posture feels effortless, which is why traditional 'good posture' suggestions like throwing your shoulders back posture' suggestions like throwing your shoulders back and sticking out your chest may feel uncomfortable too. and sticking out your chest may feel uncomfortable too. Instead, listen to your body. Make minor adjustments Instead, listen to your body. Make minor adjustments

while standing and sitting. Which position feels the easiest while standing and sitting. Which position feels the easiest and most graceful? In most cases, concentrating on other and most graceful? In most cases, concentrating on other tasks (such as work) can direct attention away from any tasks (such as work) can direct attention away from any

feelings of physical discomfort. Get into the habit of feelings of physical discomfort. Get into the habit of regularly tuning in to your body. If you feel muscle tension regularly tuning in to your body. If you feel muscle tension

or fatigue, move into another position.or fatigue, move into another position.

POSTURE AND SOMATOTYPEPOSTURE AND SOMATOTYPE ECTOMORPHS:ECTOMORPHS: have more postural deformities than other have more postural deformities than other

groups and are related to the vertebral column e.g. poked head, groups and are related to the vertebral column e.g. poked head, round shoulders, kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis.round shoulders, kyphosis, lordosis, scoliosis.

ENDOMORPHS:ENDOMORPHS: suffer mainly from leg deformities, due to the suffer mainly from leg deformities, due to the added burden of extra weight e.g. knock knees, flat feet, duck added burden of extra weight e.g. knock knees, flat feet, duck feetfeet

MESOMORPHS:MESOMORPHS: tend to be free from postural defects.tend to be free from postural defects.