Sustainability in Shrimp Culture in BangladeshIntroduction

The term “sustainability” or also “sustainable development”, often used as nothing more than a catch-phrase, has much more to offer. It is a concept to guarantee a livable environment for all people in the long term, encompassing at least three fundamental components of sustainable development, preservation of a functional environment, economic welfare and social equity. Accordingly, also in the field of aquaculture, aiming for sustainability requires not only the achievement of environmental objectives, but also to provide clear economic advantages for aquaculture farmers in the long term. However, the term “sustainability” is often diluted and weakened , being used by politicians, entrepreneurs and the public, in a general way on numerous occasions, very often in a superficial or misleading way and with an incorrect definition, just to exploit the positive , connotations of the term.

Importance of Sustainability

The sustainability in aquaculture is crucial if the industry is not to go the way of the fisheries sector. About 75 percent of the world’s most valuable fish stocks are either fished to the limits or overfished. At the same time world fish consumption has increased from 45 million tons in 1973 to more than 130 million tons in 2000 and the FAO estimates an additional 40 million tons of seafood will be required by 2030, just to maintain current levels of consumption. In order to serve this increasing demand in the long run, sustainable alternatives have to be strengthened. The most promising of these is the aquaculture industry. With a grown rate of 8% per year since the 1980’s, aquaculture is probably the fastest growing food production industry, that today accounts for almost half the fish consumed globally, up from 9% in 1980.

Shrimp Farming in Bangladesh

The culture of shrimp in Bangladesh has been drawing greater attention by fish farmers, particularly in brackish waters. The export-oriented production of frozen seafood plays a significant role in the national economy of Bangladesh and accounts for 3.8% of the country’s export earnings. The latest estimate of the area of land under shrimp cultivation in Bangladesh is about 140,000 ha (BBS 1996). Shrimp farming plays a significant role in the economy of Bangladesh. Processed shrimp comprises the second largest export commodity of the country. Shrimp farming also generated diverse employment opportunities. Shrimp culture is expected to continue to play an important role in ensuring food security and poverty alleviation, particularly for the rural poor. The urban population will be benefited from the improvement in processing, value adding, and marketing of the shrimp industry as a whole. Incidence like “EU ban on Bangladeshi shrimp” should not happen again and most importantly, this industry is operating under capacity and can increase the productivity up to five times than the current capacity. A majority of workers in the processing industries are women. The shrimp industry benefits three to four million “mostly poor” Bangladeshis while providing livelihood directly numbering some 11, 50,000 people. In 2007-2008, a total of 2,

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23,095 Metric ton shrimp produced in Bangladesh that contributes 19,567.90 crore taka in the GDP. There is ample demand in the international markets for shrimp and Bangladesh is blessed with an environment friendly for shrimp production.

Shrimp hatcheries

About 95% of shrimp farms were largely depended on wild fry collection for stocking of PLs until recent years (Ahmed 1996) having serious implications for biodiversity. Since black tiger shrimp (P. monodon) is the most targeted species, wild shrimp seed collectors discard other shrimp and fish species larvae onshore where for every single bagda fry collected from the natural habitat, up to 99 other species of shrimp and finfish could be destroyed (Islam et al. 2001). Realizing this, DOF provided plans for construction of about 30 private-sector hatcheries (Selim 1994), 12 of which were under construction in 1995 (Haque 1995). Until 1995, there was only one bagda hatchery (DOF 1995) in Bangladesh producing between 20-30 million post-larvae. The estimated requirement for the 130,000 ha of shrimp farms is 2.6-3.0 billion postlarvae and the difference is made up from wild fry (Karim 1995, Rahman and Pal 1995).

Key Factors for Sustainable Shrimp Farming

Although semi-intensive shrimp farming may be less detrimental to the environment then intensive systems of shrimp production, and less wasteful of land area than extensive farming, there are a number of factors on which the long-term sustainability of semi-intensive farming depends. The continuing high resource demands of such systems and their links to ecological degradation must be taken into consideration. The factors that should be considered to develop sustainable shrimp farming are given below:

Availability of brood stock and efficient hatchery system to ensure predictable and steady supply of shrimp seed for grow-out operations.

Suitable sites with quality water source, efficient drainage system and good infrastructure.

Suitable farm design: construction and preparation for optimal water circulation treatment and storage of intake water, reconditioning and disinfecting of pond bottom, etc.

Proper water management: pre-intake and discharge treatment, periodic exchange and aeration.

Suitable stocking density considering the carrying capacity of the coastal culture environment.

Nutrition: development of low-cost balanced feed, feeding management to avoid water pollution by feed waste accumulation.

Shrimp health management: so far the best treatment and preventive measure against diseases is to maintain good water and pond bottom conditions.

Farmer experience: consider new ideas from farmer's self-observation for development.

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Negative Impacts of Shrimp Farming on People and on the Environment

Destruction of Habitat

The creation of ponds for marine shrimp aquaculture has led to the destruction of thousands of hectares of mangroves and coastal wetlands. Significant losses of mangroves have occurred in many countries including the Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Bangladesh and Ecuador. Mangroves are important because they support numerous marine as well as terrestrial species, protect coastlines from storms and are important in the subsistence of many coastal communities. Mangroves provide nursery grounds for various young aquatic animals including commercially important fish, and their destruction can lead to substantial losses for commercial fisheries.

Collection of Wild Juveniles as Stock

Aquaculture of some species relies on juvenile fish or shellfish being caught from the wild to stock culture ponds. For example, even though hatchery-raised shrimp constitute a major supply of shrimp juveniles (scientifically called “postlarvae”) to the aquaculture industry, shrimp farms in many parts of the world are still based on wild-caught juveniles. Some natural stocks of shrimp are now over-exploited as a result of juveniles’ collection from the wild. Furthermore, the juvenile shrimp may only represent a small fraction of each catch, with a large incidental catch (by-catch) and mortality of other species taking place. This poses serious threats to regional biodiversity and reduces food available to other species such as aquatic birds and reptiles.

In Bangladesh, for each tiger shrimp juvenile collected there were 12–551 shrimp larvae of other species caught and killed, together with 5–152 finfish larvae and 26–1636 macrozooplanktonic animals.

In Honduras, the reported annual collection of 3.3 billion shrimp juveniles resulted in the destruction of an estimated 15–20 billion fry of other species.

In the Indian Sundarbans, tiger shrimp juveniles only account for 0.25–0.27% of the total catch. The rest of the catch contains huge numbers of juvenile finfish and shellfish which are left aside on the beach flats to die.

Chemicals used to Control Diseases

A wide variety of chemicals and drugs may be added to aquaculture cages and ponds in order to control viral, bacterial, fungal or other pathogens. There is a risk that such agents may harm aquatic life nearby. The use of antibiotics also brings a potential risk to public health as over-use of these drugs can result in the development of antibiotic-resistance in bacteria that cause disease in humans. Studies on shrimp farms in Vietnam and the Philippines found bacteria had acquired resistance to the antibiotics used on the farms.

Depletion and Salinization of Potable Water and Salinization of Agricultural Land

Intensive shrimp farming in ponds requires considerable amounts of fresh water to maintain pond water at the optimum salinity for shrimp growth. Typically this involves pumping water

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from nearby rivers or groundwater supplies, and this may deplete local freshwater resources. Furthermore, if aquifers are pumped excessively, salt water seeps in from the nearby sea causing salinization and making the water unfit for human consumption. For example, in Sri Lanka, 74% of coastal people in shrimp farming areas no longer have ready access to drinking water. Shrimp farming can also cause increased soil salinity in adjacent agricultural areas, leading to declines in crops. For instance, there are numerous reports of crop losses in Bangladesh caused by the salinization of land, associated with shrimp farming.

Human Rights Abuses

The positioning of shrimp farms has often blocked access to coastal areas that were once common land in use by many people. There is often a lack of formalized land rights and entitlements in such areas and this has led to large scale displacement of communities, often without financial compensation or alternative land made available on which to live. Non-violent protests against the industry have frequently been countered with threats and intimidation. According to the Environmental Justice Foundation, violence has frequently been meted out by security personnel and “enforcers” associated with the shrimp industry, many protesters have been arrested on false charges and there are even reports from at least 11 countries of protesters being murdered. In Bangladesh alone there have been an estimated 150 murders linked to aquaculture disputes. Perpetrators of such violence are very rarely brought to justice.

Deforestation

The clearing of mangroves for the development of shrimp farms is a common problem in many areas of Asia where shrimp is farmed. For example, in Bangladesh, at least 50% of mangrove forests have been turned into shrimp farms.

Land Degradation

Shrimp aquaculture in Bangladesh is competing with farmers’ cultivable plain land, state-owned mangrove swamp, and coastal land. Worldwide, most shrimp ponds in coastal areas have been converted from rice-producing fields and the remainder by manipulating coastal salt flats, marshes and mangroves (Bailey, 1988; PaezOsuna, 2001). However, large areas of natural mangrove and other land uses such as low-lying floodplains, marshes, etc. have been used for the construction of gher in southwest Bangladesh (Chowdhury et al., 2006; Ahmed et al., 2008b). This construction of ponds/gher and associated dykes and polders for shrimp cultivation as well as access roads has changed the current land use pattern (Islam, 2003). Unplanned construction of canals and dykes causes flooding and waterlogging for several months every year in some coastal areas of Bangladesh (Islam, 2009).

Interactions between Aquaculture and the Environment

The most intensive forms of shrimp culture are heavily reliant on high levels of inputs. For example, stocking rates are extremely high (density of 25-35 PL per m2), which then requires, aeration to supply enough oxygen to the shrimp, intensive feeding practices, and often the use of antibiotics and other chemotheraputents. While these intensive production systems can

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produce very high returns (producing 10-15 tons per ha), they are also very risky. In most parts of Asia where intensive shrimp farming has been significant, a "boom-bust" cycle has been characteristic of the shrimp farming industries. It has been observed that most shrimp farms perform extremely well for the first few years of production, but then suffer declining yields over successive crops (Funge-Smith et al. 1998). In some cases, disease has caused devastating mortalities to across large areas of shrimp farms.

Is shrimp farming sustainable in Bangladesh?

No. Shrimp farming in Bangladesh is not sustainable. The environmental impacts of shrimp aquaculture in some parts of Asia have led to considerable discussion of the sustainability of the practice (e.g. Primavera 1991, Iwama 1991, Phillips et al. 1993, Primavera 1998, Funge-Smith et al. 1998). However, most of the debate has focused on ecological and social impacts, with little focus on the economic nature of the problem. It is important to explore incentives under which decisions about environmental degradation are taking place, if policies are to be designed to improve the decision making process. Moreover, the focus on ecological impacts has, in some cases, ignored the other issues that may affect the sustainable development of a region in which shrimp farming is located. These include the economic issues affecting the long-term viability of the industry, as well as the pecuniary benefits of economic growth that may arise from an economic activity.

What is Sustainable Development?

Van den Bergh (1996 p.7) notes that sustainable development was originally proposed as a first step toward exploring solutions for the potential conflict that may arise between multiple goals, or between interest groups supporting those goals. He asserts that sustainable development goes well beyond environmental protection, which it has been sometimes limited. In very simple terms and on a local scale, sustainable development is about maximizing the net benefits of an activity while ensuring that such benefits and costs are shared equitably within and between generations. An important question to ask with regard to sustainable development is - what is and is not valued and how does this vary between the market and the community. Sustainable development is concerned with the valuation of trade-off’s from the perspective of the community rather than from the limited perspective of a particular sector or agent. Hence, perhaps "he philosophy of sustainable development acknowledges that biophysical and social needs must be met, that we have choices regarding how to meet those needs, and that our choices will affect the choices available in the future" (Chesson et al.. 1998).

Conclusion

In Bangladesh, shrimp aquaculture has not progressed as much as in China or Thailand, owing to inadequate planning and inappropriate regulations. The economic benefits of shrimp aquaculture are well recognized. However, when its environmental and social problems are considered, shrimp farming has not improved the farmers’ living standard. Although it has created temporary employment opportunities, the cost of destruction is much higher than these benefits. The major environmental impacts include the conversion of mangroves and

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agricultural lands into shrimp ponds/ ghers, loss of capture fisheries and biodiversity, pollution and disease outbreak. Salinization of groundwater and consequent problems with potable water and agriculture has been recognized as the main environmental and social impacts. Displacement and marginalization of fishermen, water logging and loss of livestock resources are other social problems that have affected the local communities. Resources such as feed, seed and water supply affect the sustainability of shrimp aquaculture.

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References

Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (BBS), 1996. Annual report published by Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh.

Ahmed, A.T.A., 1996. Policy guidelines for management of coastal shrimp culture development. A paper presented at the World Aquaculture '96 Conference, Bangkok, January, 1996.

Islam, M.S., S.U. Ahmed and M.S.A. Khan, 2001. Survey and assessment of shrimp fry and other aquatic resources of Bangladesh. Final report, Bangladesh Fisheries Research Institute, Brackish water Station, Paikgacha, Kulna, Bangladesh.

Selim, N.M., 1994. Development of 'bagda' hatchery as a strategy for acceleration of shrimp aquaculture as an industry in Bangladesh. Dhaka, BFFEA (Bangladesh Frozen Foods Exporters Associations Special Bulletin), January, 1994.

Haque, M.M., 1995. Bangladesh's fisheries sector at a glance. In: Fisheries Fortnight '95 Bulletin: Karbo Mora Macher Chash Thakbo Sukhe Baro Mash. Dhaka, Department of Fisheries (in Bengali).

DOF (Department of Fisheries), 1995. Fish Fortnight'95 (leaflet). Dhaka, DOF. Economics News 1995. Bangladesh Economics News.

Karim, M. and Aftabuzzaman, 1995. Brackish and marine water aquaculture: potential, constraints and management needs for sustainable development. A paper presented at the National Workshop on Fisheries Resources, Development and Management, Dhaka, October 1995.

Bailey, C., 1988. The social consequences of tropical shrimp mariculture development. Ocean Shoreline Manag. 11, 31e44.

Chowdhury, M.A., Shivakoti, G.P., Salequzzaman, M., 2006. A conceptual framework for the sustainability assessment procedures of the shrimp aquaculture industry in coastal Bangladesh. Int. J. Agric. Resour. Governan. Ecol. 5, 162e184.

Islam, M.S., 2003. Perspectives of the coastal and marine fisheries of the Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh. Ocean Coast. Manag. 46, 763e796.

Funge-Smith, S and Briggs, M (1998), 'Nutrient budgets in intensive shrimp ponds: implications for sustainability', Aquaculture, 164: 117-133

Chesson, J and Clayton, H (1998), A Framework for Assessing Fisheries with respect to Ecologically Sustainable Development, Bureau of Resource Sciences, Canberra.

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