ELECTIONS AND VOTING

learning objectives • Describe the functions of elections • Explain how elections contribute to democracy • Identify electoral systems used in the UK and

explain their key features, strengths and weaknesses

learning objectives • Explain the impact of new electoral systems • Describe how elections are run • Explain the importance of by-elections • understand the results 0f 2015 general

election

key concepts

Election A competitive process in which a designated group of people, known as electorate, select individuals who will fill particular posts. Members of legislatures, and the executive in presidential systems, are chosen in elections.

Manifesto A document in which a political party sets outs its programme at an election.

Mandate A mandate gives the winning party the authority to press ahead with the programme presented to the electorate.

functions of elections

Representation In a representative democracy, elections enable a large group (the electorate) to select a smaller group (representatives) to act on their behalf. In a direct democracy, by contrast, all eligible citizens take part in decision making.

Choosing a government general elections determine the composition of the House of Commons rather than the executive. However, because the majority party in the Commons forms the government, general elections normally determine which party takes power.

Participation Voting is the key act of political participation for most citizens. But turnout in elections has fallen in the last decade.

Influence over policy In theory, elections allow citizens to have their policy preferences heard, but in reality, they have limited scope to influence decisions.

Accountability Facing the electorate every 5 years is one of the ways by which the government is held accountable for its performance in office.

Citizen education Election campaigns provide citizens with information on major political issues and the policies of the main parties.

Legitimacy Elections give legitimacy to the winning party and to the political system as a whole. By voting, even for a losing party, citizens give their consent to the system. The government can claim to be acting on the will of the people.

Elite recruitment Political parties nominate candidates for election, provide them with campaign resources and expect loyalty from them if they become MPs.

elections in the uk

General elections These are held to elect members of the House of Commons and, by law, must be held at least every 5 years.

European Parliament elections The UK elects 73 Members of the European Parliament at elections held at fixed-term intervals of 5 years.

Elections to the devolved assemblies Elections to the Scottish Parliament, Welsh Assembly and Northern Ireland Assembly are held at fixed 4-year intervals.

Local elections Local councillors are elected for fixed 4-year terms.

By-elections If a constituency seat in the House of Commons becomes vacant because of the death or resignation of an elected member, a by-election is held to choose a new representative.

electoral systems

electoral systems • majoritarian (e.g. the alternative vote) • plurality (e.g. first-past-the-post) • proportional (e.g. the list system) • mixed (e.g. the additional member system)

Majoritarian system the winning candidate must secure an absolute majority of the vote (i.e. 50% + 1 vote). Candidates are usually elected in single-member constituencies. e.g. the alternative vote

Plurality system the winner needs only a plurality of votes (i.e. one more than their closest rival), not an absolute majority. candidates are elected in single-member constituencies. e.g. first-past-the-post

Proportional representation electors vote for as many candidates as they wish in order of preference. candidates are elected in multi-member constituencies. e.g. the list system

Mixed system combines elements of the plurality or majority systems and proportional representation. Some MPs are elected in single-member constituencies. The reminder are elected by proportional representation in multi-member constituencies. These list seats produce ‘additional members’ that are allocated to parties on corrective lines. e.g. the additional member system

FIRST-PAST-THE-POST – A PLURALITY SYSTEM USED FOR GENERAL ELECTIONS

SUPPLEMENTARY VOTE – A MAJORITARIAN SYSTEM USED TO CHOOSE DIRECTLY ELECTED MAYORS

ADDITIONAL MEMBER SYSTEM – USED FOR ELECTIONS TO THE SCOTTISH PARLIAMENT

REGIONAL LIST – A PROPORTIONAL SYSTEM USED FOR ELECTIONS TO THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT

SINGLE TRANSFERABLE VOTE – A PROPORTIONAL SYSTEM USED FOR LOCAL ELECTIONS IN SCOTLAND

First-past-the-post

The first-past-the-post (FPTP), also known as simple plurality, is the most significant electoral system in the UK because it is used for general elections.

A candidate requires a plurality of votes to win: that is, one more vote than the second placed candidate. There is no requirement to obtain a majority of the votes cast.

MPs are elected in single-member constituencies. Each of the 650 constituencies in the UK elects one representative to the House of Commons.

Constituencies are of roughly equal size (70,000 electors). Differences in the size of constituencies are permitted if there are significant geographical factors.

features of FPTP: • a two-party system • a winner’s bonus • bias to the Labour Party • discrimination against third parties and small

parties • single-party government

Advantages of FPTp: • Simplicity • Clear outcome • Strong and stable government • Responsible government • Effective representation

Disadvantages of FPTp: • Disproportional outcomes • Plurality rather than majority support • Votes are of unequal value • Limited choice • Divisive politics

alternative vote

AV is used to elect Australia’s lower house, the House of Representatives. In the UK it was the alternative system proposed for electing MPs in the referendum held in May 2011.

Features of AV: • Representatives are elected in single-member

constituencies • The winning candidate has to achieve an overall majority of

the votes cast • Voters can indicate their preferences by writing ‘1’ beside

the name of their first choice, ‘2’ next to their second choice, and so on

Features of AV: • If no candidate secures an absolute majority of their

first preferences, the lowest placed candidate is eliminated, and the second preferences of his or her voters are transferred to the remaining candidates

• The process continues until one candidate reaches the 50% + 1 vote threshold

Advantages of av: • Representatives are elected by majorities in their

constituencies • The winning candidate must achieve broad support • The link between representatives and their

constituents is retained

Disadvantages of av: • It is not a proportional system, and can produce less

proportional outcomes than FPTP • The candidate that secures most votes may not be elected

when second preferences have been distributed – the least popular rather than most popular candidate may be elected

• The second preferences of electors who voted for small extremist parties are taken into account

supplementary vote

The supplementary vote (SV) is a variant of AV. It has been used for the election of the major of London since 2000, and for directly elected majors in other towns and cities.

Features of SV: • The elector has one vote and records only his or her first

and second preferences on the ballot paper • If no candidate wins a majority of first preferences, all but

the top two candidates are eliminated, and the second preference votes for the remaining two eligible candidates are added to their first preference votes

• The candidate with the highest total is elected

Advantages of SV: • The winning candidate must achieve broad

support • The second preferences of voters who

supported minor parties are not counted

Disadvantages of SV: • The winning candidate does not need to get a

majority of first preference votes • If used for general elections, it would not

deliver a proportional outcome

Regional list

The regional list system of proportional representation has been used for elections to the European Parliament in England, Scotland and Wales (but not Northern Ireland) since 1999.

Features of regional list: • Representatives are elected in large multi-member

regions. For European Parliament elections, there are 11 regions in Great Britain electing between three and ten MEPs

• Political parties draw up a list of candidates, in order in which they will be elected

Features of regional list: • Electors cast a single vote for a political party or an independent

candidate. In ‘closed list’ system used in Britain, electors can only vote for a party or for an independent candidate. They cannot choose between candidates from the same party. This gives political parties greater control over the electoral process, as they can position their favoured candidates at the top of the list. In an ‘open list’ system, voters can choose between candidates from the same party

• Seats are allocated according to the proportion of votes won by each political party in the region

Advantages of regional list: • There is a high degree of proportionality. The size of the

region matters – results are more proportional in regions electing high number of representatives, but smaller parties are less likely to win seats in regions electing a small number of representatives

• Political parties have used their lists to increase the number of women and ethnic minority candidates

Disadvantages of regional list: • In closed list systems, voters cannot choose between

candidates from the same party • Parties control the order in which candidates are placed

on the list, and can use this power to favour candidates who support current leadership

• The link between representatives and constituents is weakened in large multi-member constituencies

single transferable vote

The single transferable vote (STV) is used in Northern Ireland for elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, local government and the European Parliament. It is also used for local elections in Scotland.

Features of STV: • Representatives are elected in large multi-member constituencies.

In elections to the Northern Ireland Assembly, 17 constituencies each elect six members

• Voting is preferential – electors indicate their preferences by writing ‘1’ beside the name of their first preference, ‘2’ next to the name of their second choice and so on

• Voting is also ordinal – electors can vote for as many or as few candidates as they like

Features of STV: • A candidate must achieve a quota to be elected. Any votes in excess

of this quota are redistributed on the basis of second preferences • If no candidate reaches the quota on the first count, the lowest

placed candidate is eliminated and their second preferences are transferred. This process of elimination and redistribution of preferences continues until the requisite number of seats is filled by candidates meeting the quota

Advantages of STV: • It has a good record of delivering proportional outcomes,

and ensures that votes are largely of equal value • Only a party or groups of parties that wins more than

50% of the popular vote can form a government • Voters can choose between a range of candidates,

including different candidates from the same party

Disadvantages of STV: • The system is less accurate in translating votes into seats

than list systems or some versions of AMS • It uses large multi-member constituencies that weaken the

link between individual MPs and their constituency • It is likely to produce a coalition government that may be

unstable and can give disproportional influence to minor parties that hold the balance of power

additional member system

The additional member system (AMS) is a mixed electoral system. It has been used to elect the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly since 1999, and the London Assembly since 2000. It is also used for general elections in Germany.

Features of STV: • A proportion of seats are elected using FPTP in single-member

constituencies; 73 out of 129 members of the Scottish Parliament (57%) are elected in single-member constituencies, as are 40 of the 60 members of the Welsh Assembly (67%)

• A smaller number of representatives – additional members – are elected in multi-member constituencies; 56 members of the Scottish Parliament (43%) and 20 members of the Welsh Assembly (33%) are elected in this way

Features of STV: • Electors cast two votes: one for their favoured candidate in a single-

member constituency, and one for their favoured party in a multi-member constituency

• List seats (additional members) are allocated on a corrective basis to ensure that the total number of seats for parties in the assembly is proportional to the number of votes they won

• To win seats in the London Assembly, a party must pass a threshold of 5% of the vote. There is no threshold for Scottish Government and Welsh Assembly elections

Advantages of AMS: • As a mixed system, it balances the desirability of constituency

representation with that of fairness in election outcomes • The results are broadly proportional and voters are less likely

to be wasted • Voters have a greater choice. Split-ticket voting is allowed. Here,

a voter uses their constituency vote to support a candidate from one party, and their list vote to support a different party

Disadvantages of AMS: • It creates two categories of representative in the

legislative assembly, one with constituency duties and one without

• Parties can have significant control over the party lists used to elect additional members

• Smaller parties are often under-represented because multi-member seats elect relatively few representatives

impact of the new electoral systems

Greater proportionality The results of the elections conducted under the new electoral systems have been more proportional than Westminster elections. The number of seats won by parties in the assemblies more closely matches the share of the vote they achieved. Smaller parties have had a greater chance of representation.

Multi-party systems The results of elections using PR and mixed electoral systems have confirmed that the UK has a number of party systems rather than a standard, nationwide two-party system. Many of these are multi-party systems.

Minority and coalition governments Until 2011, none of the elections to the devoted assemblies had produced a clear winner.

Split-ticket voting Voting behaviour has become more complex. Minor parties and independent candidates have performed better in elections using the new systems because electors recognise that a vote for a minor party is less likely to be wasted.

Complexity A sizeable minority of voters have found the systems complex and the design of ballot papers has been criticised. in the 2007 Scottish Parliament elections, 146,000 ballots were rejected because they have not been completed correctly.

Constituency links Tensions between constituency and regional list members have arisen in the Scottish Parliament and the Welsh Assembly.

Low turnout Turn out in elections conducted under the new systems has often been low. Evidence from other countries shows that turnout in general elections conducted under PR elections is higher than where FPTP is used.

general elections

general elections are held at least once every 5 years.

Before a general election can be held, the monarch must dissolve

parliament.

Running elections

boundary commission

recommends to parliament changes to constituency boundaries.

returning officers

conduct the election in each constituency.

Electoral Commission

overseas many aspects of the way elections are run (though it does not actually run elections itself).

how to become a candidate?

Candidates

To qualify as a candidate for a British parliamentary election you must be aged 18 or over and be a British, Irish or Commonwealth citizen.

Nomination

To be a candidate in a parliamentary election you must first be nominated – even if you are the sitting MP.

Selected party candidates

Most of the main parties select their candidates in much the same sort of way, and do so a long time before a general election is called.

voting

To be able to vote in British parliamentary election, you must be: • a British, Irish of Commonwealth citizen • aged 18 or over • resident in the UK • registered in the constituency in which you want

to vote

general election campaigns

Campaign

the period before an election which political parties try to persuade the electorate to vote for them.

campaigns

local national

local

• hold public meetings • issue their ‘election address’ • leaflet every household • go from door-to-door with their

supporters canvasing

national

• publish manifestos • engage in public campaigns • conduct daily press conferences • give television, radio and newspaper

interviews

national • make and air party election broadcasts on

radio and television • go on tours of marginal constituencies • conduct private opinion polls and run

focus groups

Election finance the parties have to pay for their own campaigns. In 2010, political parties spent £31.5 million on their election campaigns, £11 million less than in 2005 (mainly due to a fall of almost £10 million in the amount spent by the Labour Party).

Election expenditure the Political Parties Elections and Referendums Act (2000) regulated how parties raised money and set limits on how much parties could spend on certain activities in the year before a general election.

by-elections

If an MP dies, resigns or is expelled from the House of Commons, a by-election is held to choose a new representative for that constituency.

General elections must be held every 5 years, or sooner. by-elections are called when required.

General elections are usually called by the prime minister. by-elections’ dates are decided by the chief whip of the party that previously held the seat.

The function of a by-election is to select a new MP. general elections have a far wider range of purposes including choosing a new government .

At general elections parties can win or loose power, but no matter what the result of a by-election, it is unlikely that the government will fall, though its authority may be diminished.

Turnout is lower at by-elections.

it is common for seats lost by a party at a by-election to be regained at the next general election, even if the party loses the election.

By-elections are often seen as tests of the popularity of the government of the day as portents of the future.

By-elections often become the centre of media attention in a way the same seat would not do at a general election.