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SOCIAL SCIENCE PROJECT
DISASTER -Any occurrence that causes damage, ecological
disruption, loss of human life, deterioration of health and health
services on a scale, sufficient to warrant an extraordinary
response from outside the affected community or area.DISASTER
MANAGEMENT- It is the creation of plans through which communities
reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters. Disaster
management does not avert or eliminate the threats; instead, it
focuses on creating plans to decrease the effect of disasters.
Failure to create a plan could lead to human mortality, lost
revenue, and damage to assets.
INTRODUCTION
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NATURAL DISASTERS
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MAN MADE DISASTERS5
SYMPTOMS AFTER DISASTER6
Activities prior to a disaster. Preparedness plans Emergency
exercises Training, Warning systemsActivities that reduce effects
of disasters Building codes & zoning Vulnerability analyses
Public educationActivities following a disaster. Temporary housing
Claims processing Grants Medical care Activities during a disaster.
Public warning systems Emergency operations Search & rescue
PHASES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT8
DISASTERS PREPAREDNESSDISASTER PREPAREDNESS- It is ongoing
multisectoral activity.Integral part of the national system
responsible for developing plans and programmes for 1. disaster
management,2. prevention, 3. mitigation, 4. response, 5.
rehabilitation and 6. reconstruction.
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DISASTER PREPAREDNESS10
Co-ordination of a variety of sectors to carry out- Evaluation
of the risk. Adopt standards and regulations. Organize
communication and response mechanism. Ensure all resources- ready
and easily mobilized. Develop public education programmes.
Coordinate information with news media. Disaster simulation
exercises.
SOME IMPORTANT DISASTERS
EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes refer to shaking of earth. There is continuous
activity going on below the surface of the earth. There are several
large plates (size of continents) below the surface of the earth,
which move (at a very slow speed). As a part of this movement,
sometimes, they collide against each other. And, after the
collision, they might still continue to push each other. As they
continually keep pushing each other, there is a pressure building
up across these plates below the surface. And, then, at a certain
time, one of the plates might slide over another. This causes an
earthquake.Some earthquakes might be caused by activity above the
surface. For example in a mountainous region, there might be a
heavy landslide. Due to a huge mass of land falling, at the point
of the fall, there could be a minor shaking of earth, due the
impact of fall. However, usually, such earthquakes are not very
major.
EARTHQUAKE
IMMEDIATE SAFETYHence, in case of an earthquake, the safest
place to be would be in an open ground away from all kinds of
buildings and tall structures.If you can not rush out of your
building, you can duck under some sturdy desk etc. which might
provide protection against heavy objects falling on your body.If
even that is not possible, sit against a wall, with your back
pushing the wall firmly, and, lean forward to take your head in
between both your knees, and, put your hands at the back of your
head to provide protection to your head and spine.Or, you could
stand directly below one of the door-frame in your house. This one
appears a bit strange to many people. In fact, there are jokes that
after an earthquake you dont see all those door-frames standing.
So, what is the reasoning behind advising people to stand below
door-frames? In most styles of construction, doorframes are made
very strong, or, would have a RCC beam running right above these
frames. Either way, this strong structure would take the impact of
objects falling from above, and, would break the impact of the
heavy objects falling on the person. If you use this posture,
remember to save your arms and fingers from swaying doors etc. If
not careful, they could cause damage by chopping off fingers etc.
due to the banging of the doors against the frame.
CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSE Some simple thumb rules to follow for
constructing a house in an area prone to earthquake:
The entire construction should be a single monolithic structure,
so that the whole structure can move as a whole To the extent
possible, material used should be something that has been available
locally. This would allow very little differential in the movement
of your building vis--vis the material over which the house sits
thus reducing the chances of sinking .Minimum use of glass in
building facades. These decorative pieces could be deadly, during
an earthquake. Glass being very brittle, even a minor twist in the
structure could cause breakage. And, glass being very heavy and
injurious could cause severe damage.Doors and windows should have
fasteners, so that they can be fastened. If the doors and windows
are not fastened, they might cause any of the following situations:
Swaying/banging of doors and windows against the frame could damage
your limbs/fingers/toes etc.The doors might get stuck due to
damaged/misaligned frame making it difficult for you to run out,
or, for the rescue teams to reach you.Consult a good structural
engineer to ensure that the structure is strong enough to withstand
seismic activities
EARTHQUAKE PROOFING
When staying in the house, simple precautions should be
used:
Large/heavy items should be fastened, so that they dont
fall-off, during earthquakes. Hanging items (like: fan,
chandeliers, decorations etc.) should be fastened, rather than just
left hanging through a hook
You should be adequately prepared to live without utilities for
several days. As earthquake causes severe damages over large areas,
most of the utilities that we might take for granted, might not be
available for several days. These are anywaysgeneric
precautionsagainst disasters of any kind.
SOME RECENT EARTHQUAKESSome of the earthquakes in recent times
have been (not in any particular order):El Salvador; In 2001;
Magnitude: 7.7S. Peru; In 2001; Magnitude 7.9Algeria; In 2003;
Magnitude 6.8Indonesia: In 2004; Magnitude 9.0India; In 2001;
Magnitude 8.1China - Sichuan Province; In May 2008; Magnitude-8.1;
More than 68,000 dead, and, 3,50,000 injured.
VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Volcanoes refer to eruption of hot molten lava from below the
surface of the earth. As plates move away from each other, at
certain places, the surface might get stretched and thinner. In
such a situation, the hot molten lava and gaseous substances below
this thinned surface could open up a fissure and come out.
Typically, these eruptions are always accompanied by discharge of
huge amount of gaseous substances, which are various compounds of
high toxicity. All eruptions (gaseous or liquid) from a volcano is
at high temperature, and, the mouth of a volcano might look like,
as if its spewing fire.The area around Pacific Ocean is
characterized by higher volcanic activity. In fact, the entire rim
along the Pacific Ocean is called as the Ring Of Fire, because of
volcanic activity along this zone.There are a lot of volcanic
activities taking place on a continuous basis, across the globe,
however, not all of these are serious enough to be termed as
disasters. In fact, for most of these just a moderate level of
precaution might be sufficient.
VOLCANIC ERUPTION
COMPLICATIONS RELATED TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONVolcanoes themselves
might not appear to be a big disaster, but, they cause several
complications.Because of activities below the surface of the earth,
including discharge of a huge amount of material, its possible that
volcanic eruptions could be accompanied byearthquakes.Volcanic
activity in sea could cause triggering ofTsunamis.Because of
discharge of very high quantity of toxic material onto the
landscape, sources of water like lakes/rivers etc. could get
poisoned, thereby severely disrupting the water-supply. Also, the
change in water composition could impact the aquatic organisms
also. Thus, overall ecosystem of the water-body is misbalanced,
thus, impacting the water quality. This could even impact the areas
fed downstream by these same water bodies.Because of discharge of
high amount of toxic gases in the atmosphere the air could become
highly difficult to breathe. Release of several gases including
oxides, sulphides, aerosols etc. changes the atmospheric mix of the
area. These in turn can give rise to:acid rainDischarge of aerosols
into the atmosphere alters the filtering impact of the atmosphere
for Suns radiation as well as for heat from the earth getting
radiated back into the space. This can change the temperature of
the area.Molten lava coming out of a volcano could reach
temperatures up to 1200 degrees Celsius, thus, incernating anything
that comes in its way.
Structural damages: Lava flowing down at such a high temperature
could causestructural damages.Landslide: As lava flows down, it
gets solidified, and, modifies the landscape. However, sometimes a
fresh layer of lava at high temperature could destabilize the
earlier solidified layer, and, that layer could simply slide off
causing a landslide.Lack of drinking water and breathable air
causes people to migrate from their existing place of living to
other places, thereby causing situations of migration, refugees.
Besides, being emotionally distressful, there are severe kinds of
physical stress and strain also associated with migration
activities. And then, the resources at the destination side are
also stretched beyond their normal capacity.
PlaceyearNumber of deathsTambora, Indonesia181592000Krakatau,
Indonesia184336417Mount Pelee, Matinique190229025Ruiz
Colombia198525000Unzen Japan179214300Laki, Iceland17839350Kelut,
Indonesia19195110Galunggung, Indonesia18824011Vesuvius,
Italy16313500Vesuvius, Italy793360Papandayan,
Indonesia17722957Lamington, Papua New Guinea19512942El Chichon,
Mexico19822000Soufriere, St. Vincent19021680Oshima,
Japan17411475Asama, Japan17831377
PLANNING AND PRECAUTIONSEven if volcanic activities do not
result in too many fatalities, they still do create immense
challenges in terms of humanitarian aid, due to destruction of
houses, contamination of food and water. Also, one has to deal with
large-scale migration, relief camps etc. which also give rise to
sanitation concerns which in turn results in various complications
due to diseases related to lack of proper sanitation
facilities.During a volcanic activity, the best place to be would
be indoors. Because the atmosphere is full of toxic chemicals, put
filter-masks over your mouth and nose, and, use goggles to protect
your eyes. Being outdoors could be one of the riskiest thing to do,
as, you could be coming in contact with volcanic ashes which could
cause irritation to your eyes, skin etc. at the bare minimum, and,
could also cause breathlessness, or, long term damage to you lungs,
eyes etc.Avoid weak structures, including the fresh layers which
might have been formed by solidifying of lava during earlier
discharges. This is usually a mistake that tourists might make.
Tourists might have a tendency to get closer to the source of
gaseous/lava discharge thus, maybe, standing on such structures
which are unstable and are probable to slide.Avoid being in the
path of flow of the molten lava.
Avoid fumes/vapours of petrol etc. Presence of high temperature
material in the atmosphere could cause a fire, if these fumes come
in contact with high temperature material, e.g. During the
Nyiragongo volcanic activity (Jan. 2002), people were trying to
siphon off petrol from a gas-station. A leakage came in contact
with the hot lava, and, caused a blast at the gas-station, causing
more than 50 people to die.The inlets to your houses should be
covered with filters, or, these inlets should be closed to prevent
toxic ashes etc. to enter your house etc. Avoid use of electronic
goods, as, ashes might have entered the vent of these goods
(usually provided for heat-dissipation), and, could cause
short-circuit inside the devices.Because, one of the main issues
post-volcano is lack of water and food, it would help to
familiarize withgeneral preparedness which also provides certain
tips on being able to survive for several days provided,
preparations have been made in advance.Post-volcano also, efforts
must be made to minimize contact with the debris/ashes which have
been spewed by the volcano. Clothes must be shaken and rinsed.
Ashes must be vacuumed, and, the vacuum lint filter should be
changed. Car filters should be changed, and so on.If you are
staying in an area, which is prone to volcanic activities, the
houses should be constructed in a manner which will allow closing
all vents, i.e. windows and doors should have proper caulking.
FLOODS
Floods refer to huge amount of water reaching land in a short
span of time, causing land surface to be submerged under water at
places, where, land surface is usually not covered with water.
Floods could be caused due to natural causes, or, human activities,
or, a combination of both. Floods are caused by discharge of huge
volume of water in a short span of time, at a rate, such that the
water can not be carried away from the scene of discharge.Some of
the possible reasons for such huge discharge of water could be:very
heavy rainfall (say: due to cyclones, typhoons etc.) in a short
span of time. It should be noted that the amount of rainfall itself
is not a sufficient cause, the duration within which the rainfall
is receive is equally important contributorbreach in levy, dams
etcvery high tidal waves (sometimes in the aftermath of a seismic
activity, e.g. earthquakes) etc. also called tsunamis.Usually,
flooding impacts a large area, wherein entire district or states
might be flooded. However, sometimes, flooding is very local, i.e.
limited to just one city, or, parts of it. Most often, the
localized flooding is caused due to human activities, rather than
natural phenomenon. A natural phenomenon might seem like the
immediate trigger, but, in reality, this is caused by human
activity.
FLOODS
PREVENTION OF FLOODS Sometimes, it might not be possible to
prevent a flood, even if we know that its about to get flooded.
However, there are certain actions that can be taken to reduce the
impact significantly, or, to reduce the possibility of flooding:The
first step is to keep the drainage system clean. This allows water
to be carried down very fast. Choked drains cause a significant
reduction in the ability and speed of the water to be drained away.
In most situations of urban flooding this is a major cause. The
drains might get choked due to throwing of solid-wastes inside
storm drains. These solid-wastes might include construction
material, plastics, paper etc. This is a clear example, how human
activity can amplify the process of flooding. Drains might also get
choked due to falling tree-leaves etc.General clean-up of streets
is also important. As rain-water falls down the street, it rushes
into the storm drains. if the streets are not clean, the rain water
trying to go into the drain carries solid wastes into the drain
with itself, which then obstructs the flow of water by the drainage
system.Rain water harvesting system: As more rain-water tries to
flow down the drains, it puts that much more stress on the drainage
system. Instead, if there are several rain-water harvesting
systems, the rainfall falling in that much area would try to go to
the sub-soil of the region locally, rather than straining the
drainage system. Lower is the amount of water trying to go through
the drainage system, the easier it is for the drainage system to
drain off the water.
DESILTING- The drains should be desilted before the onset of the
rainy season. This prevents the drains from getting choked. And, it
also inceases the holding capacity of the drain, as, accumulated
silt prevents that much more water from being accumulated in the
drains.Inspection and repair of dams, levees, embankments etc:
Before the onset of seasons causing accumulation and/or carrying of
heavy volume of water (such as rainy season), these structures
should be thoroughly inspected for possible weak-spots, and, these
should be repaired.AFFORESTATION: Forestation helps in binding the
loose soil. The most major impact of this is, as flood-water races
through, it might take loose soil with it. This loose soil will now
choke the drains, as well as water-harvesting systems, thus,
rendering both of these as ineffective. On the other hand, trees
will prevent soil to flow with the water, as, the roots of the
trees will act as binding force. Another major impact that
afforestation provides is by reducing the impact of flowing water.
This has impact on large-scale flooding, such as overflowing river.
As water charges forward, its speed is reduced to some extent due
to resistance offered by trees. This can reduce the force of the
charging water thereby, reducing structural damage due to weakening
in the force with which water hits various structures.Local
lowlands (say: foot of an overbridge) should have storm drains, so
that water does not get accumulated there. These drains should have
some kind of mesh covering, so that only water can flow in. Leaves
and other solid debris should not go in these drains.Local
embankments around low-lying houses etc: Lets say, for some reason,
your house is at a level lower than its vicinity (e.g. road-level).
This can happen, because, say: you have constructed a basement
which is obviously lower than the road-level, or, over a period of
years, the road-level has risen due to repeated tarring etc. In
such cases, you should create a local embankment between the
street/road and your property, so that water can not flow down from
the street/road inside your house. These embankment might be
permanent in the form of concrete structure.
PREPARED FOR FLOODSPeople who stay in flood-prone areas should
construct their houses using material which does not get damaged
severely due to flood-water. Also, since, there is a strong risk of
structural damage (for large-scale flooding), the material used to
construct the house should be such that it can withstand high
impact due to the charge of flowing water. One should prefer areas,
which are slightly elevated. These could be local elevations, i.e.
higher parts of the city etc. There should be strong embankments
along all entrances of the houses so that flood water does not
enter the house easily.Cement bags, covered with plastic sheets
might be used to keep the flood water from entering the
houses.Besides, long boots should always be kept, so that one does
not run the risk of being bitten by snakes and/or other insects
that might also be trying to save themselves from the twirling
flood-waters.One should keep arrangements for raising the height of
items, which might get damaged in water, e.g. put a few pieces of
bricks below the legs of the furniture, such as bed etc. to raise
its height.Important document should always be kept on higher
shelves.As water, food and utilities would not be available and
that too for possibly several days, one should also take measures
towardsGeneral Preparedness.
MACRO LEVEL EFFORTS-While some of the steps mentioned above need
to be taken at municipal/city level, and, some at individual level,
there are some other techniques which have been tried/used at some
places. However, these require efforts at a much larger level. Some
of these steps include:Identified flood diversion areas: Flood
waters are diverted to these unpopulated areas, so that populated
urban areas may be protected.Construction of dams etc. at strategic
locationsLevees, embankments around cities lying along river/sea
coasts. The flooding of New Orleans in the aftermath of Katrina
hurricane was due to a breach in such a levee.Sea wallsBeach
nourishment: The sea-beaches are widened, so that they can absorb
the impact of flood-waters due to rise in sea-levels.Conversion of
flood-prone areas into wetlands, where, urbanization is not
allowed, i.e. one can not construct residential houses, or, any
other permanent structures etc.As can be seen, such efforts require
a very high degree of financial commitment, not just for
constructing the system, but, also for maintaining it.
NUCLEAR LEAKS
NUCLEAR LEAKSThese days, nuclear technology is used in several
applications. Some of these include: medicinal, power and of-course
military. Out of these, nuclear energy based power is getting
popular. In any case, because of growth in applications, based on
nuclear technology, there are several nuclear installations being
found at industrial scale.In general, nuclear installations are
highly sophisticated, and, have lots of control measures in place
to prevent any major hazard. Still, its a fact, that inspite of all
these sophistications etc. accidents could still occur. The problem
with nuclear accidents is though, less frequent (due to high degree
of sophistication and control measures), but, once an accident
occurs, the impact is severe.The problem with accidents/leaks with
nuclear installation is that radioactive material might get
discharged into the environment. This radioactive material could
then enter human bodies. The primary ways for these radioactive
materials to enter human-bodies is:through breathing of
contaminated air.through eating of contaminated food (including
livestock animals which might have inhaled/eaten contaminated
air/food) including milk from a cow which has grazed on
contaminated grass!!through drinking of contaminated waterthrough
pores of skin etc which might be in contact with contaminated air
or water. This is very small small enough to be considered as
negligible.
PREPAREDNESSThe first thing in the step for preparedness is to
understand the authority structure under the rule of the land, i.e.
to understand, who will issue notification in the case of a
failure, or, a chance of failure. This is to ensure that all the
information received is only from authorized and reliable sources.
The worst thing that you might want is to deal with multiple
sources of information, your inability to sort out rumour from the
real situation. In the same context, it should be worthwhile to
also understand the means and mechanism that this competent
authority will use to provide reliable information. There was a
time, when, news agencies used to be a good, authentic source of
information; however, today with so many agencies, and, a lot of
them being involved in a race to be the first ones, sometimes, it
might not be possible for each of them to provide authentic and
reliable information.Usually, each nuclear installation would have
a person/team authorized to communicate on matters related to
disasters at their locations and sites. For some nuclear sites,
they might want to make use of sirens and/or Public Address System
etc.Next thing would be to understand the risk perception of your
home/office, based on its distance from the nuclear installation.
Typically, areas around a nuclear installation are divided into
zones. A common classification is 3 zones: Central, Intermediate
and Outer. Some of these zones could be further sub-divided into
sub-zones. Depending on the nature of the incident, different zones
might be at different risk levels, and, they might need different
kind of mitigation efforts hence, you should know the zone in which
you fall.
Now, you should understand the terminology used for
communication of risks at the nuclear facility. E.g. one of the
common terminology might include:Early Warning: to mean no or very
little impact so far, but, the nuclear facility is in a situation,
that the problem could soon increaseDisaster Alert: to mean a
hazardous release of radioactive material has already happened, or,
is very likely to happenThe above are just example usage of
terminology. The actual terminology that has to be used is governed
by the law of the country, and hence, you should understand the
terminology for your nuclear location.However, this web-site
provides some general information which might be useful to the
readers:
First of all, stay indoors (unless, specifically asked to
evacuate). By staying indoors, you are trying to reduce the level
of your exposure to radio-active material. Similarly, bring your
pets and livestock indoors/their stalls.Prepare for possible
evacuationArrange for iodine tabletsDo Not consume freshly
harvested food products because, it might have been contaminatedDo
not use water which was outside, as it might have been
contaminated
Some other precautions and guidelines that you should
follow:Unless you are competent and authorized to be working on the
disaster relief/mitigation, do not drive/venture into the zone
having risks. First of all, by entering into this area, you could
be endangering yourself, and, secondly, you could be hampering
other efforts which could include: movement of rescue vehicles,
disaster response teams, and, maybe possible evacuation. Remember,
a nuclear accident is not a show-item, that you have to watch. Stay
away.While staying indoors, try to stay in closed rooms away from
doors and windows, in basements etc. All mechanisms of
air-circulation should be turned off. Once again, the idea is to
avoid contamination from radioactive material, which is there in
the atmosphere and air. For this purpose, when you build your
house, it should be so constructed, such that all openings should
be totally coverable to prevent the entry of contaminated air into
your house. The material chosen for building should also be such
that it can effectively screen contaminated material, e.g. timber
is very poor in its ability to screen radiation. So, timber houses
would be very risky in terms of contamination.Care should be taken
that you should be able to continue to receive further information
that might be provided by the disaster management team.One of the
most active action that one can take is: take Iodine tables. Iodine
tables actually saturate the thyroid glands, and thus, they prevent
radio-active iodine (released due to the accident) from getting
accumulated into the thyroid gland. Considering that, you might not
want to get outdoors during a disaster, to collect iodine tablets
it might be prudent to have a supply of such tablets, if you are
staying in an area, which has a risk of seeing nuclear accident. It
should be understood that ability to have uncontaminated proper
food is more effective than having iodine. So, if uncontaminated
food can be consumed, that should be given the first
preference.
Iodine tablets also have severe side-effects. Hence, an overdose
of iodine tables is not advisable. In general, older people should
avoid iodine tables. The side-effects on them could be more harmful
than the advantages that it might provide. Similarly, children and
pregnant women should take a lower dosage.The exact dosage of
iodine tablets would be dependent on several factors, several of
them being very local. Hence, local experts should be consulted on
the exact dosage to be taken.WHO recommendationscould act as an
indicative information on dosage.If evacuation is to be involved,
it should be done before the formation of the radioactive clouds.
However, there is only so much that one can do in his/her
individual capacity in the sense that we would need to depend on
the disaster management authority to advise as to when should we
start evacuating. However, when evacuating, try to do so in an
orderly manner, without clogging the roads etc. Once again, try to
stay tuned to sources of traffic information, so that you can use
the least congested routes to evacuate.Theoretically,
post-evacuation, the law enforcement agencies are responsible for
ensuring no-burglary/break-ins in your house. However, there is a
limit to how much can they control/patrol. Hence, it would be good
to secure your house properly. Also, since, its not known how long
you might have to stay away, try to arrange for sufficient fodder
for your livestock.
Theoretically, post-evacuation, the law enforcement agencies are
responsible for ensuring no-burglary/break-ins in your house.
However, there is a limit to how much can they control/patrol.
Hence, it would be good to secure your house properly. Also, since,
its not known how long you might have to stay away, try to arrange
for sufficient fodder for your livestock.If you are not
contaminated, you should NOT crowd the emergency centres and/or
hospitals. As it is, dealing with nuclear radiation needs
specialized knowledge, and, you dont want to overburden the system,
which would be already too stretched in case of a nuclear
incident.As soon as you are out of the effected area, or, are
entering a non-contaminated area, you should:Discard your
contaminated clothing (so that the virgin area does not get further
contaminated)Wash those areas of your body, which were exposed,
e.g. hands, face etc. If needed, take a bath. Needless to say, this
step needs to be done using uncontaminated water. Imagine, you are
just entering your house from outside. Since the water stored in
overhead tanks could also be contaminated, there is only a limited
supply of decontaminated water. Hence, you should use your
judgement, as to whether to take a whole-body wash, or, just
washing the uncovered areas of your body.
GLOBAL WARMING
Global warmingandclimate changeare terms for the observed
century-scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth'sclimate
systemand its related effects.Multiple lines of scientific evidence
show that the climate system is warming.Although the increase of
near-surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global
warming often reported in the popular press, most of the additional
energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into the
oceans. The rest has melted ice and warmed the continents
andatmosphere.Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are
unprecedented over tens to thousands of years.GLOBAL WARMING
RESPONSES TO GLOBAL WARMINGMitigation Mitigation of climate
change are actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, or enhance
the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere.
There is a large potential for future reductions in emissions by a
combination of activities, including:energy conservationand
increasedenergy efficiency; the use oflow-carbon
energytechnologies, such as renewable energy,nuclear energy,
andcarbon capture and storage;and enhancing carbon sinks through,
for example,reforestationand preventingdeforestation.A 2015 report
byCitibankconcluded that transitioning to alow carbon economywould
yield positive return on investments.Adaptation Other policy
responses includeadaptationto climate change. Adaptation to climate
change may be planned, either in reaction to or anticipation of
climate change, or spontaneous, i.e., without government
intervention.Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited
basis.The barriers, limits, and costs of future adaptation are not
fully understood.
Climate engineering Climate engineering(sometimes
calledgeo-engineeringorclimate intervention) is the deliberate
modification of the climate. It has been investigated as a possible
response to global warming, e.g. by NASAand theRoyal
Society.Techniques under research fall generally into the
categoriessolar radiation managementandcarbon dioxide removal,
although various other schemes have been suggested. A study from
2014 investigated the most common climate engineering methods and
concluded they are either ineffective or have potentially severe
side effects and cannot be stopped without causing rapid climate
change.
OZONE DEPLETION
Ozone depletiondescribes two distinct but related phenomena
observed since the late 1970s: a steady decline of about four
percent in the total amount ofozoneinEarth'sstratosphere(theozone
layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric
ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is
referred to as theozone hole. In addition to these well-known
stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime
polartropospheric ozone depletion events.The details of polar ozone
hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the
most important process in both is catalyticdestruction of ozone by
atomichalogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the
stratosphere is photo-dissociationof
man-madehalocarbonrefrigerants,solvents,propellants, and
foam-blowing agents(chlorofluorocarbon(CFCs), HCFCs,freons,halons).
These compounds are transported into the stratosphere by winds
after being emitted at the surface.Both types of ozone depletion
were observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons
increased.CFCs and other contributory substances are referred to
asozone-depleting substances(ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents
most harmfulUV-Bwavelengths (280315nm) ofultravioletlight (UV
light) from passing through theEarth's atmosphere, observed and
projected decreases in ozone generated worldwide concern, leading
to adoption of theMontreal Protocolthat bans the production of
CFCs, halons, and other ozone-depleting chemicals such ascarbon
tetrachlorideand trichloroethane. It is suspected that a variety of
biological consequences such as increases insunburn,skin
cancer,cataracts, damage to plants, and reduction
ofplanktonpopulations in the ocean'sphotic zonemay result from the
increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.
OZONE DEPLETION
CONSEQUENCES OF OZONE DEPLETION
Increased UVBiological effectsBasal and squamous cell
carcinomasMalignant melanomaCortical cataractsIncreased
tropospheric ozoneIncreased production of vitamin DEffects on
non-human animalsEffects on crops
PLANNING FOR REDUCTION OF HARMS OF OZONE DEPLETION194 nations,
including Canada, have signed an international agreement to end the
production ofchlorofluorocarbons(CFCs),halonsand
otherozone-depleting substances(ODS). The agreement is called
theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer(1987). The protocol has been amended several times, to speed
up ODS phaseout dates and to include more types of ODS.The federal
and provincial/territorial governments share responsibility for
protecting the ozone layer. Under the Montreal Protocol, the
federal government is responsible for controlling the import,
manufacture, use, sale and export of ODS.The regulation was amended
in November 1999, mainly to include other halocarbons as Class III
substances e.g.,hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs) andperfluorocarbons(PFCs).
The Class III substances do not contain chlorine or bromine atoms,
so they don't deplete the ozone layer. However, they are considered
potent greenhouse gases and have a significantglobal warming
potential(GWP).
TORNADOES
Atornadois a violently rotating column ofairthat rotates while
in contact with both the surface of theEarthand a cumulonimbus
cloudor, in rare cases, the base of acumulus cloud. They are often
referred to astwistersorcyclones, although the wordcycloneis used
in meteorology to name any closedlow pressurecirculation. Tornadoes
come in many shapes and sizes, but they are typically in the form
of a visiblecondensation funnel, whose narrow end touches the earth
and is often encircled by a cloud ofdebrisanddust. Most tornadoes
have wind speeds less than 110 miles per hour (180km/h), are about
250 feet (80m) across, and travel a few miles (several kilometres)
before dissipating. Themost extremetornadoes can attain wind speeds
of more than 300 miles per hour (480km/h), are more than two miles
(3km) in diameter, and stay on the ground for dozens of miles (more
than 100km). Most tornadoes take on the appearance of a
narrowfunnel, a few hundred yards (meters) across, with a small
cloud of debris near the ground. Tornadoes may be obscured
completely by rain or dust. These tornadoes are especially
dangerous, as even experienced meteorologists might not see
them.Tornadoes can appear in many shapes and sizes. Tornadoes
normally rotatecyclonically(when viewed from above, this is
counter-clockwise in thenorthern hemisphereand clockwise in the
southern). While large-scale storms always rotate cyclonically due
to theCoriolis effect, thunderstorms and tornadoes are so small
that the direct influence of the Coriolis effect is unimportant, as
indicated by their largeRossby numbers. Super cells and tornadoes
rotate cyclonically in numerical simulations even when the Coriolis
effect is neglected.Low-levelmesocyclonesand tornadoes owe their
rotation to complex processes within the super cell and ambient
environment.
TORNADOES
SAFETYThough tornadoes can strike in an instant, there are
precautions and preventative measures that people can take to
increase the chances of surviving a tornado. Authorities such as
theStorm Prediction Centeradvise having a pre-determined plan
should a tornado warning be issued. When a warning is issued, going
to a basement or an interior first-floor room of a sturdy building
greatly increases chances of survival.In tornado-prone areas, many
buildings havestorm cellarson the property. These underground
refuges have saved thousands of lives.Some countries have
meteorological agencies which distribute tornado forecasts and
increase levels of alert of a possible tornado (such astornado
watchesandwarningsin the United States and Canada).Weather
radiosprovide an alarm when a severe weather advisory is issued for
the local area, though these are mainly available only in the
United States. Unless the tornado is far away and highly visible,
meteorologists advise that drivers park their vehicles far to the
side of the road (so as not to block emergency traffic), and find a
sturdy shelter. If no sturdy shelter is nearby, getting low in a
ditch is the next best option. Highway overpasses are one of the
worst places to take shelter during tornadoes, as the constricted
space can be subject to increased wind speed and funneling of
debris underneath the overpass.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_managementhttp://www.disastermgmt.org/http://www.wcpt.org/disaster-management/what-is-disaster-managementhttp://www.ifrc.org/en/what-we-do/disaster-management/about-disaster-management/http://nidm.gov.in/default.asphttp://www.ndmindia.nic.in/
BIBILOGRAPHY
THANK YOU !!!!! PRESENTED BY : ARUN KUMAR NAYAK ROLL NO : 35
CLASS : X-A
