6

Life Safety

6

Learning Objectives (1 of 6)

• Explain the relationship between life

safety and extinguishment.

• Discuss the positive and negative

aspects of ventilation in regard to life

safety.

6

Learning Objectives (2 of 6)

• Evaluate ventilation options as they

relate to fire location and select the best

option given a scenario with several

vent options.

• List and evaluate rescue options.

• List rescue priorities in terms of

occupant proximity to fire.

6

Learning Objectives (3 of 6)

• Define a mass-casualty incident.

• Explain the medical (EMS) function at a

large structure fire with multiple

casualties.

• Describe conditions that affect life

safety staffing requirements.

6

Learning Objectives (4 of 6)

• Evaluate tactics at a fire scenario where

a large number of occupants need to be

rescued.

• Compare and contrast the positive and

negative effects of entering an enclosed

fire area.

6

Learning Objectives (5 of 6)

• Use a scenario to select and describe

proper ventilation techniques.

• Use a scenario to describe and apply

rescue options.

6

Learning Objectives (6 of 6)

• Use a scenario to evaluate priorities as

they relate to occupant proximity to the

fire.

• Use a scenario to estimate staffing

requirements at a structure fire

occupied by a large number of people.

6

Overview (1 of 2)

• Life safety: ultimate challenge to the IC

• Assigning initial resources is difficult.

– Control the fire

– Remove the victims

– Both

– Quick decision

6

Overview (2 of 2)

• Life safety priority: best tactic is to

suppress the fire

– Ventilation also used

• Fire extinguishment: second priority

– Essential part of most rescue operations

• Fire fighter safety is critical.

6

Probability of Extinguishment

• Major factor in life safety decisions

– Required rate of flow

• Controlling or extinguishing the fire

often best tactic

6

Prioritizing Victims

• Common tactical error

– Prioritizing victims according to visibility

– Occupants inside building may be in grave

danger.

– May be best to rescue visible victims via

the interior stairs

• After the fire is under control or extinguished

6

Defend-In-Place Strategy

• Useful if the fire can be quickly

controlled

• Calculated risk based on:

– Fire conditions

– Available resources

– Extent of danger to victims

6

Large-Volume Flows

• Large interior flow requirements

– Greater staffing needs, more time to assemble

resources

• Fire doors and fire walls

– Extend available evacuation time

– Provide a barrier between the victims and the fire

• Sufficient personnel and resources must be

available.

6

Hose Line Placement

• Hose line must get into position to

extinguish the fire.

– Can also protect egress routes

– First-in engine

• Focus on advancing attack line

• Control the fire, save lives

• Only hope for occupants in the immediate fire

area

6

First-In Crew

• Advancing crew will assist victims they

come upon.

– Can’t be expected to perform a complete

primary search

• Responsibility is extinguishment

6

Search and Rescue

• Floors above the fire are critical areas.

• Number of crews depends on:

– Number of floors to be searched

– Size of the building

– Fire intensity

– Smoke conditions

– Occupant status

6

High-Rise Buildings

• Floor areas are generally large.

• May need to search several floors

• One company into all areas on the fire

floor and above

– Determine fire and smoke conditions and

evacuation needs.

6

Ventilation

• Relieves the products of combustion

– Allows fire fighters to advance on the fire

– Must be coordinated with attack lines

• Very effective life safety procedure

– Pulls the fire, heat, smoke, and toxic gases

away from victims, stairs, and other egress

routes

6

Venting to Support

Suppression

• Important to coordinate with hose line

placement

• Makes the job of finding fire and victims

easier

6

Improper Ventilation

• May produce a backdraft

– Fire fighters or occupants could be

seriously injured or killed.

• Vent opening in path of egress could

prove fatal.

6

Venting to Save Lives

• May be necessary to vent before having

a hose line ready

• Use building features

– Retard fire growth

– Prevent extension

• Position charged hose lines before

opening doors and windows

6

Venting While Searching

• Often necessary

– Better to open windows rather than

breaking

• Reversible venting is preferred.

– Negative consequences can be reversed

by closing the window or door.

6

Positive Pressure Ventilation

(PPV)

• Key is controlling outlet openings

– Ineffective if there are too many

• Negative side

– Fire can be directed toward victims, toward

their escape routes, or into unburned areas

6

Rescue Options

• Interior stairways

– Safest and easiest way to move occupants

• Above or below grade level

– Preferred means from upper floors

– Alternative methods

6

Defend-In-Place

• Occupants are moved away from the

fire area.

– Remain in the structure

– High-rise buildings and healthcare facilities

• Large buildings are built to allow this

strategy.

6

Fire Escapes

• Poor substitutes for interior stairs

• Structural integrity questionable

• If structurally sound, preferred over

other alternative methods

6

Aerial Devices

• Individual benefits:

– Aerial ladders

– Elevated platforms

– Articulating platforms

6

Ground Ladders (1 of 2)

• Less stable and reach

• Require more personnel

• Preferred over aerial devices

– When buildings are set back from the

street

– When fire fighters need to quickly access

second or third floor

6

Ground Ladders (2 of 2)

• People at windows may not need

rescue.

– Reassure them.

– Determine whether they must be moved

and if stairways are available.

• Use stairways and corridors if they are

relatively clear of smoke.

6

Elevator Rescue

• Can be used under fire department’s control

• Elevators should be located:

– In buildings that are subdivided with good, fire-resistive construction

– Remote and separate from the fire area

• Use in the immediate fire area is hazardous.

6

Rope Rescue

• Last resort

– Justifiable only in extreme cases

• Interior rescue should be attempted

first.

• Extremely slow and dangerous

– Require specialized equipment and

expertise

6

Helicopter Rescue

• IC should ask if occupants are safe

where they’re at.

• Most roofs provide a difficult operating

platform.

– Obstructions

– Hot air currents caused by an intense fire

6

Occupant Status

• Occupants who escape on their own

• Victims who may not be aware of the

fire or of egress routes

• Immobile or unconscious victims

6

Occupant Information

• Occupants not reliable

• Staff may not account for visitors in the

building.

• The only reliable way to verify is to

systematically check every room.

6

Rescue Size-Up

• The IC should see all sides of the fire

building.

• Fire crews should view the exterior.

• Reports from occupants may be

unreliable, but they should not be

ignored.

– May be able to direct rescuers

6

Flashover

• The critical landmark:

– Before flashover, rescue is possible.

– After flashover, rescue is highly improbable

within the flashover compartment.

• Recognizing the signs of flashover is

important.

6

Fire Conditions

• Related to many factors:

– Elapsed time before fire was detected

– Time it takes to notify the fire department

– Response time

6

Threat to Occupants

• Directly related to:

– Their awareness of the fire

– Their ability to escape

– Construction of the building

– Provisions made for egress

• IC has little control over these factors.

6

Critical Time

• Time until structure becomes untenable

– Varies depending on numerous building

factors and fuel load

• Fires spread rapidly upward in any

construction that allows unimpeded

vertical fire spread.

– Lessens the critical time

6

Fire Control

• Fire control tactics = critical strategy

– Implemented whenever possible

• Fire fighters and victims have a better

chance to evacuate if the fire is

extinguished or knocked down.

6

Forcible Entry

• Search-and-rescue crews should have

forcible entry tools.

– Heavy metal doors will extend the time and

effort required for the primary search.

– It is important to consider the value of the

opening being forced.

• Fire doors

6

Fire Doors

• Designed to:

– Resist and contain the fire

– Keep fire from extending

• Fire doors should be closed after search

is complete.

• Charged hose lines should be in place

before forcing doors to fire areas.

6

Personnel Requirements

• Sized-up by considering the:

– Physical condition of the occupants

– Number of occupants on the fire floor

– Travel distance to safety

– Estimated fire growth

6

Floor Layout and Size

• Organized search effort considers:

– Size of the area to be searched and

evacuated

– Location of stairways, halls, and fire

escapes

6

Large Building Search

• Assign floors to each search team

• May be further subdivided by wing or

building side

6

Multi-Story Buildings

• Survey uninvolved floor

– Layout may be different from floor to floor

– Some building features remain constant:

stairs, elevators, and standpipes

6

Floor Numbering

• Buildings constructed on a grade may

have unusual floor numbers.

– First floor on one side can actually be a

higher or lower floor.

• Should be listed in pre-plans

6

Small Buildings

• Exterior size-up reveals interior layout

– Large windows = common areas

– Small windows = bedrooms

• Buildings of similar construction typically

will have similar floor layouts.

– Stairway location

– Can be difficult to search

6

Larger Buildings

• Reduced visibility

• Using small building tactics and

procedures could be fatal.

6

Search

• Small room search in a right- or left-

hand pattern

• Larger area requires rope or other guide

line and different search techniques

• Thermal imaging camera

6

Search and Rescue Priority (1 of 4)

• Established after:

– Determining the total number of occupants

– Developing a strategy for full or partial

evacuation

• Determined by deciding who is in the

greatest danger

6

Search and Rescue Priority (2 of 4)

• On the fire floor nearest to the immediate fire area

• In proximity to the fire area on the same level

• On the floor above the fire, especially immediately over the fire area

• On the top floor, unless fire conditions result in smoke stratification

6

Search and Rescue Priority (3 of 4)

• On the floors between the floor above

the fire and the top floor

• On the floors below the fire

• In nearby buildings

• Outside

– In the collapse or falling glass zones

6

Search and Rescue Priority (4 of 4)

6

Rescue Priorities

• When it is not possible to save

everyone

– IC must save the largest number of people

possible

• The key to successful search operations

is to be systematic.

6

Primary Search

• Quick, thorough

• Mark and record areas that have been

searched

– Assures that areas are checked before the

secondary search begins

6

Secondary Search

• Ensures that no one was missed the

first time through

• If conditions allow, should be conducted

as soon as the primary search is

complete

• Use a different crew.

6

Medical Status of Victims

• IC must have wide discretion in calling medical assistance.

• Need for EMS at an incident scene is dictated by:

– Relative hazard

– Number of potential victims

– Type of incident

• If you think you need help, you do.

6

Medical Unit Set-up

• Set up within the cold zone or beyond

– Personnel should remain with their

ambulance.

– Near the rehab area

6

Mass-Casualty Incidents

(MCI) (1 of 2)

• Occurs when:

– Number of victims and nature of injuries

make normal stabilization and care

unattainable.

– Available trained personnel and

transportation vehicles are insufficient.

– Hospital capabilities are insufficient.

6

Mass-Casualty Incidents

(MCI) (2 of 2)

• Specific incidents:

– Transportation accidents, hazardous

materials releases, or natural disasters

• Fires in buildings with large numbers of

occupants have the potential to become

MCIs.

6

Triage, Prioritizing, Transport

• Triage: first medical priority in managing

an MCI

• First-arriving EMS personnel should not

leave the scene until relieved of triage

responsibilities.

6

Medical Teams

• Accustomed to treating one or more individuals, followed by immediate transport

• Triaging without treatment and transportation runs contrary to normal role

• Once triage teams have prioritized the victims, treatment teams will follow.

6

Treatment Teams

• First treat those needing immediate

care and arrange for their

transportation.

• If sufficient personnel are on the scene,

multiple teams can be formed.

– Treat as many patients as possible.

6

Medical Transportation Officer

• Manages transportation needs

• Directs incoming EMS vehicles to

staging area

• Determines mode of transportation

– May be possible to transport in vehicles

other than ambulances

6

Communications with

Hospitals

• Need to know how many patients and

what types of injuries can be treated at

each facility.

• Patients directed to hospitals and

trauma centers according to their

capabilities.

6

Hospital Response

• Hospitals determine their limits based

on:

– Personnel

– Staff expertise

– Space

• Must be prepared to exceed their

normal patient capacity

6

Medical Planning Officer

• Functions similar to planning section

• Can be assigned to medical branch or

group

• Documents where and when each

patient is transported

6

Evaluating the Need for

Shelter

• Weather extremes

– Need to rehab fire fighters

– Provide shelter for occupants

• Nearby building could be used as

shelter.

– Outside the fire zone

6

Outside Assistance

• Red Cross

– Response times may be fairly long.

– Makes it necessary to assign crews to this

task until they arrive

6

Estimating Staffing

Requirements

• Staffing must be sufficient to:

– Extinguish or contain the fire

– Conduct search-and-rescue operations

– Treat and transport the injured

– Remove victims to a place of safety

– Prevent re-entry

6

Staffing Needs (1 of 2)

• Depends on several factors:

– Number of victims

– Rescue methods used

– Condition of victims

– Fire conditions

6

Staffing Needs (2 of 2)

• Depends on several factors (continued)

– Smoke conditions

– Victim mobility

– Weather conditions

– Accessibility

6

Additional Staffing

• Needed in the following situations:

– Victims close to the fire area

– Victims have physical impairments

– Fire occurs during weather extremes

– Evacuation routes other than the interior

stairs must be used

– Forcible entry required

6

Evacuation Status

• Determined by:

– Pre-incident planning information

– Occupant information

– Visual observation

– Reconnaissance

– Alarm information

6

Fire-Ground Tasks

• Division-of-labor approach

• Actions can be delayed and/or

duplicated without pre-assignment of

duties.

6

Fire-Ground Duties (1 of 2)

• Water supply and application (engine

company duties)

• Ventilation, entry, search and rescue,

and property conservation (ladder

company duties)

• Search, rescue, and rapid intervention

(rescue company duties)

6

Fire-Ground Duties (2 of 2)

• Triage, treatment, transportation, and

rehabilitation (emergency medical

duties)

• Planning, organizing, coordinating, and

establishing command (IC duties)

6

Summary (1 of 2)

• The most important fire-ground activity

is saving lives.

• Sound risk-management principles must

be applied.

6

Summary (2 of 2)

• IC considerations:

– Department SOPs

– Pre-incident plans

– Size-up factors

– Number and location of victims