Journal of European Industrial TrainingEmployee perceived training effectiveness relationship to employee attitudesAlexandros G. Sahinidis John Bouris

Article information:To cite this document:Alexandros G. Sahinidis John Bouris, (2008),"Employee perceived training effectiveness relationship toemployee attitudes", Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 32 Iss 1 pp. 63 - 76Permanent link to this document:http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090590810846575

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Employee perceived trainingeffectiveness relationship to

employee attitudesAlexandros G. Sahinidis and John BourisTechnological Education Institute, Athens, Greece

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between perceived employeetraining effectiveness and job satisfaction, motivation and commitment.

Design/methodology/approach – The study examined the responses of 134 employees and lowermanagers, of five large Greek organizations, after they had completed a training program. Thequestions asked contained information about the employee attitudes towards tvhe training received,as well as their attitudes towards their employers.

Findings – The results of the study provide support to the hypotheses proposed, indicating thatthere is a significant correlation between the employee perceived training effectiveness and theircommitment, job satisfaction and motivation. Additionally, high correlations were found between thelatter three variables.

Research limitations/implications – The study is limited to examining employee feelings, nottaking into account their personal characteristics, which may be important.

Practical implications – The implications of the findings of this study for managers and especiallyfor Human Resource professionals are quite significant, given their roles in funding, designing anddelivering training interventions. Not only does it appear to be important, offering training programsto one’s employees but, the training program content must be perceived as effective and of value tothose participating in it. This will have a positive effect, according to the findings of this study, on keyemployee attitudes, which appear to be related to a greater or a lesser extent, in the pertinent literature,to organizational performance outcomes including, productivity, turnover and absenteeism

Originality/value – The study is ground-breaking, given that there are no prior studies examiningthe relationship between the variables considered in the present one.

Keywords Workplace training, Employee attitudes, Motivation (psychology), Job satisfaction, Greece

Paper type Research paper

IntroductionA recent survey of business executives, conducted by McKinsey and Co., asking themto name the factor contributing the most to the increasing competitive intensity in theglobal markets, identified the improved capabilities of the competitors, in terms ofknowledge and talent. More low-cost competitors and more competition were thesecond and third factors mentioned (The McKinsey Quarterly, 2006). The fast pace of

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

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The authors would like to acknowledge the invaluable contribution of Chaido Drigogia, in thepreparation of this paper. We also thank the anonymous reviewers for t heir useful commentson earlier versions of the paper.

An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 1st Scientific Conference of the School ofBusiness and Economics at Technological Educational Institute, Athens, Greece on 25-26 of May2006.

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Received 20 August 2007Revised 22 September 2007

Accepted 25 October 2007

Journal of European IndustrialTraining

Vol. 32 No. 1, 2008pp. 63-76

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited0309-0590

DOI 10.1108/03090590810846575

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environmental changes in the Global Market makes managers increasingly aware ofthe importance of a high-calibre workforce in an organization’s effort to attain its goals.Human resource practices tend to be considered by some authors as “hygiene” factors(Herzberg, 2003), or as staff maintenance issues, as opposed to others proposing that,human resources may be the leading source of competitive advantage (Becker andGerhard, 1996; Davenport, 2006; Peters and Waterman, 1982).

Business publications, such as Fortune, devote annually special issues with the“best places to work”, grading the performance of large corporations in terms of thesatisfaction of their employees (Fortune, 2006). Although the relevant literature offers alot of insight into the relationship between HR practices and job satisfaction, as well asthe relationship of job satisfaction with performance (Bowling, 2007), there are hardlyany studies addressing specifically the relationship between training effectiveness andjob satisfaction, motivation and employee commitment.

Motivation, also, is a subject heavily researched, in the organizational behaviorliterature, rich in perspectives, theories and models. Growth and development of theemployees is one point on which most of these perspectives converge. From Maslow, toAlderfer, to McClelland, to Hertzberg and to Hackman, growth is proposed to be one ofthe most potent motivators, with high employee effort maximization potential. Themajority of theorists in the area of motivation argue that, there is an irrefutable linkbetween motivation and job satisfaction and motivation with employee commitment tothe organization (Basset-Jones and Lloyd, 2005; Chen et al., 2004; Lok and Crawford,2004; Pool and Pool, 2007). Sirota et al. (2005), in a major study of motivation and jobsatisfaction, involving 135,000 respondents from various countries and groupings, foundthat organizations employing motivation schemes, that include three major constructs,i.e. equity, camaraderie and achievement, simultaneously, tend to be far more effectivethan those organizations that do not, or have twice as many “enthusiastic” employees (45percent of the total) as those, which employ only two of the above constructs. JeffreyPfeffer (1998), also, presents two studies, demonstrating the link between commitmentand organizational performance. Specifically, he found that the use ofcommitment-oriented management practices, helped reduce the time required for theproduction of one ton of steel by 34 percent and improved the scrap rate by 63 percent. Inanother study of 200 banks, he found that differences in such practices were associatedwith a 30 percent difference in financial performance (Pfeffer, 1998, pp. 31-56).

Training practices used by organizations may have an effect, direct or indirect onboth employee motivation and organizational commitment (Meyer and Allen, 1991).Organizational commitment is defined, in the words of Pool and Pool (2007, p. 353) as“. . . the relative strength of an individual’s identification and involvement in aparticular organization”. In order to equip their employees with the skills necessary todo their job, companies train them, in an effort to optimize their workforce’s potential.Some companies, planning for the long-term, invest in the development of new skills bytheir employees, so as to enable them to handle issues not currently present, but likelyto come up in the future. This kind of training can lead to high levels of motivation andcommitment by the employees, who actually see the opportunity they are given. Theseemployees’ appreciation for the investment their organization is making in them, isshown in their hard work and their contentment in being a member of thatorganization. Training, then, is expected to have a positive impact on both motivationand employee commitment.

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In spite of the large number of studies on the relationship between training andorganizational outcomes, there appears to be a gap, concerning the study of employeeperceived training effectiveness and its relationship to employee attitudes. The purposeof this study is to close this gap in the relevant literature, shedding more light into therelationship of perceived training effectiveness, with job satisfaction, motivation andcommitment, based on empirical research, conducted in five large Greek companies.

Training and job satisfactionIn an era of continuous change and increased environmental uncertainty andcomplexity, both management and employees understand their limited capacity to dealwith future demands made on them. Studies show the emergence of two trends,increasingly troubling corporate management, the increasing age of the workforce andthe fast-paced evolution of new technologies (Tai, 2006). According to Tai, researchersconverge in their suggestions to businesses, that they increase their training budgets,in order to remain competitive and maintain an adaptable and flexible workforce.

Training is defined in this study “as the planned intervention that is designed toenhance the determinants of individual job performance” (Chiaburu and Tekleab, 2005,p. 29). Training is related to the skills deemed necessary by the management of anorganization, that must be acquired by the members of that organization, in order toimprove the probability of achievement of its goals. Training offered to employees, mayhelp them reduce their anxiety or frustration, brought on by work demands, that they arenot familiar with, and they are lacking the skills to handle effectively (Chen et al., 2004).Employees feeling less than competent to do a task, are more likely to leave the field (Chenet al., 2004), or if they choose to stay, their productivity would be suboptimal (Kanelopoulosand Akrivos, 2006). The larger the gap between the skills required and those possessed bythe employees, the greater the lack of job satisfaction of the employees and the turnoverintentions. Although there has been no direct link in the literature between training and jobsatisfaction, Rowden (2002) and Rowden and Conine (2005), propose that training may beused as a tool to increase job satisfaction. Rowden and Conine (2005), argues that trainedemployees will better satisfy the needs of their customers. Tsai et al. (2007), found thatemployees committed to learning showed a higher level of job satisfaction with a positiveeffect on their performance. Job satisfaction has been defined as “pleasurable or positiveemotional state resulting from an appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976,p. 1300). Following Rowden’s thinking it would be safe to assume that, employees thatperceive their training beneficial will be more satisfied than those who get no training ortraining of no value. The above lead to the hypothesis that:

H1. There is a positive relationship between employee perceived trainingeffectiveness and job satisfaction.

Training and organizational performanceUp to this point, it is evident that there is a strong linkage between HRM practices andorganizational performance. To isolate and test the impact of a sole human resourcepractice and its implications on organizational performance is not an easy task to dealwith, since there is little evidence in the field (Purcell et al., 2003). In line with Guest(1997) who recognized that training and development, as a unique practice, affects thequality of the HR outcome of skills and ability, but behavioural and attitudinal changeand thus higher performance will be achieved by the contribution of the

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implementation of other practices as well. The empirical relationship between trainingas a sole human resource practice and organizational performance, however intuitivelycompelling, is still considered weak since a relatively small number of surveys havebeen conducted to test it.

However, in theory, according to Harrison (2000), learning (triggered by training) isa variable that may have a positive effect on organizational performance and isconsidered to be a key element to the attainment of organizational goals. Nevertheless,adopting a training activity as a solution to lagging performance presupposes that thisperformance problem, i.e. this gap between the desired and the actual performance, isdue to lack of training. This is illustrated better in Figure 1 stated by Swart et al. (2005).

The organization management ought to adopt training interventions to bridge thisgap. Bridging the performance gap involves adopting a particular trainingintervention aiming at changing specific skills and attitudes of the employees. Thisbecomes clearer by examining Bramley’s individual model of training (Figure 2).

The underlying logic of the individual model of training dictates that the organizationshould recognize that its employees are not effective and a change should be attemptedin their knowledge, attitudes and skills. This shortfall in the individual performance mayoccur for various reasons. For instance, employees may not feel motivated anymore toapply their skills, they may be afraid in doing so, or they may believe that there may be aconflict of interest with the organization, when a change is about to take place. All the

Figure 1.The effectivenessbehaviour gap

Figure 2.Bramley’s individualmodel of training

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above factors should be taken into account by the organization in order for it to adopt themost suitable training intervention, which will fulfil specific needs, enhance employeewillingness to participate and meet their expectations. According to Swart et al. (2005) anindividual improvement will be contingent on the quality of the training program, themotivation of the individual and the individual’s needs.

The model in general assumes that employee knowledge, skills and attitudes willchange by the adoption of a training program, but this does not always end in that way.If the employee believes, there is an improvement in his knowledge and skills, it may besafe to also assume that, there will be an increase in the person’s individual performance.Through training the person’s competencies will be reinforced and will enable him or herto execute the tasks assigned effectively and efficiently. As a result, according to themodel, there will be an increase in the overall performance of the organization.

Nevertheless, individual job performance is also influenced by the organizationalculture and structure, by the job design, the reward systems used to motivateemployees and the power and politics that exist in the organization and the groupprocesses. Individuals may not achieve their goals and thus not perform well, due toproblems associated with the reasons above and not necessarily due to lack of skills.Wright and Geroy (2001), argued that in order for training to be effective, certain issuesmust be taken into account. Management style may need to change and training also,has to fit with the culture of the organization. Some companies may offer trainingprograms that, the organization itself is not prepared to accept the ensuing changes.Besides, Eisenberger et al. (1986) proposed that employees are more likely to becomecommitted to an organization, if they believe that the organization is committed tothem and management should make efforts to create a positive work environment.Managers, also have the responsibility, to ascertain which factors inhibit effectivenessand make the appropriate decisions, to ameliorate the situation (Swart et al., 2005).

Although in theory training seems to increase organizational performance, inactuality the evidence for such a claim is scant. Bartel (1994), in a surveyconducted in the manufacturing sector, found that there is a positive relationshipbetween implementing formal employee training programs and labor productivity,both at individual and organizational level. In addition, Ahmad and Bakar (2003),in their effort to test the relationship between implementing training andorganizational commitment, came across various findings concerning all threeaspects of commitment, affective, normative and continuance. They did not receivesupport for their hypothesis, which was stating that training has an impact oncommitment but they found that various dimensions of training are related withall three aspects of commitment, which is consistent to a large extent with thefindings of Kim (2006).

In general, it can be argued that the effect of training on employee outcomes(motivation, job satisfaction and commitment) has not received as much attention as itdeserves. Few studies have been carried out that test the possibility that firms canaffect their employees’ attitudes by implementing training interventions. Lang (1992)argued that training should be designed to achieve increased organizationalcommitment. Another survey, conducted by Gaertner and Nollen (1989) inmanufacturing firms, revealed that employees’ commitment was associated with theactual and perceived HRM practices. These practices were internal promotion,employment security and training opportunities.

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In addition, Meyer and Smith (2000), examining the relationship between HumanResource Management practices and organizational commitment, found that although theHRM practices are very valuable means in order to obtain employee commitment, theireffects are not direct. In particular, they found that career development, employeeevaluation of appraisal practices, and assessment of the benefits offered by theorganization have an effect on both affective and normative commitment, while trainingwas found not to contribute to the increase in employee commitment. Another finding ofgreat importance, reported in this survey is that, the way HR practices are related tocommitment may be indirect, mediated by two other variables, the organizational supportand the procedural justice. The discussion thus far leads to the following two hypotheses:

H2. here is a positive relationship between employee perceived trainingeffectiveness and motivation.

H3. There is a positive relationship between employee perceived trainingeffectiveness and employee commitment.

In spite of the assertions made above, concerning the benefits of training and its positiveeffects on employee outcomes, there is a whole body of literature, debating the overallbenefit organizations obtain from training their people, in an era of intense employeemobility. Cheramie et al. (2007), present evidence that, executives who change jobsfrequently, are more likely to earn higher salaries and climb higher in organizationalranks. This makes employers more likely to be hesitant, or even to avoid investing in thedevelopment of their employees, when faced with circumstances where people use theirtraining to increase their own market value and employment opportunities, at theircompany’s expense. The trend of increasing individualism, at least in the developedeconomies, is adding legitimacy to the claims of the boundaryless career proponents(Baruch, 2006). More and more, people tend to try to self-manage their careers, ratherthan leave it to the hands of their employer. This creates a transactional relationshipbetween employers and employees, making the psychological contract practically void(Baruch, 2006). However, in countries where individualism is low or rather low, such asGreece (Hofstede, 1994), the psychological contract is relatively strong, in a large part ofthe economy and people, by and large, still have the notion of getting a job that will last,at least for as long as they want it to. Given the relatively stable economic andsocio-political environment in Greece, as well as the high level of uncertainty avoidance(the highest among 53 countries in Hofstede (1994, p. 129) the propensity of employees tochange jobs voluntarily is rather small. Additionally, as discussed in the followingsection, the sample in this study comes from first line supervisors and clerical personnel,which as distinct organizational levels, do not employ people particularly prone tochange jobs, due to factors relating to age, education, industry and socio-economic status,at least compared to those from higher organizational strata. In conclusion, at leastwithin the scope of this study, training and its perceived effectiveness are expected torelate to the variables discussed above, in the way stated in the hypotheses.

MethodologyThe sampleThe people comprising the sample of this study were 134 males and females (63 and 71respectively), attending a training seminar. The participants were employees andfirst-line supervisors, working for five large Greek organizations (employing over 1,000

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people each) representing five sectors of the industry. The participants were given afour-part questionnaire to fill out, upon the completion of the seminar they attended.The companies, which the sample originated from, were selected on the basis of theiroutstanding financial performance over the past five years. The approach chosen, wassimilar to that of Purcell et al. (2003) and Hutchinson and Purcell (2003), who examinedthe link between human resource management and organizational performance, in theUK. Although a convenience sample, similarly to that of the authors in the UK study,the sample was large enough to allow for analyses that require an approximatelynormal distribution of the data used.

The variablesPerceived training effectiveness (PTE) was measured using a one-item scale “howeffective is the training you receive at your company?” On a scale from 1 (not effectiveat all) to 5 (very effective), the employees were asked to describe their feelings about theeffectiveness of the training they receive from their employer. The use of one-itemmeasures has been traditionally avoided in the literature, with psychologists showing aclear preference to more complex constructs (Loo, 2002; Oshageni, 1999). Recentlyhowever, many researchers have shown that single-item measures, can be as effectiveas the multiple-item ones, especially when measuring concepts such as job satisfaction(Gorsuch and McFarland, 1972; Wanous et al., 1997), customer satisfaction (Hurley andEstelami, 2007), “perceived amount of participation in decision making” (Loo, 2002),teaching effectiveness (Wanous and Hudy, 2001). Wanous et al. (1997), in ameta-analysis of 17 studies, examining job satisfaction measures, found a correlation of0.70 between the findings of multiple-item and single-item measures, suggesting thatthe latter measures may effectively substitute the multiple-item complex constructs.

On the other hand, Loo (2002, p. 71), proposes that, single-item measures ought to beused only when they reflect homogeneous constructs and still multiple-item constructswould be more reliable. The author claims that managers would prefer to make decisionsbased on data produced by complex constructs rather than simple ones. Oshageni (1999),also reports that single-item measures in his study, overestimated the percentage of peoplesatisfied with their job, while they underestimated the percentage of the dissatisfied ones.

Single-item measures offer significant advantages to the researcher, over themultiple-item ones. They are parsimonious, their validity and reliability are high, whenexamining global concepts, such as satisfaction, they are easily administered and makeit easier for the subjects to respond (Patrician, 2004).

Employee motivation was measured through a 12-item five-point scale, based onAlderfer’s (1972) work, with responses ranging from 1 (not important) to 5 (extremelyimportant) (see also Schneider and Alderfer, 1973). The reliability was calculated at:a ¼ 0.89.

The employee commitment measure, was based on Mowday and Steers (1979) work,using a 15-item Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree).The instrument reliability was at 0.78.

Job satisfaction has been measured in a variety of ways in the extant literature.Researchers have used single-item measures as well as few-item or multiple-item ones,such as the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, or an 87-item instrument used byTsai et al. (2007), trying to capture various dimensions of job satisfaction. In this studythe concept was measured through Rokeach’s (1973), instrument in his work on human

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values. A 20-item questionnaire was used based on the previous author’s work,assessing the attitudes of the participants on a scale from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (verysatisfied). Chronbach’s alpha was calculated at 0.86.

ResultsThe data were coded and processed through the use of the Minitab computer program.The hypotheses proposed above were tested with the use of Spearman Correlation. Theresults are succinctly presented in the Table I. The correlation coefficient between PTEand motivation was r ¼ 0.35 ( p , 0.01). An even stronger correlation appears to existbetween PTE and job satisfaction where r ¼ 0.48 ( p , 0.01). Also positive, butconsiderably weaker, was the relationship between PTE and Employee Commitment,r ¼ 0.28 ( p ¼ 0.0142). Thus, the data support all three hypotheses proposed, showingstrong significant relationships between training effectiveness and job satisfaction,employee commitment and motivation. In addition to the previously discussedrelationships, outside the scope of this paper, strong correlations were found among jobsatisfaction, motivation and commitment (Figure 3).

The strong relationships between motivation, commitment and job satisfaction, arenot surprising, considering that a plethora of studies has come to similar conclusions(Tsai et al., 2007; Pool and Pool, 2007; Sirota et al., 2005).

Correlation R-Spearman Z-critical value Z0,005 P-value

PTE; Mo 0.3479 3.9867 2.58 6 *10-5

PTE; JS 0.4839 5.41 2.58 1.9 *10-8

PTE; Co 0.28 2.45 2.58 0.0142Co; Mo 0.775 6.77 2.58 < 0Mo; JS 0.607 5.306 2.58 < 0Co; JS 0.43 3.77 2.58 0.0002

Table I.Correlation matrix

Figure 3.Correlation betweenmotivation, commitment,job satisfaction andemployee perceivedtraining effectiveness

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No substantial differences were found between men and women, in terms of therelationships between the variables examined (Tables II and III). The results of theanalysis after the sample age was split three-way, point, again to the same direction asthe overall sample (Table IV).

Based on Table I we note the following:

(1) There is evidence of a strong relationship between the variables motivation(Mo) and commitment (Co). Therefore, a collinearity appears to occur betweenthe two variables. Statistically, it can be measured using the first ordercorrelation coefficient. Conceptually, we have defined:

R12.3 ¼ correlation coefficient between PTE and Mo, holding Co

constant ¼ 0.25.

R13.2 ¼ correlation coefficient between PTE and Co, holding Mo

constant ¼ 0.10.

R23.1 ¼ correlation coefficient between Co and Mo, holding PTE

constant ¼ 0.85.

and we conclude that there is collinearity between Co and Mo (Figure 4).

(2) The consequences of the detected collinearity as far as our analysis is concernedmight be:

Correlation R-Spearman Z-critical value Z0,005 P-value

PTE; Mo 0.31 3.1373 2.58 < 0 Strong correlationPTE; JS 0.43 3.9265 2.58 < 0 Very strong correlationPTE; Co 0.22 2.35 2.58 < 0.02 Weak correlation

Table II.Correlation matrix for

males

Correlation R-Spearman Z-critical value Z0,005 P-value

PTE; Mo 0.38 3.9265 2.58 < 0 Very strong correlationPTE; JS 0.55 5.5049 2.58 < 0 Extremely strong correlationPTE; Co 0.32 3,1373 2.58 < 0 Strong correlation

Table III.Correlation matrix for

females

Age bracketCorrelationvariables R-Spearman

Z-criticalvalue Z0,005 P-value

,35 PTE;Mo 0.42 4.084 2.58 < 0 Very strong correlationPTE;JS 0.48 4.56 2.58 < 0 Extremely strong correlationPTE;Co 0.21 2.43 2.58 < 0.02 Weak correlation

35-44 PTE;Mo 0.28 2.98 2.58 < 0.003 Correlation existPTE;JS 0.37 3.69 2.58 < 0 Strong correlationPTE;Co 0.28 2.98 2.58 < 0.02 Correlation exist

.45 PTE;Mo 0.40 3.9265 2.58 < 0 Strong correlationPTE;JS 0.55 5.11 2.58 < 0 Extremely strong correlationPTE;Co 0.32 3.29 2.58 < 0 Strong correlation

Table IV.Correlation matrix per

age bracket

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. a relatively increased standard error of estimates affecting the reliability ofmeasurements; and

. the z-tests suggest that none of the three variables (Mo; Co; JS) aresignificantly associated to PTE, while the F-tests indicate that the model isuseful for explaining PTE.

We decided, in order to eliminate the consequences of collinearity, to follow the methodof stepwise forward correlation. The decision to add or drop a variable, is made on thebasis of the contribution of that variable to the ESS (explained sum of squares) asjudged by the F-test.

As shown in Table V, the variables found to be related to PTE were mainly JS and Mo.The model accounted for approximately 40 percent of the variance in average PTE

( p ¼ 0.021, R 2 ¼ 0.43). The model used the ordinary method of entering variables intothe regression model. Durbin-Watson’s residuals index, 1.82 and ANOVA test (F ¼ 5.5,Sign. ¼ 0.021) indicate that the regression model is useful. The beta values suggestthat the relative influence of job satisfaction (JS) was bigger on the PTE than that ofmotivation (Mo) and commitment (Co).

Discussion and implications of the studyThe role of employee perceived training effectiveness (PTE) becomes clearer and itsrelationship to employee motivation, commitment and job satisfaction, is rather lucid,looking at the results of this study. As expected, following the analysis of the literaturereview section, PTE correlates with job satisfaction, lending support to the findings of Tsaiet al. (2007). High quality training according to Tai (2006) will lead to higher jobsatisfaction, which in turn will have a beneficial effect on organizational performance.Bartel (1994) and Harrison (2000), have also found that training directly or indirectly has a

Dependentvariable

Independentvariables

Betacoefficients P-value R 2

DurbinWatson Anova P-value

PTE JS 0.48 0.017 0.43 dl ¼ 1.61 0.021Mo 0.40 0.042 du ¼ 1.74Co 0.20 0.015 d ¼ 1.82

Table V.Results of multipleregression analysis forPTE, JS, Mo, Co

Figure 4.First order partialcorrelation for PTE andcommitment

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positive effect on productivity. Sirota et al. (2005), propose that motivation relates directlyto the need for achievement, which is fulfilled through career growth, resulting fromtraining and learning. Their findings are in agreement with Pool & Pool (2007), whoreported a significant correlation between motivation commitment and job satisfactionwith the learning oriented organization. Our findings are in the same direction as those ofthe above two studies. Several studies indicated that there is a direct or indirect linkbetween training and employee commitment. Gaertner and Nollen (1989) found thattraining opportunities increased employee commitment in an industrial setting. Meyer andSmith (2000), also reported a positive relationship between HR practices (includingtraining) and commitment. On the other hand, Kim (2006) and Ahmad and Bakar (2003)reported mixed results, in terms of the effect of training on performance. The results in thisstudy support Gaertner and Nollen (1989) and Meyer and Smith’s (2000) findings. Giventhe effectiveness of training, a significant relationship with commitment is expected.

ImplicationsImplications for researchers. An attempt was made in this study, to illuminate therelationship between employee perceived training effectiveness and employeeattitudes. The results provide a picture of a robust relationship between thevariables examined in the study. One of the challenges lying ahead, for researchers, isto re-examine the above relationships with better-designed instruments that measurethe concepts discussed in this study.

An additional hurdle is the incorporation of the antecedents of employee perceptionsand their personal characteristics. Those employees who are committed to undertaketraining, may feel differently, in comparison with those who are not interested inlearning (Tsai et al., 2007).

The causality issue is yet another matter that needs to be illuminated. Futurestudies may attempt to delve into the mechanics of the relationships described above.Is it that the motivated person perceives his/her training as effective, or is it that theeffective training makes him/her satisfied?

Further research may also look into the relationship of PTE with the distinctaspects of commitment (affective, normative and continual) as in Meyer and Allen(1991), Also, the relationship between PTE and the various dimensions of jobsatisfaction as measured by instruments, such as the Minnesota SatisfactionQuestionnaire (Weis et al., 1967).

In case of detection of multicollinearity among the explanatory variables, westrongly recommend the use the transformation of variable method. One way ofminimizing the dependence among variables, is to create a “meta-variable” bycombining or transforming highly dependent or correlated explanatory variables (e.g.motivational commitment as a “meta-variable” derived from a combination of thevariables motivation and commitment.

Also, different motivation measures may yield different results. Alderfer’s (1972)measure, which is the basis of the instrument used in this study, may produce differentresults than for instance, Sirota et al. (2005). The latter, taking a totally different view ofmotivation (using a combination of Adam’s equity theory, McClelland’s need forachievement and the social needs component of all of the content motivation theories)may obtain different results, from the same sample.

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Implications for managers. The results of this study point to the fact that, equallyimportant with the actual quality and “frequency” of the training programs offered toemployees, is the perceived effectiveness of the training programs. Training perceivedby the employees to be effective, will likely have a positive impact on job satisfaction,commitment and motivation. Looking at the results from the opposite ankle, motivated,committed and satisfied employees, will probably be more inclined to desire to learnmore through training programs, adding thus value to the human capital of theorganization. Although motivation, job satisfaction and commitment, went through thescrutiny of researchers for more than 50 years, training has not been studied for thatlong, so managers ought to be careful as to what constitutes “adequate” training andwhat the characteristics of effective training are, particularly in the eyes of the trainee.

ConclusionThis paper substantiates the strong relationship between, employee perceived trainingeffectiveness and motivation, job satisfaction and commitment. Although no causalrelationships were found, the magnitude of the correlations indicates that the conceptsexamined are inextricably related and that this relationship, ought to be takenseriously by practicing managers, as well as academics. The study has attempted toshed light into the domain of employee attitudes, in terms of their relation to perceivedtraining effectiveness. Future studies can further elucidate the found relationships,offering greater insight, concerning causality, incorporating more parameters in morecomprehensive models and improving the efficaciousness of the existing ones.

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