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Investigation about the perception of leaders - Matricula de honor at the University Blanquerna Ramon Llull of Barcelona, Spain
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Gender and cultural differences in leader’s perception
Master Thesis
Official Master in
Working Psychology, Organizations and Human Resources
Barcelona, 25th June 2014
Author: Elena Tecchiati
Tutor: Dr. Carlos M. Moreno Pérez
1
Containt
• Theoretical introduction
– Hypothesis
• Method
– Procedures
– Participants
• Results
• Discussion
– Conclusion
2
Theoretical introduction
Gender bias
Women and Leadership
Hypothesis
3
Gender bias
• The unequal treatment of women in employment opportunity and expectations due to their gender (Jamieson, 1996; Sandberg, 2013)
• “Glass ceiling” as a consequence
– The tendency to prefer men to women when it comes to fill top leadership positions (Yukl, 2011, pp. 466-467)
4
Women in leadership positions
• Women are underrepresented
– In economic settings
– In political settings
– In scientific fields
5
Women who reached the peak
• Reported to suffer from discriminations
• Stronger in male dominated industry
• Phenomena “Double Bind” (Bateson et al. 1956)
6
Explanations for the glass ceiling
• Belief that women do not possess the skills necessary to lead effectively as these skills are viewed as typically masculine (Stogdill, 1974; Schein, 1975)
• Several other explanations, with one common background = competencies and perception / gender bias
7
Feminine competencies
Woman = no leader
Consequences
• Unequal pay
• Certain jobs are related to certain genders according to sex-related stereotypes
Differences
• Testosterone level => Aggressiveness/Assertiveness
• Mathematical abilities
• Visual-spacial abilities
• Verbal abilities
• Education
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974)
Are women better leaders?
• Metaanalyses Eagly et al. 2002-2003 through MLQ => women more transformational
• Congruency with gender bias?
11
Tendence gender stereotype
12
Subjects who prefer a female leader report more previous experience with a woman leader!
Study Seifert (1984)
• Power of stereotypical beliefs
• Male and female participants think that they were working with female and male leaders
• And that the leaders were selected randomly
• In the truth => same standardized communication messages from the experimenter. – Male leader was evaluated clearer
– Female leader was evaluated less fairly selected
13
Study Godoy & Mladinic (2009)
• Description of a male and female leader • Evaluation:
– Dependent variables – labor (leadership effectiveness; task orientation;
interpersonal orientation; cognitive skills; recommendations about organizational recompense; salary and promotion)
– personal issues (general evaluation as person; pleasant and sympathy level; if they would ask the person for support of advice in case of personal problems; if they would establish a friendship with this person)
• No significant difference in evaluation
14
BUT…
• Women problems ascending in interaction with others (e.g. aggression, negotiating)
• Creation of a social reality through communication
• Evaluation needs a situation
15
Gender bias intercultural
• Gender stereotyping different according to cultures (Catalyst, 2007)
16
(Catalyst, 2007)
Hypothesis
1. Male leader > evaluation than the female leader across cultures and gender;
2. In the case of previous experience with a female leader + evaluating the feedback situation where female director, female leader > male leaders when no previous experience with a female leader;
3. Relationship between previous experience and preference for a leader of a certain gender: previous experience with a woman leader means higher preference to work with a female leader.
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Method
Feedback situation
Questionnaire
Procedures
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Tool
• Feedback situation in 4 dimensions – Male leader x male subordinate
– Male leader x female subordinate
– Female leader x male subordinate
– Female leader x female subordinate
• Questionnaire – 6 questions
• (4 MLQ + 2 based on previous research)
19
Procedures
1. Tool in English
2. Validation & Changes
3. Translations
4. Validation
5. Paper/pencil
6. Online version
7. SPSS
20
Dimensions
Dimension Leader Subordinate Previous experience
with a female leader
Cultural
background
1 Male Male Yes German
2 Male Male No German
3 Male Male Yes Spanish
4 Male Male No Spanish
5 Male Female Yes German
6 Male Female No German
7 Male Female Yes Spanish
8 Male Female No Spanish
9 Female Male Yes German
10 Female Male No German
11 Female Male Yes Spanish
12 Female Male No Spanish
13 Female Female Yes German
14 Female Female No German
15 Female Female Yes Spanish
16 Female Female No Spanish
21
Participants
• From Germany/Spain
• Consulting sector • Marketing and advertising • Consumer industry • Construction industry • Public sector • Health management • Health industry • Education.
22
Total received questionnaires
• 157 questionnaires from Germany:
– 32 online;
– 125 paper-pencil versions.
• 112 questionnaire from Spain:
– 21 online;
– 91 paper-pencil versions.
• Total 269 questionnaires
23
Dimensions Total
MM MF FF FM
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Gender
Spain M 8 4 8 4 9 2 7 3 M 45
F 9 2 11 3 11 4 20 7 F 67
Total 17 6 19 7 20 6 27 10
23 26 26 37 112
Germany M 13 6 17 13 5 6 2 9 M 71
F 13 5 13 8 14 3 14 15 F 85
Total 26 11 30 21 19 9 16 24
37 51 28 40 156
Total 43 17 49 28 39 15 43 34
60 77 54 77 268
Questionnaires’ structure
24
Results
Hypothesis
25
Hypothesis 1
The male leader has a more positive evaluation than the female leader across cultures and gender
26
Result hypothesis 1
No significant difference =
Culture and gender have no influence on evaluation
27
Hypothesis 2
In the case of previous experience with a female leader and at the same time evaluating the feedback situation where a woman is acting as a director, individuals tend to evaluate the female leader higher than the male counterpart when individuals have no previous experience with a female leader;
28
Result hypothesis 2
No significant difference =
Previous experience with a female leader have no influence on the evaluation
29
Hypothesis 3
There is a relationship between previous experience and the preference for a leader of a certain gender: previous experience with a woman leader means higher preference to work with a female leader
30
Result hypothesis 3
No significant difference =
Previous experience has no influence on the preference for a certain gender
• No relationship between personnel responsibility and the preference for a certain gender’s leader when taking into consideration the subgroup “No preference”
31
Discussion
Possible explanations for results
Advice for future research
32
Cultural differences
• Barcelona as Spain? Or more like Germany?
• Future testing required in leaders’ perception
33
Stereotype
• Woman leader difficulties ascending, not in final position
• Future testing required
• Developmental programs instead of hiring more / amount of women (equal chances)
– because of no-influence of previous experience with a female leader
34
Developmental programs
• In communication skills
• Gender bias (awareness for men and women)
• For men supporting wives
• For male leaders supporting men and women with no distinction
• Impact study required (long lasting study)
35
Feedback
• Because of differences in evaluation: Future studies needed to evaluate feedback in diversity setting in order to find out the “good” feedback
– Important for developmental programs as well
• Different options for future studies
36
Main References
• Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J., & Weakland, J. (1956). Towards a theory of schizophrenia. Behavioral Science, 1, 251–264
• Catalyst (2006). Different cultures, similar perceptions: stereotyping of western European Business Leaders. New York: Catalyst Publication. Retrieved from http://www.catalyst.org/system/files/Different_Cultures%2C_Similar_Perceptions_Stereotyping_of_Western_European_Business_Leaders.pdf
• Eagly, A.H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M.C. & Van Engen, M.L. (2003). Transformational, transactional and laisser faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 569-591.
• Godoy, L. & Mladinic, A. (2009). Estereotipos y roles de género en la evaluación laboral y personal de hombres y mujeres en cargos de dirección. Psykhe, 18, 2, 51-64.
• Jamieson, K.H. (1995). Beyond the double bind. Women and leadership. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Newport, F., & Wilke J. (2013). Americans Still Prefer a Male Boss. A plurality report that a boss' gender would make no difference. Gullop Economy. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/165791/americans-prefer-male-boss.aspx
• Sandberg, S. (2013). Lean in. Women, work, and the will to lead. London: W.H. Allen.
• Stogdill, R.M. (1974). Handbook of leadership: A survey of the literature. New York: Free Press.
• Schein, V.E. (1975). Relationships between sex role stereotypes and requisite management characteristics among female managers. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(60), 340-344.
• Seifert, C.M. (1984). Reactions to leaders: effects of sex of leader, sex of subordinate, method of leader selection and task outcome. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B. Sciences and Engineering, 45(12), 3999.
• Yukl, G. (2011). Leadership in organizations. New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley for Pearson Education.
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Grácies