Psychology Assignment

Topic : Psychology and its Key Theories

Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external environment.

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History Of PsychologyPsychology is a fairly new science.

Until the 19th century it was not recognized as a separate field of study.

The birth of psychology as a formal science can be traced back to 1879.

It was founded by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig, Germany.

Fields Of PsychologyClinical PsychologyClinical psychologists assess and

treat people with psychological problems.

They may act as therapists for people experiencing normal psychological crises (e.g., grief) or for individuals suffering from chronic psychiatric disorders.

Fields Of PsychologyConsumer PsychologyConsumer Psychology is the study of human responses to product and service related information and experiences.

The goals of consumer psychologists are to describe, predict, influence, and/or explain consumer responses. 

Fields Of PsychologyDevelopmental PsychologyDevelopmental psychologists study how we

develop intellectually, socially, emotionally, and morally during our lifespan.

Some focus on just one period of life (e.g., childhood or adolescence).

Developmental psychologists usually do research and teach in academic settings, but many act as consultants to day-care centers, schools, or social service agencies.

Fields Of PsychologyForensic Psychology and Psychology with the Law

Psychology and the law studies legal issues from a psychological perspective (e.g., how juries decide cases) and psychological questions in a legal context (e.g., how jurors assign blame or responsibility for a crime).

Fields Of PsychologyIndustrial Organizational Psychology Industrial/Organizational Psychology is a field in which

scientific principles are developed and applied in the workplace.

Industrial Psychology is focused on the management perspective of organizational effectiveness through the proper use of human resources and people. Common issues in Industrial Psychology include performance appraisals, efficient job design, and employee selection and training.

Organizational Psychology, on the other hand, is focused more on the individual employee. It is concerned with understanding and enhancing the well-being and development of the individual employee. Common issues in Organizational Psychology include job stress, employee attitudes and behavior, and supervisory practices .

Fields Of PsychologySocial PsychologySocial psychologists study how our beliefs, feelings, and behaviors are affected by other persons.

Some of the topics of interest to social psychologists are attitudes, aggression, prejudice, love, and interpersonal attraction.

What Is a Theory? The term theory is used with surprising frequency in

everyday language. It is often used in to mean a guess, hunch, or supposition. It is important to note as you study psychology and other scientific topics, that a theory in science is not the same as the colloquial use of the term.

A theory is a based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence.

A theory presents a concept or idea that is testable. In science, a theory is not merely a guess. A theory is a

fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon. In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviors.

A psychological theory has two key components: a) It must describe a behavior b) It must make predictions about future behaviors

Reasons to Study Psychology TheoriesAll of these theories provide valuable

information about the history of psychology, the progression of thought on a particular topic and a deeper understanding of current theories.

By understanding how thinking has progressed, you can get a better idea not only of where psychology has been, but where it might be going in the future.

Key Theories Of I/O Psychology

1. Equity Theory

2. Expectancy Theory

3. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

4. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

5. Classical Conditioning

EQUITY THEORY

Equity theory was first developed in 1963 by Jane Stacy Adams.

It says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequalities.

The higher an individual's perception of equity, the more motivated they will be.

If someone perceives an unfair environment, they will be demotivated.

EQUITY THEORY

Adam’s EQUITY THEORY diagram

The structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes.

Ratio comparisons PerceptionSituation

of an employee

Individual’s outcome < Other’s outcome Individual’s input Other’s input Inequity Anger

Individual’s outcome = Other’s outcome Individual’s input Other’s input Equity Satisfied

Individual’s outcome > Other’s outcome Individual’s input Other’s input Inequity Pride,

Over confidenc

e and Guilt

SELF INSIDE :- An employee’s experiences in a different

position inside the employee’s current organisation. SELF OUTSIDE :- An employee’s experiences in a situation

or position outside the employee’s current organisation. OTHER INSIDE :- Another individual or group of

individuals inside the employee’s organisation. OTHER OUTSIDE :- Another individual or group of

individuals outside the employee’s organisation.

Referent comparisons are categorised under:

i. Change their inputsii. Change their outcomesiii. Distort perceptions of selfiv. Distort perceptions of othersv. Choose a different referentvi. Leave the field

When employees perceive inequity, they can be predicted to make one of the following choices:

EXPECTANCY THEORY

EXPECTANCY THEORYIt says that individuals have different sets

of goals and can be motivated if they have certain expectations

It is about choice, it explains the processes that an individual undergoes to make choices.

The Expectancy Theory of Victor Vroom deals with motivation and management. It assumes that behavior result from conscious choices among alternative whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

The theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Key elements:◦Valence (V)◦Instrumentality (I)◦Expectancy (E)

Expectancy

• “Can I achieve the

desired level of

task performanc

e?”

Instrumentality

• “What work outcomes

will be received as a result of

the performanc

e?”

Valence

• “How highly do I value work outcome?”

Valence The emotional orientation people hold with

respect to outcomes (rewards).

Value varies from -1 to +1. -1 individual prefers not accomplish an

outcome compared with achieving it.

0 individual is unconcerned to the outcome. +1 individual has the strong preference to the

outcome.

Valence must be +1 for higher motivation.

Valence -1 employees feels that the rewards

that they received are not worthy with their efforts to show up for work during a snowstorm.

+1 employees are motivated go to work during a snowstorm as they has the high inclination to the outcome.

Instrumentality The belief that the first level outcome

will lead to the second level outcome.

Value varies from 0 to 1. High instrumentality rate employee sees

that promotions are based on performance. Low instrumentality will be made if the

employee fails to see the relation between performance and reward.

Instrumentality Employees believed that excellent

performance will be given a good rewards they will be motivated to come to work in any conditions

If employees didn’t see the correlation between performance and reward they don’t care and not make any effort to leave their home.

Expectancy The belief that an effort will lead to

completion of a task.

Value varies from 0 to 1. 0 employee sees no possibility that

any effort will lead to the desired performance.

1 employee is confident that the task will be completed.

Expectancy Don’t make any effort to leave home

during snowstorm employee believed that he will not achieved the desired performance even he come to work.

Motivated to show up for work with the right amount of effort he is confident the task will be completed.

Managerial Implications of Expectancy theoryAccording to Expectancy theory:

Valence

Instrumentality

Expectancy

Motivation

Influence of components in Expectancy theory of motivation

Valence Instrumentality

Expectancy

Motivation

High High High High Low High High

Moderate

High Low High Moderate

Low Low High Low High High Low Low Low High Low Low High Low Low Low Low Low Low Very

Low

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

MASLOW’S HIERARCHY THEORY OF MOTIVATION

•Hierarchy of Needs suggests that people are motivated to fulfil basic needs before moving on to other, more advanced needs.•This hierarchy is most often displayed as a pyramid. The lowest levels of the pyramid are made up of the most basic needs, while the more complex needs are located at the top of the pyramid.

Safety Needs

Belongingness & Love Needs

Physiological Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-Actualization

Physiological NeedsThese include the most basic needs that are vital to survival, such as the need for water, air (oxygen), food, and sleep/rest.

Maslow believed that these needs are the most basic and instinctive needs in the hierarchy.

Safety or Security NeedsIncludes a desire for steady

employment, health care, safe neighbourhoods, and shelter from the environment.

These needs have to do with man’s yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control.

Love and BelongingIt involves emotionally-based

relationships in general, such as friendship, sexual intimacy, acceptance and having a supportive and communicative family.

Self-Esteem NeedsIt includes the need for things that

reflect on self-esteem, personal worth, social recognition, and accomplishment.

People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby.

Self-ActualizationSelf-actualization is the

instinctual need of humans to make the most of their abilities and to strive to be the best they can.

Need for growth, development and utilization of potential, becoming all that one can be, self-fulfilment.

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY

HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY Frederick Herzberg’s well known Two-Factor

Theory was designed in year 1959. Based on two hundred engineers and accountant

feedback collected in the USA regarding their personal feelings towards their working environments, Herzberg defined two sets of factors in deciding employees working attitudes and level of performance, named Motivation & Hygiene Factors (Robbins, 2009).

Two Factor Theory states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction, while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction.

Herzberg’s Theory Rests on 2 Assumptions

1.) Being satisfied with one’s job is equivalent to being motivated; “a satisfied worker is a motivated worker”

2.) Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate concepts with unique determinants based on work with accountants and engineers

Satisfaction which is mostly affected by the "motivator factors". Motivation factors help increase the satisfaction but aren't that affective on dissatisfaction.

Dissatisfaction is the results of the "hygiene factors". These factors, if absent or inadequate, cause dissatisfaction, but their presence has little effect on long-term satisfaction.

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

Hygiene Factors

Rate of Pay

Quality of

Supervision

Job Security

Company Policies

Relation with

Others

Motivati-onal

Factors

Career Advance-ment

Personal

Growth

Recognit-ion

Respons-ibility

Achieve-ment

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

What is Classical Conditioning?

Classical Conditioning- A learned reflex/response that you do when evoked by a stimulus

Pavlov performed experiments with dogs on to collect saliva

He noticed that the dogs would salivate when powdered meat was present

What is Classical Conditioning?

Pavlov associated the ringing of a bell with the presence of powdered meat

He rang the bell every time the dogs were served food

Pavlov started ringing the bell and the dogs would salivate without the powdered meat being present

Thus, a learned reflex

The Unconditioned Stimulus is one that unconditionally, naturally, and

automatically triggers a response.

The Unconditioned Response is the unlearned response that occurs

naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus.

Four Components of Conditioning:

The Conditioned Stimulus is previously neutral stimulus that, after

becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response.

The Conditioned Responseis the learned response to the previously

neutral stimulus.

Referenceswww.wikipedia.orgwww.mit.eduwww.merriam-webster.comwww.verywell.comwww.owlcation.comwww.gradschools.comwww.slideshare.comwww.evostudies.com