Chapter 4 operating emergency vehicles

Operating Emergency Vehicles

Chapter 4

Driving Practices

• The first goal of the driver/operator is to get the apparatus and its crew to the scene in an expedient yet safe and efficient manner.

• NFPA statistics historically show that 15 % to 20% of all firefighter injuries and deaths are caused by vehicle collisions while responding to or returning from emergency calls. This equates to about 25 firefighter deaths a year.

Collision Statistics and Causes

• Two studies on EMS providers (New York & Pennsylvania) indicate that collisions are most likely to occur during ideal vision and road conditions.

Collision Statistics and Causes

In general, fire apparatus collisions can be grouped into the following five basic causes:

1. Improper backing of the apparatus 2. Reckless driving by the public 3. Excessive Speed by the fire apparatus 4. Lack of driving skill and experience by the fire apparatus driver 5. Poor apparatus design or maintenance

Improper Backing of Apparatus

• Large percentage of collisions occur while backing.

• Seldom serious• Account for a

significant portion of overall damage costs.

Reckless Driving by the Public

Some of the more common problems include: Failure to obey posted traffic

regulations or directions Failure to yield to

emergency vehicles Excessive speed Unpredictable behavior

created by a panic reaction to an approaching emergency vehicle

Inattentiveness

Excessive Speed by the Apparatus Driver/Operator

• The urgency of the emergency often leads to the driver/operator driving the fire apparatus at speeds faster than should reasonably be used.

• Excessive speed may lead to one of the two following types of collisions occurring:– Control of the apparatus is lost on a curve or

adverse road surface.– The driver is unable to stop the apparatus in

time to avoid a collision.

Lack of Driving Skill and Experience

• Lack of driving skill may be attributed to a number of factors, including insufficient training and unfamiliarity with the vehicle .

• Fire departments must ensure that all driver/operator candidates complete a thorough training program before they are allowed to drive fire apparatus under emergency conditions.

Lack of Driving Skilland Experience

• There are a number of other factors that may contribute to collisions that involve driver error as the cause. They include:– Overconfidence in one’s driving ability.– Inability to recognize a dangerous situation.– False sense of security because of a good

driving record.– Misunderstanding of apparatus capabilities.– Lack of knowledge about how to operate the

controls of the apparatus in an emergency.

Poor Apparatus Design or Maintenance

• Poor apparatus design is generally attributed to “homebuilt” vehicles that have been constructed by members of the department or by local mechanics. – Commonly these vehicles or overweight– Have high centers of gravity

– On chassis that were already worn out


• Homebuilt water tenders have had a high incidence of serious collisions.– Chassis frequently are not designed for the

weight of the water that will be carried on them.– Many times the water tanks are improperly

baffled which allows the water to surge within the tank. This can cause the vehicle to lose control.


• Poor maintenance can lead to vehicle system failure which can cause a collision.– Particularly true with

braking systems.– Low air pressure in

tires and insufficient tire tread can also cause the vehicle to lose control.

Driving regulations

• Driver/operators of fire apparatus are regulated by:– Federal law

– State or provincial motor vehicle codes

– City ordinances– NFPA standards– Departmental policies

Driving Regulations• Unless specifically exempt, fire apparatus

driver/operators are subject to any statute, rule, regulation, or ordinance that governs any vehicle operator.

• A statute may exempt emergency vehicles, responding to an emergency, from driving regulations that apply to the general public such as speed, direction of travel, direction of turns, and parking.

• All traffic signals and rules must be obeyed when returning from an alarm or any other non-emergency driving.

Driving Regulations

• Emergency vehicles are not exempt from laws that require vehicles to stop for school buses that are flashing signal lights to board or disembark children.

• Fire apparatus should proceed only after a proper signal is given by the bus driver or police officer

Driving Regulations

• A driver/operator who does not obey state, local, or departmental driving regulations can be subject to criminal and civil prosecution if involved in a collision.

• Both the driver and the fire department may be held responsible if he/she is found negligent in the operation of the emergency vehicle.

Starting the Vehicle

• The driver should start the apparatus as soon as possible so that it is warmed up when the rest of the crew is assembled and ready to respond.

• Let it idle as long as possible before putting it in road gear.

• For non-emergency response this could be 3-5 minutes; for emergency response this may only be a few seconds.

Starting the Vehicle

• When starting the apparatus in any condition, but especially emergency response conditions, the first thing the driver/operator needs to know is where the apparatus is going.

• The vehicle should not be moved until everyone is seated and wearing a seat belt.

Shore Lines• Disconnect all shore lines

– Electrical cords – used to keep the batteries charged at all times

– Air hoses – may be used to keep an adequate amount of air in the vehicle’s air brake system at all times.

– Exhaust hoses – used to vent diesel fumes to the exterior of the station.

• Some ground shore lines are designed to pop off automatically. Make sure that they release before the apparatus is moved from the station

Turn on the Vehicle Batteries Most apparatus are equipped with a battery switch

intended to turn off all vehicle electrical systems when the apparatus is parked and shutdown. The purpose of this switch is to prevent unwanted electrical drains on the battery.

Most apparatus are equipped with two batteries. This is a back up measure in case one of the batteries is dead.

The battery switch may have four settings: Off, Battery1, Battery 2, and Both.

Newer apparatus may have a simple on/off switch.

Start the Engine(Manual Transmission)

• The driver should start the engine with the drive transmission in Neutral and the vehicle’s parking brake set.

• Begin the process by turning on the ignition switch.

• Press down on the clutch pedal and then operate the starter control.

• The starter controls should be operated at intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a rest period of 60 seconds between each try.

Start the Engine(Automatic Transmission)

The driver should start the engine with the drive transmission in Neutral or Park.

The vehicles parking brake should be set. Start the process by turning on the ignition

switch. Then start the engine using the starter controls. The starter controls should be operated at

intervals of no more than 30 seconds, with a rest of 60 seconds between each try.

Observe the Apparatus Gauges• Make sure that all gauges move into their normal

operative ranges.

• If the oil pressure gauge doesn’t indicate any reasonable amount of oil pressure within 5 to 10 seconds of starting the apparatus, stop the engine immediately.

• The air pressure gauge should be checked to make sure that adequate pressure is built up to release the parking brake. It may be necessary to let the engine idle until air pressure is built up to an appropriate level. (the low pressure warning signal must come on before the pressure drops to less than 60 psi)

Observe Apparatus Gauges

Adjust the Seat, Mirrors, and Steering Wheel

• If the driver/operator was not the last person to drive this vehicle, he should take a moment while the engine is idling/warming to properly adjust the seat and mirrors.

• It is generally best to adjust the seat first.• Once the seat is in the desired location,

adjust the mirrors so that you can clearly see to the rear of the apparatus.

Driving the Manual Transmission Apparatus

• Start in low gear.• Keep the apparatus in low gear until the proper speed or

rpm’s is reached for shifting to a higher gear.• When climbing a hill shift the transmission to a lower

gear. • On sharp curves or when turning corners, shift to a lower

gear before entering the curve or corner• When driving downhill, select a lower gear. The engine

provides braking power when the vehicle is in gear.

Driving the Automatic Transmission Apparatus

• Move the shifter into the appropriate gear selection.

• Be aware that the pressure placed upon the accelerator influences automatic shifting.

• Driver/operators have the option of manually selecting a particular gear for operation on apparatus equipped with an automatic transmission.

Driving the Automatic Transmission Apparatus

• Some automatic transmissions are operated with a stick shift.

• New apparatus may have push-button transmission selectors

Cruising

• Once moving, accelerate the vehicle gradually. • Attempt to maintain engine rpm control through

correct throttling. Keeping the engine operating within its power curve ensures adequate power and optimum fuel economy.

• Avoid lugging the engine. Lugging occurs when the engine cannot respond to the amount of work being asked for by the operator.

Cruising

• When over-throttling occurs with a diesel engine, more fuel is being injected than can be burned. This results in an excessive amount of carbon particles issuing from the exhaust (black smoke), oil dilution, and additional fuel consumption.

Stopping the Apparatus

• The process of braking fire apparatus to a standstill should be performed smoothly so that the apparatus will come to a even stop.

• Some apparatus employ engine brakes that assist in braking. Because they provide most of the necessary slowing action, these devices allow the driver to limit the use of service brakes to emergency stops and final stops.

Stopping the Apparatus

• Auxiliary braking devices save wear on the service brakes and make the apparatus easier to manage on hills and slippery roads.

Engine Idling

• Shut the engine down rather than leave it idling for long periods of time.

• Long idling time can result in the use of ½ gallon of fuel per hour, the build-up of carbon in injectors, valves, pistons, and valve seats; misfiring because of injector carboning; and damage to the turbocharger shaft seals.

• When the engine must be left to idle for an extended period of time, set it to idle at 900 to 1,100 rpm rather that a slower speed.

Engine Shutdown

• Never attempt to shut down engine while the apparatus is in motion– This shuts off fuel flow and fuel flow is required for

lubrication.

• Never shut down immediately after full-load operation. – This results in immediate increase of engine

temperature, oil film “burning” on hot surfaces, possible damage to heads and exhaust manifolds, and possible damage to the turbocharger.

Engine Shutdown

• Allow the engine temperature to stabilize before shutdown.

• A hot engine should be idled until it has cooled.

• Generally, an idle period of 3 to 5 minutes is recommended.

Safe Driving Techniques

• Attitude• Apparatus Rider Safety

• Backing the Vehicle• Defensive Driving Techniques• Auxiliary Braking Systems

• Passing Other Vehicles• Adverse Weather• Warning Devices

Attitude

• Develop a safety conscious attitude.

• The driver who drives aggressively, failing to observe safety precautions. Is a menace to other vehicles, pedestrians, and other firefighters in the apparatus.

Attitude

• Drivers must realize that they cannot demand the right-of-way, although they may legally have it.

• In addition to safety aspects, the driver should always consider the public image aspects.

• Reckless operation, degrading gestures, and verbal assaults toward members of the public will not assist in maintaining the positive image you seek.

Apparatus Rider Safety

• The driver must always assure the safety of all personnel riding on the apparatus.

• It is most desirable for riders to don their protective gear before getting in the apparatus.

• NFPA 1901, Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus, requires that a seat and seat belt be provided within the cab or body of the apparatus for every firefighter who is expected to ride the truck.

Apparatus Rider Safety

• NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program, also specifically states that all riders must be seated and belted. The standard does, however, provide three exceptions to the requirement:– When providing patient care in the back of an

ambulance

– When loading hose back onto a fire apparatus– When training personnel to drive the tiller portion of

a tractor-drawn aerial apparatus.

Backing the Vehicle

• All fire departments should have firmly established procedures for backing the vehicle.

• Whenever possible, the driver should avoid backing the apparatus.– It is normally safer and quicker to drive around

the block and start again.– It is desirable to have drive-through bays that

negate the necessity to back the apparatus into them.

Backing the Vehicle

• When it is necessary to back fire apparatus, there should be at least one firefighter- and preferably two- with a portable radio or headset to clear the way and warn the driver of any obstacles.

Backing the Vehicle

• If two spotters are used, only one should communicate with the driver. The second spotter should assist the first one.

• Very simply, if you cannot see the spotters, do not back the apparatus!

• All fire apparatus should be equipped with a back up alarm.

Defensive Driving Techniques

• Sound defensive driving skills are one of the most important aspects of safe driving.

• Every driver should be familiar with the basic concepts of defensive driving which include:– Anticipating other drivers’ actions– Estimating visual lead time– Knowing braking and reaction times– Combating skids

– Knowing evasive tactics– Having knowledge of weight transfer


• The driver should know the rules that govern the general public when emergency vehicles are on the road.– Most laws provide that other vehicles must pull

toward the right and remain at a standstill until the emergency vehicle has passed.

• People may panic at the sound of an approaching emergency vehicle or may not hear the warning signals at all.


• Intersections are the most likely place that an emergency vehicle will have a collision.– The driver should slow the vehicle to where a complete stop

can be made if necessary.– The driver should stop the apparatus, even when faced with a

green light, if the view of the intersection is obstructed.

• A fire apparatus making an emergency response, may proceed through a red traffic signal or stop sign after coming to a complete stop and assuring that all lanes of traffic are accounted for and yielding to the apparatus.


• Where all lanes of traffic are blocked in the same direction as the fire apparatus is traveling, the driver should move the apparatus into the opposing lane of traffic and proceed at an extremely reduced speed.– All warning devices must be used.– Where oncoming traffic will not be able to see the

apparatus, this procedure is not recommended. – The driver must be alert for traffic that may enter

from access roads and driveways.


• The use of warning sirens, lights and signals is essential.

• The driver must realize that these signals may be blanketed by other warning devices and by street noises.

• Serious collisions have occurred due to over reliance on warning signals.

Anticipating Other Drivers’ Actions

• Never assume what another driver’s actions will be

• Expect the unexpected• Anticipation is the key

to safe driving.

Anticipating Other Drivers’ Actions

• Always remember the following control factors:– Aim high in steering: Find a safe path will ahead.

– Get the big picture: Stay back and see it all.– Keep your eyes moving: Scan – do not stare.– Leave yourself an “out”: Be prepared by expecting the

unexpected.– Make sure that others can see and hear you: Use

lights, horn and signals in combination.

Visual Lead Time

• Visual lead time refers to the driver scanning far enough ahead, for the speed which is being driven, to assure that appropriate action can be taken if necessary.– The driver needs to learn to match the speed he is traveling with

the distance ahead of the vehicle he is surveying.

• Visual lead time interacts directly with reaction time and stopping distances.– By “aiming high in steering” and “getting the big picture”, it is

possible to become more keenly aware of conditions that may require slowing or stopping.

Braking and Reaction Time

• A driver should know the total stopping distance for a particular fire apparatus.

• The total stopping distance is the sum of the driver reaction distance and the vehicle braking distance

Braking and Reaction Time

• The driver reaction distance is the distance a vehicle travels while the driver is transferring the foot from the accelerator to the brake after perceiving the need to stop.

• The braking distance is the distance the vehicle travels from the time the brakes are applied until the apparatus comes to a complete stop.

Braking Distance

• There are a number of factors that influence the drivers ability to stop.– Condition of the driving surface.– Speed of the apparatus.– Weight of the vehicle.

– Type and condition of the braking system.

Weight Transfer

• Weight transfer occurs as the result of physical laws that state that objects in motion tend to stay in motion; objects at rest tend to remain at rest.– When a vehicle undergoes a change in velocity

or direction, weight transfer takes place relative to the severity of change.

Weight Transfer

• Weight transfer can contribute to skidding or possible rollover. These conditions can result from too much speed in turns, harsh or abrupt steering action, or driving on slopes too steep for a particular apparatus. – Steering should be smooth and continuous.

– Maintain a speed that is slow enough to prevent severe weight transfer from occurring. This is particularly important on curves.

Combating Skids

• The best way to combat skidding is to avoid the conditions that lead to skidding.

• The most common causes of skids involve driver error:– Driving to fast for road conditions.– Failing to properly appreciate weight shifts.– Improper use of auxiliary braking devices.– Improper tread depth and tire pressure.

Combating Skids

• Most newer apparatus are equipped with antilock braking systems (ABS).

• When driving a vehicle equipped with an ABS, maintain a steady pressure on the brake pedal (rather than pumping the pedal) until the apparatus is brought to a complete halt.

Combating Skids

• When an apparatus not equipped with ABS goes into a skid; release the brakes, and turn the apparatus steering wheel so that the front wheels face in the direction of the skid.

Auxiliary Braking Systems

• The front brake-limiting valve type commonly known as the “dry road/slippery road” switch, reduced the air pressure on the front steering axle by 50% when activated.– This would prevent the front wheels from locking up,

allowing the driver to steer the apparatus even if the back wheels were locked into a skid.

– In actuality, it reduced the braking system by 25% which on a braking system that was not in optimum condition could cause the driver to be unable to stop.


• Another type is the inter-axle differential lock, also known as a power divider or third differential. This is another type of switch that can be activated from the cab.– It allows for a difference in speed between the

two rear axles, while providing pulling power from each axle. This is intended to provide greater traction for each axle.


• Automatic traction control (ATC) is equipped on some vehicles with ABS.

• ATC helps improve traction on slippery roads by reducing drive wheel over spin.– ATC works automatically in two ways: When

the drive wheel starts to spin, the ATC applies air pressure to brake the wheel. The ATC also reduces the engine torque to provide improved traction.

Passing Other Vehicles• In general, it is best to avoid passing vehicles that are not

pulling over to yield the right-of-way. • If the driver must pass; these guidelines should be used

to ensure safe passing:– Always travel on the innermost lanes on multi-lane roads. – Avoid passing vehicles on their right sides.– Make sure you can see that the opposing lanes are clear of

traffic.– Avoid passing other emergency vehicles if at all possible.

– Flash your high beams to get the other drivers attention.

Adverse Weather

• Rain, snow, ice, and mud make roads slippery.

• A driver must recognize these dangers and adjust the apparatus speed according to the crown of the road, sharpness of the curves and condition of the road surface.

Adverse Weather

• Remember that it takes 3 to 15 times more distance for a vehicle to come to a complete stop on snow and ice than it does on dry concrete.

Warning Devices

• All fire apparatus are equipped with a combination of visual and audible warning devices

• Audible warning devices may include:– Air horns– Bells– Mechanical sirens– Electronic sirens

Warning Devices• Studies show that civilian

drivers react better to sounds that change pitch often.

• At speeds above 50 mph, an emergency vehicle may outrun the effective range of its audible warning device.

• At 40 mph a siren can project 300 feet in front of a vehicle, at 60 mph the siren is only audible 12 feet or less in front of the vehicle.

Warning Devices• White lights can be distinguished during day light

hours, therefore headlights should be turned on while responding.

• A spot light moving across the back window of a vehicle; rapidly gains the driver’s attention.– The spot light should not be left shinning on the

vehicle, because this blinds the driver.

Warning Devices• The trend in recent years has been to

equip apparatus with a large amount of visual warning devices.– This quantity has proven effective during

response.

– However, the large quantity of lights has over powered the effectiveness of firefighters’ protective trim. Therefore it is desirable to turn off some of the lights on the apparatus once it is parked.

Warning Devices

• Some apparatus have been equipped with yellow warning lights that are turned on when the apparatus is parked on the scene.

• The red flashing and strobe lights can be turned off which allows approaching vehicles headlights to more effectively illuminate the reflective trim worn by firefighters.

Presentations & Public Speaking

Chapter 4 operating emergency vehicles