Cultural Patterns and Communication:

Taxonomies (Chapter 5, pp. 109-135, Intercultural Competence, Lustig &

Koester, 2006)

JERRY SMITH

What we will cover

1.Brief Background2.Hall’s High- and Low-Context Cultural

Taxonomy3.Hofstede’s Cultural Taxonomy4.Confucian Cultural Patterns5.Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural

Competence6.Review

1. Brief Background (pp. 109-110)

• Two different but related taxonomies that describe variations in cultural patterns.• Edward Hall

• Cultures differ in the extent to which their primary message patterns are high context or low context

• Geert Hofstede• Five dimensions where cultures vary

Caution

• Neither approach is sacred• The parts of each system are interrelated

• Cultural patterns are understandable not in isolation but as a whole

• Individual members of each culture may vary greatly• These kinds of taxonomies can lead to

stereotyping

2. Edward T. Hall’s High- and Low-Context Cultural Taxonomy

(pp. 110-114)

• Organizes cultures by the amount of information implied by the setting or context of the communication• Regardless of the specific words that are

spoken

• One of the functions of culture is to provide a screen between the person and stimuli• Perceptual stimuli: sights, sounds, smells,

tastes, and bodily sensations• Culture helps screen what perceptions to

notice and how to interpret them

Cultures differ on a continuum that ranges from high-context

to low-context messages• High-context cultures • Low-context cultures

https://newzealandtochina.wordpress.com/2011/04/30/high-and-low-context-cultures/

High-Context Cultures

• Prefer to use high-context messages • Most of the meaning is implied• Very little explicit information• E.g. Japanese, African American, Mexican, Latino• Simple example: Two people in a long term

relationship• Know what the other is thinking• Can interpret even the slightest gesture or briefest

comment

Low-Context Cultures

• Prefer to use low-context messages• Majority of information is explicit (in the code)• E.g. German, Swedish, European American, and

English• Simple example: Computers

• Computers require precise data to understand a message• They will not accept or respond to instructions that do

not have every space, period, letter and number in precisely the right location

• The message must be overt and explicit

https://cccmit.wordpress.com/2015/01/21/high-context-and-low-context-communication/

Hall’s High- and Low-Context Cultures

• Some cultures have the majority of messages that are high-context• While others are low• Others are a combination of the two

• These contexts reveal the beliefs, values, norms, and social practices of the culture

• Characteristics include• Use of covert or overt messages• Importance of ingroups and outgroups• Orientation toward time

A. Use of Covert and Overt Messages (pp. 111-113)

• Imagine something you are very familiar with• E.g. Repairing a car, cooking, sewing, a sport

• When talking with someone familiar with it• Less explicitness needed (verbal and non-verbal

messages)• Verbal shorthand

• When talking with someone NOT familiar with it• More explicitness needed (verbal and non-verbal

messages)• Explain more, be more precise, more background

High Context Cultures

• Meanings are internalized• Large emphasis on nonverbal cues• Messages are pre-programmed• Little interpretation needed• Shared meanings

• Interpretation is already known• Example from Indonesia (pp. 111-112)

• Communication used to sustain harmony between participants

• E.g. Japan

Low Context Cultures

• Meaning is sought in plainly expressed messages

• Precise messages• Specific words• Communication is used to convey exact

meaning• Therefore, reactions are frequently explicit

and observable

B. Importance of Ingroups and Outgroups (pp. 113-114)

• High-Context Cultures• Easy to determine who is/is not a member of

the group• Much meaning of messages embedded in

rules/rituals• Easy to tell who is acting according to norms• Strong commitment between people

• Strong sense of responsibility to the group • Loyalty to family and members of social /

work groups• Low-Context cultures have fragile bonds

C. Orientation to Time (p. 114)

• High-Context Cultures• More open, less structured, more responsive to the

immediate needs of people• Less subject to external goals and constraints

• Low-Context Cultures• Time is highly organized

• Additional group energy needed to understand the messages of others

• Almost forced to pay attention in order to complete the work of living with others

https://crossculturalindrani.wordpress.com/

3. Geert Hofstede’s Cultural Taxonomy (pp. 114-131)

• An “impressive study”• Surveyed over 100,000 IBM employees in 71

countries• Used theoretical reasoning and statistical

analyses to identify FIVE DIMENSIONS of dominant cultural patterns that can be ordered

• Provides an excellent study of the relationships between cultural values and social behaviors

Based on the idea that people have “software of the mind”

• Developed during childhood• Reinforced by culture• Contain the ideas of a culture,

expressed through its dominant values

A. Individualism vs. Collectivism (pp. 115-119)• Addresses the relationships of the larger social groups

that we are a part of• A balance between showing concern for others and

concern for self• How cultures vary in their view of autonomy (favorably

of unfavorably)• How cultures vary in their tendency to encourage

independence (uniqueness) or interdependence (conformity)

• The degree to which a culture relies on and has allegiance to the self or the group

http://quotesgram.com/collectivism-vs-individualism-quotes/

Countries with Relatively HIGH IDV

• Australia, Belgium, the Netherlands, United States

• People are supposed to take care of themselves• And perhaps immediate families

• Autonomy of the individual is paramount• Decisions based on what is good for me• Individual determinations of right and wrong• Key words: independence, privacy, self, and I

Countries with Relatively LOW IDV

• Guatemala, Indonesia, Pakistan, West Africa

• Prefer collectivism• Require absolute loyalty to the group• Decisions based on what is best for the

group• Expectation to look out for and take

care of individual members• Emphasis on we

Predictors of IDV (p. 117)

• Economic development• Wealthy cultures tend to be individualistic• Poor cultures tend to be collectivistic• Strong evidence suggests that as cultures become more

economically advanced, they become more individualistic

• Climate• Cultures in colder climates tend to be individualistic

• Foster individual initiative and innovative solutions to problems

• Cultures in warmer climates tend to be collectivistic• Individual achievements are less necessary

Consequences of IDV (pp. 117-119)

• Explains HUGE cultural differences• Scholars believe IDV is the most important attribute that

distinguishes one culture from another

• Collectivist cultures impose a greater psychological distance between in- and out-group members• Members are considered almost inconsequential to the

greater need of the group

• Individualistic culture members are not as close but there is less of a distance between groups

B. Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)

• Addresses adapting to changes and coping with uncertainties

• Cultures differ in how they deal with the anxiety of unpredictable situations and ambiguity (uncertainty)

• A perceived need to be changeable and adaptable• UAI refers to the extent to which a culture feels

threatened by ambiguous situations – trying to avoid them by adding more structure

Countries with Relatively LOW UAI

• Denmark, Jamaica, Ireland, Singapore• A high tolerance for uncertainty• Believe in minimizing rules and rituals• Acceptance and encouragement of dissent• Tolerant of people with socially deviant

members• Believe in taking risks and trying new

things

Countries with Relatively HIGH UAI

• Greece, Guatemala, Portugal, Uruguay• Prefer to avoid uncertainty• Demand consensus about societal goals• Do not tolerate dissent or deviancy in

members• Ensure certainty and security through

rules, regulations, and rituals

Predictors of UAI

• NO straightforward explanations• In general

• High-UAI cultures tend to be those beginning to modernize• Have a high rate of change• Often embrace religions of Catholicism and Islam

• Low-UAI cultures tend to be advanced in their level of modernization• More stable and predictable• Often embrace religions of Buddhism and Unitarianism

• Emphasize relativity

Consequences of UAI

• Cultures with high levels of UAI tend to be more worried about the future • Highly resistant to change• Elaborate and precise rituals and religious practices

• Cultures with low levels of UAI tend to live day-by-day• More willing to accept change and take risks

• Differences in UAI can lead to unexpected problems in intercultural communication

C. Power Distance (PDI)

• Addresses human inequality• All people in a culture do NOT have equal levels of status

or social power• Wealth, age, gender, education, physical strength, birth order,

personal achievements, family background, occupation, etc.

• Cultures differ in how they view such status inequalities as good/bad, right/wrong, just/unjust, fair/unfair

• Reflects the degree to which the current culture believes that institutional and organizational power should be distributed unequally • And whether the decisions of those in power should be

challenged, questioned, or accepted

Countries with a Relatively LOW PDI

• Austria, Denmark, Israel, New Zealand• Prefer small power distances as a

cultural value• Importance of minimizing social or class

inequalities• Question or challenge authority figures• Reductionist approach to hierarchical

organizational structures• Use power for legitimate purposes

Countries with a Relatively HIGH PDI

• Arab countries, Guatemala, Malaysia, Philippines• Prefer large power distances• Everyone has a rightful and protected place in the

social order• Authorities should not be questioned or challenged• Hierarchy and inequality are appropriate and

benevolent • Those with social status have a right to use their

power for whatever purposes and whatever ways they want

Predictors of (PDI)

• Climate (p. 123)• By far, the single best predictor

• Cold climate low PDI, Hot climate High PDI

• Population Size• The larger the culture, the greater the PDI is likely to be

• Forced to adopt a more distant, more impersonal, and less accessible political hierarchy

• Distribution of Wealth• The more unequally wealth is distributed in a culture, the

greater the culture’s power distance • More evenly distributed wealth is related to cultures that value

education, technology, and decentralization

Consequences of Power Distance

• Evident in family customs• Children in a high-PDI environment are

expected to obey their parents• E.g., Chinese and Korean languages have

separate terms between older brother, oldest brother, and so on

• Children in a low-PDI environment put less value on obedience• Taught to seek reasons or justifications for

parents’ actions

• Relationships between students and teachers• In high-PDI cultures, students are expected to comply with the

wishes of their teachers• Conformity is regarded favorably• A great deal of rote learning• Discouraged from asking questions

• Might pose a threat to the teacher’s authority

• In low-PDI cultures, students regard their independence as important• Less likely to conform to teachers or authorities• The education system trains students to ask questions• Encouraged to solve problems creatively• Challenge evidence leading to conclusions

• Organizational practices• Managers in high-PDI cultures are likely to

prefer and autocratic or decentralized decision-making style• Subordinates want to be closely supervised

• Managers in a low-PDI culture are likely to prefer a consultative decision-making style• Subordinates expect a great deal of autonomy

as they do their work

Footnote on consequences of PDI

• European Americans (People from the USA), tend to have a relatively low-PDI (p.125)

• South American or Asian cultures tend to have a higher PDI• E.g. When people from the USA interact in such cultures,

they have a hard time adapting to the expectation that they must do what they are told without questions or reasons

• E.g. When people from Asian countries are in American culture, they feel uneasy because they expect closer supervision• But, that it may be impolite to or rude to ask for information

that might be helpful to their situation

D. Masculinity vs. Femininity / Achievement vs. Nurturance (MAS)

• The extent to which cultures prefer achievement and assertiveness vs. nurturance and social support

• The degree to which a culture values such behaviors as:• Assertiveness and the acquisition of wealth• Caring for others and the quality of life

Countries with a Relatively HIGH MAS

• Austria, Italy, Japan, Mexico• Achievement and ambition are honored• Judging people based on performance is

important• The right to display material goods that

have been acquired• Ostentatious (obvious) manliness

• Specific behaviors and products related to manliness

Countries with a Relatively LOW MAS

• Chile, Portugal, Sweden, Thailand• Believe less in external achievements and shows

of manliness• Importance of life choices that improve intrinsic

aspects of the quality of life• E.g. service to others, sympathy for the unfortunate

• Prefer equality between the sexes• Less prescriptive role behaviors• Acceptance of nurturing roles for both men and women

Predictors of MAS

• Climate• Feminine cultures tend to live in colder

climates• Need for education and equality• Both men and women need to master skills

needed for survival

• Masculine cultures tend to live in warmer climates near the equator• Less need for equality

Consequences of MAS

• Teachers in masculine cultures praise their best students because academic performance is rewarded highly• Male students in these environments tend to

be competitive, visible, successful, and vocationally oriented

• Teachers in feminine cultures rarely praise individual achievements and academic performance• Social accommodation is more highly regarded• Male students try to cooperate with each other• Develop a sense of solidarity• Try to behave modestly and properly• Try to select subjects that are intrinsically interesting

rather than vocationally rewarding• Friendliness is much more important than brilliance

E. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Time Orientation (IND)

• Separate from the previous four dimensions which have a Western bias

• Based on the work of Michael H. Bond (p. 128)

• Refers to a person’s point of reference about life and work

Countries with a Relatively LONG-TERM IND

• Admire persistence, thriftiness, humility, a sense of shame, and status differences within interpersonal relationships

• Linguistic and social distinctions between elder and younger siblings are common

• Deferred gratification of needs is widely accepted• Family life guided by shared tasks• Example culture: Chinese view a year in terms of

year-long increments (e.g. the year of the Dragon, the year of the Monkey, etc.)

Countries with a Relatively SHORT-TERM IND

• A deep appreciation for tradition, personal steadiness, and stability

• Maintaining the “face” of self and others• Balance and reciprocity when greeting others• Giving and receiving gifts and favors• Expectation of quick results following one’s actions• Example culture: Europeans view a year in terms of

day, week, and month intervals (e.g. Aries, Gemini, Pisces, etc.)

Indulgence vs. Restraint (IND) (More Recent)

Comparing Hofstede’s Five Dimensions (pp. 129-131)

4. Confucian Cultural Patterns (pp. 131-133)• Confucianism is NOT a religion, but a set of practical

principles and ethical rules for life • Observed in China, Japan, Korea, and other Asian countries

• Key principles1. Social order and stability are based on unequal

relationships2. The family is the prototype for all social relationships3. Proper social behavior consists of not treating others as

you would not like to be treated yourself4. People should be skilled, educated, hardworking, thrifty,

modest, patient, and persevering.

http://www.finchpark.com/afe/ch21.htm

http://www.sixsmart.com/SSPapers/blhw10.htm

5. Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural Competence• Cultural values vary systematically in their choices

about solutions to basic human problems• Taxonomies offer lenses through which cultural

variations can be understood and appreciated• Rather than negatively evaluated

• In any intercultural encounter, people may be communicating from very different perceptions of what reality is, of what good is, of what correct behavior is

• The taxonomies allow us to use culture specific knowledge to improve intercultural competence.

• The competent intercultural communicator must recognize that cultural variations in addressing basic human issues such as social relations, emphasis on self or group, and preferences for verbal or nonverbal code usage will always be a factor in intercultural communication.

6. Review

1.Brief Background2.Hall’s High- and Low-Context Cultural

Taxonomy3.Hofstede’s Cultural Taxonomy4.Confucian Cultural Patterns5.Cultural Taxonomies and Intercultural

Competence

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1.What does Hall mean when he refers to culture as a “screen” for its members?

2.Describe how Hofstede’s dimensions are displayed within your culture.

3.Does Hofstede’s taxonomy coincide with your own intercultural experiences? Explain.

4.Compare your own values to Confucian cultural values. In what ways are they the same? Different? What might this suggest about intercultural communication?

ACTIVITIES

• http://wilderdom.com/games/MulticulturalExperientialActivities.html

THE END