GREEK CIVILISATION

MADE BY: 2ND YEAR PRANAV DHAWANRAGHAV AGGARWALSUKRITI GULATIMEDHA ABHYANKARKANAV THAKURMANEE SINGH

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GREECE WAS SURROUNDED ON 3 SIDES BY SEA, WITH INNUMERABLE ISLANDS OF ARCHIPELAGO. GREEKS WERE GREAT SAILORS, AS THEY WERE SAILING TOWARDS MEDITERRANEAN IN SEARCH OF FOOD, TRADE AND ADVENTURE, THEY WERE LOOKING FOR NEW PLACES TO BUILD GREEKS CITIES AND OUTPOSTS.

WHILE SAILING THEY CAME ACROSS A TRIBE OF PEOPLE LIVING ON AN ISLAND IN CRETE. THESE PEOPLE WERE THE MINOANS, THEY WERE VERY ADVANCED CIVILIZATION FOR THEIR TIMES.

GREEKS HAD ABUNDANCE OF STONE ESPECIALLY MARBLE FOUND NEAR ATHENS

THE CLIMATIC CONDITIONS THERE WERE MODERATE NEITHER TOO HOT NOR TOO COLD.

OUTDOOR LIFE SUITED THEM .

3PLAN OF THE PALACE OF KNOSSOS, CRETE 1700 – 1380 BCE

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RECONSTRUCTED LIGHT WELLPALACE OF KNOSSOS, CRETE

LOCATED ON THE UPPER STOREY, THIS LIGHT-WELL IS LOCATED DIRECTLY ABOVE THE THRONE ROOM. THE FRESCO SHOWN HERE IS A RESTORATION

AS FAR AS WE KNOW KNOSSOS WAS UNFORTIFFIED.

AS MAJOR CEREMONIAL ROOMS WERE LOCATED PARTIALLY UNNDER GROUND, STAIRS TO REACH THEM WERE CONSTRUCTED AROUND OPEN SHAFTS TO BRING LIGHT AND FRESH AIR TO LOWER LEVELS. THE ORIGINAL WOODEN COLUMNS AND SUPPORTING BEAMS WERE DESTROYED IN THE FIRE THAT CONSUMED THE PALACE AROUND 1380 BCE

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THE ELLABORATE ‘THRONE ROOM’ IS PROVIDED WITH A BENCH SEATING ALONG ADJACENT WALLS. FRESCOS SHOW GRIFFINS IN LUSH FOLLIAGE. SINCE A LUSTRAL BASIN ADJOINS THIS ROOM, IT IS POSSIBLE THAT THE SPACE WAS USED FOR RELIGIOUS RITUAL RATHER THAN ROYAL AUDIENCES

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THIS FABLED CITY WAS STRATEGICALLY SITUATED TO CONTROL MAJOR TRANSPORTATION ROUTES IN THE VICINITY. THE ENCLOSING WALLS IS COMPOSED OF ROUGHLY SHAPED BOULDERS.

PLAN OF THE CITADEL MYCANAE1600 – 1250 BCE

AT MYCENAE, THE PALACE MEGARON IS THE LARGEST ROOM, ROUGHLY 40’ SQUARE. BASES FOR THE FOUR COLUMNS THAT SUPPORTED THE ROOF ARE STILL VISIBLE, AS IS THE CENTRAL HEARTH. THIS PART OF THE PALACE WAS BUILT IN PART ON FILL, SUPPORTED BY RETAINING WALL, AND THERE IS STILL A SPLINDID VIEW OUT OVER THE VALLEY FROM THE COURT IN FRONT OF THE MEGARON. TO THE NORTH, A SMALLER ROOM WITH A STUCCOED POOL HAS BEEN IDENTIFIED AS A BATHING ROOM.

THE CITADEL OF MYCENAI WAS SURROUNDED BY SMALLER SETTLEMENTS, PERHAPS COMPRISING OF EXTENDED FAMILY GROUPS WHO LIVED IN HOUSES CLOSELYL ASSOCIATED WITH THE TOMBS OF THEIR ANCESTORS. NINE OF THESE TOMBS HAVE BEEN FOUND IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD.

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THE LION GATE, MYCENAE, 1300 BCETHE CARVED LION FIGURES FLANK A COLUMN OF THE TAPERED TYPE SEEN AT KNOSSOS. THE USE OF GUARDIAN BEASTS ASSOCIATED WITH ROYALTY LINKS MYCENAE WITH BOTH THE HITTITE AND THE EGYPTIAN TRADITIONS.

2 VERTICAL STONES SUPPORT A 14 TON LINTEL ACROSS THE OPENING ABOVE WHICH IS A CORBELLED ARCH. THE SPACE OF THE ARCH IS FILLED BY A TRIANGULAR STONE WITH RELEIF SCULPTURE OF 2 LIONS WITH THEIR FOREFEET ON AN ALTAR BEARING A COLUMN OF THE TREE CULT. THE LIONS’ HEADS ARE MISSING; THEY WERE CARVED CEPERATELY AND ATTACHED WITH DOWELS, THE HOLES FOR WHICH ARE STILL VISIBLE. EVEN IN ITS DAMAGED STATE, HOWEVER, THE LION GATE ERIFIES CONTACT BY ITS CREATORS THE MINOAN WORLD, FOR THE COLUMN OF THE TREE CULT IS UNMISTAKABLY THE SAME AS THE COLUMNS USED AT KNOSSOS. TO THE NORTH STANDS A SECOND, SMALLER GATE OF THE SAME AGE AS THE LION GATE BUT WITHOUT SCULPTURE. THERE ARE ALSO INCONSPICUOUS BACK ENTRANCES OR POSTERN GATES BUILT TO PROVIDE ACCESS TO A CISTERN AND TO PROVIDE OUTLETS IN CASE OF AN EMENGENCY.

IN ARCHITECTURAL USAGE, THE WORD ‘MEGARON’ IS GENERALLY RESERVED TO DESCRIBE A SIMPLE RECTANGULAR SPACE (DOMOS) HAVING SOLID LONG WALLS WITHOUT OPENINGS AND AN ATTACHED ANTEROOM (PRO DOMOS) PRECEEDED BY A COURT. IT IS AN ELEMENTARY HOUSE FORM STILL EMPLOYED IN MEDITERRANEAN COUNTRIES, AND TH PERCURSOR OF THE CLASSICAL TEMPLE AND IT HAS EVEN BEEN USED BY 20TH CENTURY ARCHITECTS INCLUDING LE CORBUSIER.

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PLAN AND SECTION THRU THE TREASURY OF ATREUS, MYCENAE,

1330 BCE

THIS CORBELLED TOMB ASSUMES THE SHAPE OF A BEEHIVE. ITS CONSTRUCTION

MAY BE COMPARED TO THE TOMB AT ER-MANE AND THE PASSAGE GRAVE AT

NEWGRANCE. THE FUNCTION OF THE SIDE CHAMBER IS UNKNOWN, BUT IT MAY HAVE

BEEN USED FOR BURIALS.ONE OF THE BEST PRESERVED IS THE THOLOS OR BEEHIVE TOMP COMONLY

CALLED THE TREASURY OF ATREUS (CA 1330 BCE). IT IS A CORBELLED STONE

CHAMBER RISING 40’ IN 33 HORIZONTAL COURSES FROM A CIRCULAR PLAN 48’ IN

DIAMETER.

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THIS AXIAL VIEW SHOWS THE STONE-WALLED DROMOS & THE TRIANGULAR CORBELLED RELIEVING ARCH THAT DIVERTS WEIGHT AWAY FROM THE MASSIVE LINTEL STONE.

ALTHOUGH THE INTERIOR SPACE IS RELATIVELY LARGE, IT IS ALSO DARK, DERIVING ITS LIGHT ONLY FROM THE OPEN DOORWAY & TRIANGULAR TRANSOME OF THE CORBELLED ARCH ABOVE IT. THE EVEN COURSES OF ASHLAR, OR SHAPED, STONES CAN BE COMPARED TO THE IRREGULAR CYCOPEAN STONES USED ELSEWHERE AT MYCENAE.

ALL THE STONEWORK, EXCEPT FOR THE STONE-WALLED DROMOS, OR ENTRANCEWAY, IS COVERED BY AN EARTHEN MOUND, WHOSE WEIGHT ADDS STABILITY TO THE DRY MASONRY. THE CORBELLED CONSTRUCTION EMPLOYED HERE IS THE SAME TECHNIQUE USED BY PREHISTORIC MEGALITH BUILDERS IN NORTHERN EUROPE & BY EGYPTIAN MASONS AS EARLY AS THE 4TH DYNASTY. ORIGINALLY THE ENTRANCE DOORWAY WAS ELABORATELY DECORATED, & THERE IS EVIDENCE THAT THE INTERIOR WAS EMBELLISHED WITH BRONZE PLATES. MOST OF WHICH HAS BEEN ROBBED.

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CITADEL OF TIRYNSTHE CITADEL SITS ATOP A LIMESTONE RIDGE PROTECTED BY A MASSIVE WALL OF CYCLOPEAN MASONRY THAT DATES TO THE 14TH CETURY BCE. AFTER A FIRE DESTROYED THE CITADEL IN 1300 BCE, THE WHOLE WAS REBUILT TO ITS PRESENT OUTLINE, INCLUDING ENCLOSURE OF THE LOWER CITADEL WITH A 25’ THICK WALL. AN EARTHQUAKE & FIRE IN THE MID 13TH CETURY BCE DAMAGED THE COMPLEX, LEADING TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE BUILDINGS WHOSE REMAINS ARE VISIBLE TODAY.

THE SURVIVING WALLS AROUND THE UPPER CITADEL VARY FROM 16’ TO 57’ IN THICKNESS. LIKE MYCENAE, THE CITADEL AT TIRYNS HAS SEVERAL POSTERN GATES THRU WHICH PEOPLE INSIDE COULD SLIP OUT UNOBTRUSIVELY.

CORBELLED GALLERY, TIRYNS, 1300 BCETHESE PASSAGES BUILT WITHIN THE THICKNESS OF THE FORTIFIED PERIMETER WALLS, PROVIDED ACCESS TO GUARD CHAMBERS OR POSTERN EXITS FOR EMERGENCY USE.

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THE APPROACH TO TIRYNS HAS A MORE STRONGLY DEFENSIVE DESIGH THAN THE ENTRANCE TO MYCENAE. AN ALMOST SINGLE-FILE PASSAGE BESIDE AND THEN BETWEEN THE WALLS MADE WOULD-BE ATTACKERS VULNERABLE WELL BEFORE THEY REACHED THE FIRST OF THE TWO INNER GATES. BEYOND THE SECOND GATE WAS A COURT BOUNDED BY PORTICOED CHAMBERS CORBELLED INTO THE MASS OF THE WALL. THESE FACE THE RELETIVELLY NARROW PALAE GATE THAT OPEND INTO A PALACE COURT WHICH CONNECTS ON THE NORTH TO A COLONADED COURT THEN TO THE PALACE MEGARON OF PORC, ANTECHAMBER, AND DOMOS. AS AT MYCENAE, FOUR COLUMN BASES SURROUND THE SUBSTANTIAL CENTRAL HEARTH, INDICATING THE LOCATION OF THE ROOF AND ITS OPENING TO LET OUT SMOKE. FRAGMENTS OF WALL PAINTING DEPICTING PROCESSIONS OF WOMEN AND THE HUNTING OF BOARS WERE FOUND IN THE EXCAVATIONS. A SMALLER MEGARON LOCATED TO THE EAST HAS AN OUTER AND INNER COURT PRECEDING THE DOMOS. TIRYNS WAS AGAIN DEVASTED BY EARTHQUAKE IN AROUND 1200 BCE

THE ROOF OF THE HOUSES BUILT IN TIRYNS WAS PROBABLY FLAT, AND BOTH IT AND THE UPPER STOREY WERE FRAMED IN WOOD, WHICH ACCONTS FOR THE SURVIVAL OF OLY THE RUBBLE STONE FOUNDATIONS. EXCEPT FOR THE CORT AREA, WHICH WAS PAVED WITH STOE, ALL THE FLOORS WERE OF CLAY. A LARGE DRAIN EXTENDS ACROSS THE COURT AND EXITS UNDER THE FOUNDATION OF THE EAST WALL, WHILE A LESSER DRAIN IS LOACED IN THE MEGARON’S DOMOS. THE USE OF THE SMALL ROOMS OFF THE CORRIDOR HAS BEEN DETERMINED FROM POTTERY & CLAY TABLETS FOUND IN THEM TO BE STOREROOMS, EXCEPT FOR THE CHAMBER DIRECTLY OFF THE COURT, WHICH HAD BOTH A HEARTH & DRAIN SO WAS PROBABLY THE KITCHEN IT IS SURMISED THAT THE HOUSE BELOGED TO WEALTHIER PERSONS ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE OF SCENTED OILS, FOR WHICH MYCENAE WAS FAMAOUS. WHILE ALL MYCENAE HOUSES HAD MEGARON LAYOUTS, THE FORM WAS COMMON ENOUGH.

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THE GREEK TEMPLES WERE SURROUNDED BY OPEN COLONNADES IN FULL VIEW TO COMMON PEOPLE.

THE GREEK TEMPLES WERE USUALLY ORIENTED TOWARDS EAST.

THERE WAS NO REGULAR PRIESTHOOD.

THE GREEK GODS WERE CONCEIVED IN HUMAN FORM WITH HUMAN EMOTIONS.

Religious condition

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THE TERM HELLENIC IS USED TO DESCRIBE THE EARLY GREEK CIVILIZATION. ESSENTIALLY A COLUMNAR AND TRABEATED STYLE. SPANS WERE LIMITED BECAUSE OF TRABEATED STYLE. IN 600BC THE USE OF MARBLE WAS LIMITED. WALLS WERE CONSTRUCTED FROM ALL KIND OF RUBBLE AND ASHLAR, NO MORTAR WAS USED. STONE WALLS WERE BEAUTIFIED WITH MARBLE STUCCO.

THEY DIDN’T USED VAULTS OR DOMES.

EXTERIORS OF BUILDINGS WERE DESIGNED WITH COLONNADES. COLUMNS WERE MADE MORE ELEGANT AND DELICATE.

Hellinic period

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THE TERM IS USED TO DESCRIBE GREEK CIVILIZATION WHEN IT WAS INFLUENCED BY THE MIDDLE EAST. THE ARCHITECTURE HAD A RELIGIOUS CHARACTER AFTER 4TH CENTURY B.C PUBLIC BUILDINGS APPEARED TOWN PLANNING AND CIVIC SENSE DEVELOPED. ARCHES STARTED APPEARING ON WALL OPENINGS. 3 ORDERS WERE USED.

Hellinistic period

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HELLENISTIC CITIES

GREEK CITY PLANNING WAS NOT ALWAYS AS ASYMMETRICAL & EVOLUTIONARY IN FORM AS THE AGORA IN ATHENS. THE GREEKS WERE PERFECTLY CAPABLE OF PRODUCING REGULAR, ORTHONONAL TOWN PLANS AND FREQUENTLY EMPLOYED THEM FOR COLONIAL CITIES, AS MAY BE SEEN AT PAESTUM (POSEIDONIA), WHICH A STREET PATTERN FROM THE MID- SEVENTH CENTURY BCE THAT PRODUCED HUGE, ELONGATED, RECTANGULAR BLOCKS.

WHILE MANY CITIES GREW ORGANICALLY OVER TIME, OTHERS WERE REBILT, OFTEN AFTER SUFFERING WAR DAMAGE, ACORDING TO THE NEW, MORE REGULAR TOWN PLANNNING PRINCIPLES. SUCH WAS THE FACE IN THE 5TH AND 4TH CENTURIES BCE, WHEN A NUMBER OF TOWNS WERE PROVIDED WITH GRID BLOCKS & CAREFULLY CONSIDERED OPEN SPACES AND ORTHOGAL AGORA.

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THE LANGUAGE OF ARCHITECTURE: THE THREE ORDERS OF COLUMNS USED IN GREEK ARCHITECTURE

VITRUVIUS, THE ROMAN ARCHITECT WHOSE FIRST – CENTURY BCE TREATISE WAS BASED IN PART ON EARLIER, NOW LOST, GREEK TEXTS, NAMES THREE SUCH ORDERS :1 ) THE DORIC2) THE IONIC &3) THE CORINTHIAN.

THE DORIC , THE STURDIEST, WAS BASED ON THE PROPORTIONS OF A MAN.

THE IONIC, WAS LIGHTER IN CHARACTER TO REFLECT THE PROPORTIONS OF A WOMAN

THE CORINTHIAN, SLENDEREST OF ALL, HAD A HIGHLY DECORATED CAPITAL TO SUGGEST THE FORM AND PROPORTIONS OF A YOUNG MAIDEN.

THE DORIC ORIGINATED ON THE MAINLAND OF GREECE, WHILE THE IONIC DEELOPED ON THE ISLANDS OF THE AEGEAN AND THE COAST OF ASIA MINOR. THE CORINTHIAN ORDER ONLY APPEARED LATER.

EACH ORDER HAS ITS OWN PARTICULAR COMBINATION OF ELEMENTS. THE DORIC COLUMN HAS NO BASE AND HAS THE SIMPLEST CAPITAL ATOP THE FLUTED SHAFT; ITS ENTABULATURE CONSISTS OF A PLAIN ARCHITRAVE AND ALTERNATING METOPES AND TRIGLYPHS IN THE FRIEZE, WHICH IS CROWNED WITH A CORNICE.

19GCAD MONA CHANDRA

THE DORIC ORDER AS FOUND ON THE PARTHENON, ATHENSTHE DORIC’S CLEAR ARTICULATION OF ELEMENTS CATCHES SUNLIGHT IN AN EVER-CHANGING PLAY OF SHADE AND SHADOW ACROSS THE CARVED SURFACES. THIS MAY BE ONE REASON IT HAS ENDURED EVEN TO THE PRESENT AS AN EXPRESSIVE PART OF WESTERN ARCHITECTURE

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BUILDERS OF THE EARLY DORIC TEMPLES MADE USE OF LOCALLY AVAILABLE MATERIAL, MOST OFTEN LIMESTONE. THIS IMPOSED STRUCTURAL LIMITATIONS ON THE LENGTH OF SPANS FOR LINTELS AND THE DIAMETER OF COLUMNS NEEDED TO SUPPORT THE HEAVY TILE ROOF. IONIC TEMPLES USED MARBLE, A SUPERIOR STONE, AND THUS HAD A MORE SLENDER PROFILE.

AT PAESTUM IN SOUTHERN ITALY, THE TEMPLE OF HERA IN THE FORMER COLONIAL CITY OF POSEIDONIA IS ONE OF THE MOST SUBSTANTIAL OF SURVIVING ARCHAIC TEMPLES. BUILT IN ABOUT 550 BCE, IT HAS STURDY DORIC COLLUMNS. THE COLUMN SHATS SWELL, THEN DIMINISH, AS THEY RISE TO THE BULBOUS ECHINUS MOULDING THAT FORMS THE CAPITAL. THIS CHANGE IN SOLUMN DIAMETER IS CALLED ENTASIS, AND IT WAS THOUGHT TO BE COMPARABLE TO THE MASCULAR STRENGTH OF AN ARM OR LEG, EXPRESSING VISUALLY THE PHYSICAL LOAD SUSTAINED BY THE SHAFT. EACH FLUTE IS THE COLUMN HAS A PRECISE EDGE, AN ARRIS, WHERE THE CURVED SECTIONS OF ADJACENT FLUTES INTERSECT, AND THESE ARRISES RUN ABSOLUTELY STRAIGHT UP THE SHAFT ON EVERY COLUMN. ABOVE THE ECHINUS IS A FLAT SQUARE BLOCK, THE ABACUS, WHICH PROVEDES THE TRANSITION FROM THE CYLINDRICAL FORM OF THE COLUMN TO THE RECTANGULAR AND LINEAR ARCHITRAVE ABOVE. JOINTS BETWEEN LIMESTONE BLOCKS ARE EASILY SEEN AT PAESTUM, AND THE LLIMITED SPANNING CAPABILITY OF THE STONE IS REFLECTED IN THE CLOSE COLUMN SPACING .

TEMPLE OF HERA AT PAESTUM 550 BCE

THE END ELEVATION OF NINE STURDY COLU,NS, WITH ENTASIS, CAPITAL WITH FLATTENED ECHINUS PROFILES, AND SUBSTANTIAL ABACUS BLOCKS, ALL SUPPORTING AN ENTABLATURE. NOTICE HOW SHADOWS CAST BY FLUTING ON THE COLUMN SHAFTS ENHANCE THE SENSE OF VOLUME

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THE IONIC HAS A BASE SUPPORTING ITS FLUTED COLUMN SHAFT AND A CAPITAL WITH VOLUTES (SCROLLS). ITS ENTABULATURE IS ALSO COMPOSED OF AN ARCHITRAE AND FRIEZE. THERE IS REGIONAL VARIATION IN THE IONIC : ALONG THE COAST OF ASIA MINOR, THE FRIEZE IS USUALLY TREATED AS THREE STEPPED BANDS OF MASONRY. WHILE ON THE MAINLAND OF GREECE THE FRIEZE OFTEN FEATURES CONTINUOUS SCULPTED RELIEF. A CORNICE OFTEN WITH DENTILS CONCLUDES THE ORDER.

THERE WAS ALSO GENERAL CONVENTIONS REGULATING THE PROPORTIONS OF THE PARTS, THE OVERALL HEIGHT, AND THE COLUMN SPACING, WHICH THE ANCIENT GREEKS ADJUSTED ACCORDING TO PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES. ITALIAN ARCHITECTS OF THE RENAISSANCE 2000 YEARS LATER CODIFIED THE PRACTICE INTO A SET OF MATHEMATICAL RATIONS BASED ON THE COLUMN’S DIAMETER AT THE BASE, BUT MEASUREMENTS OF SURVIVING TEMPLES PROVIDE NO EVIDENCE THAT THE GREEKS EVER REDUCED TEMPLE DESIGN TO A SINGLE FORMULA. THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE WERE THUS AT ONCE SPECIFIC AND FLEXIBLE, NOT A RESTRICTION FOR DESIGNERS BUT AN EXPRESSIE MEDIUM THAT COULD BE ADAPTER TO PECIFIC CIRCUMSTANCES.

THE ORIGINS OF THE ORDERS REMAIN OBSECURE. VITRUVIUS MAINTAINS THAT THE ORDERS WERE DERIVED FROM EARLIER ARCHITECTURE IN WOOD, A MATERIAL THAT WE KNOW WAS ONCE USED FOR TEMPLES. EVEN AFTER WALLS AND COLUMNS WERE BUILT IN STONE, WOODEN BEAMS CONTINUED TO BE USED FOR FRAMING THE ROOF, SO THESE HAVE NOT SURVIVED.

THE IONIC ORDER AS FOUND ON THE NORTH PORCH OF THE ERECHTHEION, ATHENS.THE IONIC’S DECORATIVE FLOURISHES MAY RELFECT INFLUENCE FROM ORIENTTAL SOURCES. ALTHOUGH THE ENTABLATURE IS SIMPLER THAN THE DORIC’S ITS CAPITALS AND BASES ARE SUBJECT TO CONSIDERABE ARTISTIC INTERVENTION

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CORINTHIAN CAPITAL, THOLOS, EPIDAUROS 360 – 330 BCE

LAVISH CORINTHAIN CAPITALS LIKE THIS COMBINED IONIC VOLUTES WITH THE LEAVES OF THE ACANTUS PLANT, WHICH IS STILL COMMONLY FOUND IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AREA. ONLY PENTELIC MARBLE OR OTHER STONE WITH SO FINE A GRAIN ALLOWS FOR THE CARVING OF SUCH FINE DETAIL.

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PLAN OF THE PARTHENON COMPLEX

THE ACROPOLIS IS A PLATEAU RISING ABRUPTLY ABOVE THE PLAIN OF THE CITY. FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES, THE ROUTE TO THE PANATHENAIC WAY FROM THE CIVIC COMMERCCIAL CENTER ( THE AGORA) TO THE ACROPOLIS TRAVERSED A WINDING STEPPED PATH UP THE WESTERN ESCARPMENT. AS MOST GREEK TEMPLES FACE EAST, THIS MEANS THAT THE INITIAL VIEW THAT ONE HAS IS OF THE BACK SIDES OF THE BUILDINGS. IT HAS A DIGNIFIED SYMETRICAL ENTRANCE WAY AMID ASYMMETRIES ACCOMMODATING A FRAGMENT OF THE ORIGINAL MYCENAEYAN FORTIFICATION WALL AND A GRADIENT CHANGE THRU THE DEPTH OF THE BUILDING.

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THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS 479BCE (FROM THE ENTRANCE SIDE)

THE REMAINS OF THE PROPYLAEA TO THE LEFT AND THE TINY TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE IN THE CENTER STAND OUT IN THE FOREGROUND WITH THE GABLE END OF THE PARTHENON VISIBLE ON THE RIGHT.

VIEW FROM BELOW OF THE ACROPOLIS, ATHENS

THE PARTHENON TEMPLE SITS ON THE HIGHTST GOUND AND STILL DONINATES THE MODERN CITY. PART OF THE ERECHTHEION IS VISIBLE AT THE EXTREME LEFT, WHILE THE TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE STANDS AT THE FAR RIGHT SIDE. IN THE RIGHT FOREGROUND REMAIN THE RUINS OF THE RAMS AND STAIRS THAT LED TO THE PROPYLAEA. THE PARTHENON IS FIRST SEEN AT AN ANGLE & THRU A SCREEN OF COLUMNS

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THE PERSIANS CONTROLLED MESOPOTAMIA & THE IONIAN GREEK AREAS AROUND THE AGEAN SEA IN ASIA MINOR FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE 6TH BCE. IN 480 BCE THE PERSIANS ATTACKED THE GREEK PENINSULA AND DESTROYED ATHENS BUT WERE FINALLY DEFEATED BY THE GREEK NAVY. ATHENS THEN DEVELOPED AS THE LEADING CITY ON THE MAINLAND . IT UNITED WITH IONIAN CITIES TO BETTER ITS MIGHT. A CONSIDERABLE PORTION OF MONEY WAS SPENT ON REBUILDING THE RAVAGED ATHENIAN ACROPOLIS, WHICH HAD BEEN A MILITARY, POLITICAL, AND RELIGIOUS SANCTUARY SINCE MYCENAEN TIMES. THE 4 BUILDINGS ERECTED THERE AFTER 479 BCE USHERED IN THE MATURE PHASE OF GREEK ARCHITECURE KNOWN AS THE CLASSICAL PERIOD (479 – 323 BCE)

THE PARTHENON ATHENS, 448 – 432 BCETHIS IS HOW THE PARTHENON APPEARS TO SOMEONE LEAVING THE PROPYLAEA AND LOOKING SOUTHEAST. AS IS THE CASE WITH MANY GREEK TEMPLES, THE BUILDING IS SET SO THAT THE VIEWER LOOKS UP TO IT AND SEES TWO SIDES AT ONCE.

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EXTERIOR OF THE CELLA WALL, AND ACTUAL USE OF THE IONIC ORDER IN THE WESTERN OPISTHODOMOS (BACK ROOM) THAT HOUSED THE TREASURY, WHERE 4 IONIC COLUMNS SUPPORT THE ROOF. THE USE OF 8 COLUMNS ACROSS THE GABLE END, UNUSUAL IN DORIC, HAS CONNECTIONS TO THE EARLIER IONIC TEMPLES. BEHIND THEM AT EACH END STAND SIX PROSTYLE COLUMNS, OR COLUMNS IN FROM OF THE EAST AND WEST WALLS. ENTASIS , WHICH WAS RATHER HEAVY HANDED IN THE TEMPLE OF HERA AT PAESTUM , WAS USED SUBTLY HERE TO CREAT A SENSE OF REPOSE. MINUTE ADJUSTMENTS IN THE HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL LINES OF THE STRUCTURE ENHANCE THE PERCEPTION OF ORTHOGONAL GEOMETRY: THE STYLOBATE ( THE PLATFORM FROM WHICH THE COLUMNS RISE) IS ACTUALLY CONVEX UPWARD; THE COLUMNS INCLINE IMPERCEPTIBLE AWAY FROM THE VIEWER; AND THE CENTRAL AXES OF THE COLMNS ARE NOT VERTICAL BUT LIE ALOND RADII EMANATING FROM A POINT OVER 6800’ ABOVE THE GROUND.

THE COLUMNS ARE NOT THE SAME DIAMETER – THE END ONES ARE LARGER – NOR ARE THEY EQUIDISTANTLY SPACED; THE CORNER ONES ARE CLOSER TOGETHER.

THE PARTHENON, ATHENSIT WAS THE LARGEST AND MOST FAMOUS OF THE GREEK TEMPLES, DEDICATED TO ATHENA POLIAS, PATRON GODESS OF THE CITY. AFTER THE PERSIANS DESTROYED THE 0LD TEMPLE OF ATHENA, A NEW PERIPTERAL TEMPLE, DESIGGNED BY THE ARCHITECTS IKTINOS AND KALLIKRATES WAS BUILT OF THE FINEST MARBLE FROM MOUNT PENTELIKOS (PENTELIC MARBLE). IT WAS BUILT ON THE SAME SITE AS THE PREVIOUS TEMPLE, WITH ENLARGEMENTS AND PROBABLY MADE USE OF COLUMN DRUMS AND METOPES CARVED FOR THE OLDER TEMPLE. IT IS A DORIC TEMPLE, 8 COLUMNS WIDE X 17 COLUMNS DEEP, BUT IT INCORPORATES IONIC ATTRIBUTES, INCLUDING SLENDER COLUMN PROPORTIONS, A CONTINUOUS FRIEZE AROUND THE

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SCULPTED FIGURES ADORNED BOTH THE OUTSIDE AND THE INSIDE OF THE PANTHENON. THE 2 END PEDIMENTS WERE FILLED WITH OVER – LIFESISE FIGURES REPRESENTING, ON THE EAST, THE BIRTH OF ATHENA WHINESSED BY THE DOGS, AND ON THE WEST , THE CONTEST BETWEEN ATHENA AND POSEIDON FOR CONTROL OF ATHENS. THE METOPES CONTAINED RELIEF SCUPLTURES DEPICTING STRUGGLES BETWEEN GREEKS AND AMOZONS. GREEKS AND TROJANS, GODS AND GIANTS, AND LAPITHS (PEOPLE OF THESSALONIA) AND CENTAURS (CREATURES COMBINING THE UPPER TORSOS OF MEN WITH THE B ODIES OF HORSES), ALL COMMEMORATING THE TRIUMPH OF GREEKS CIVILIZATION OVER BARBARIANISM.

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PLANS OF THE PROPYLAEA (437BCE)& TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE (425 BCE)

THE PROPYLAEA DEFINED THE ENTRANCE TO THE ACROPOLIS, WHILE THE SMALER TEMPLE OF ATHENA NIKE STOOD ON THE FORWARD PROJECTION, VISIBLE AT AN ANGLE TO THOSE ENTTERING THE ACROPOLIS. EVOLOVED FROM EALIER FORTIFIED GATEWAYS, THE PROPYLAEA HAD BECOME AN ARCHITECTURAL DEVICE FOR MARKING THE TRANSITION FROM PROFANE TO SACRED SPACE AND FOR CONTROLLING VIEWS TOWARD THE ERECTHEION AND PARTHENON.

A CONTINNUOUS FRIEZE RAN AROUND THE OUTSIDE OF THE CELLA WALLS BEHING THE COLONNADE, PROTRYAING A SACRED PROCESSION OF ATHENIANS BRINGING GIFTS TO ATHENA, POSSIBLY AS A THANK OFFERING FOR VICTORY OVER THE PERSIANS & ATHENA AND THE OTHER GODS ARE SHOWN RECEIVING THE OFFERINGS.

THE CELLA OF THE PARTHENON WAS ONE OF THE LARGEST CELLAS BUILT IN CLASSICAL GREECE. IN THE CELLA IS A LARGE CULT STATUE OF THE GODESS ATHENA WITH A NIKE (GODESS OF VICTORY) IN HER RIGHT HAND AND A SHIELD RESTING AT HER LEFT. THE STATUE HAD WOODEN ARMATURE FINISHED WITH HIGHLY VALUED MATERIALS. IVORY WAS USED FOR ALL EXPOSED PARTS OF THENA’S BODY; HER DRAPERY, ARMOR, AND HELMET WERE PREPRESENTED IN GOLD; AND PRECIOUS METALS WERE USED FOR EYES AND FOR DECORATING HER ROBES AND ARMOUR.

BEING A VERY LARGE SPAN OF 40’, SOME SCHOLARS SPECULATE THAT THE CELLA WAS OPEN TO THE SKY, BUT THAT WOULD REDUCE THE DRAMA OF THE SUN PENETRATING TO THE STATUE ON THE DAY OF ATHENA BIRTH AS THE PARTHENON IS SO ORIENTED.

WIDE INTER COLUMNATION IN THE CENTER

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VIEW FROM THE SOUTH OF THE ERECHTHEION, ATHENS 421 – 407 BCE

THE ENTRANCE TO POSEIDON’S SHRINE IS MADE THROUGH THE PORTICO ON THE LEFT. THE HEIGHT OF ITS IONIC ORDER RESULED FROM CHANGES HERE IN THE SITE’S TERRAIN. THIS VARIATION OF THE IONIC ORDER BECAME MUCH ADMIRED BY 18TH CENTURY NEO-CLASSICAL ARCHITECTS

THE SMALL TEMPLE OF THE ATHENA NIKE WITH ITS REFINED DETAILING AND SMALL SIZE MADE IT A MODEL FOR GARDEN TEMPLES IN THE 18TH CENTURY.

THE ERECHTHEION IS BUILT ON THE SITE OF THE MYCENAEAN PALACE THAT WAS ALSO REGARDED AS THE LOCATION OF THE CONTEST BETWEEN ATHENA AND THE GOD POSEIDON. MYTH HAS IT THAT IN A COMPETITION TO DECIDE WHO SHOULD BE NAMED AS THE PATRON OF THE CITY, POSEIDON STRUCK HIS TRIDENT ON A ROCK AND CREATED A SPRING WHILE ATHENA BROUGHT FORTH AN OLIVE TREE. UNDER THE TEMPLE IS THE ‘SEA OF ERECHTHEUS, A SALT-WATER SPRING THAT MADE THE SOUND OF THE SEA AND HAD A ROCK BEARING THE MARK OF POSEIDON’S TRIDENT.

THE ERECHTHEION KNITS TOGETHER THESE ASSORTED STRANDS OF SITE-SPECIFIC HISTORY WHILE DEFERING TO THE DOMINANCE OF THE PARTHENON. THE TEMPLE IS BUILT ON 2 DIFFERENT LEVELS TO ACCOMMODATE THE UNEVEN SITE. THE EASTERN PORTICO, DISTINGUISHED BY ITS SLENDER IONIC COLUMNS LED TO ATHENA’S SANCTUARY, WHILE THE NORTH PORCH, ITS STYLOBATE 10’ LOWER, GAVE ACCESS TO POSEIDON’S SHRINE THROUGH AN EVEN MORE ELONGATED IONIC PORTICO. 4 IONIC COLUMNS PARTIALLY ENGAGED IN THE WALL, EXTEND ACROSS THE WEST FASCADE TO THE SOUTH, WHERE THE ROOF OF THE SPLENDID PORCH FACING THE PARTHENON IS SUPPORTED BY THE 6 CARYATID MAIDENS BELIEVED TO REPRESENT THE WOMEN OF A NEIGHBOURING STATE TAKEN CAPTIVE FOR HELPING THE PERSIANS IN THE WAR AGAINST ATHENS.

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THE ERECHTHEION 421 – 407BCE

THIS VIEW FROM THE SOUTHEAST SHOWS THE IONIC COLMNS OF THE ENTRY TO ATHENA’S SHRINE (RIGHT) AND THE PORCH DISPLAYING THE CARYATID MAIDENS (LEFT). IN THE LEFT FOREFROUND ARE THE REMAINS OF THE OLD TEMPLE OF ATHENA POLIAS, DESTROYED BY THE PERSIANS, ON WHICH THE CARYATIDS GAZE IN PERPETUITY.

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THE PARTHENON LATER BECAME A CHURCH AND ITS STATUE WAS SMASHED.

AFTER THE TRUKS OCCUPIED GREECE, IT BECAME A MOSQUE.

BY 1687 IT WAS BEING USED AS A MUNITIONS STORAGE, AT WHICH TIME IT WAS BOMBARDED BY THE VENETIANS. THE DIRECT HIT RIPPED OUT THE CELLA WALL AND DISLODGED MANY SCULPTURES SOME OF WHICH WERE CARRIED OFF BY THE VENETIANS. SOME OF THE SCULPTURES ARE NOW HOUSED IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM, BUT THE GREEK GOVERNMENT IS EAGER TO HAVE THEM BACK. A MAJOR RESTORATION PROJECT ON THE ACROPOLIS TOOK PLACE AS PART OF THE PREPERATION FOR THE 2004 OLYMICS IN ATHENS.

ATHENS WAS LATER CONQUERED BY THE KING PHILIP OF MACEDONEA IN 338BCE, WHOSE SON WAS ALEXANDER THE GREAT. ALEXANDER CONQUERED MANY LANDS FROM EGYPT TO THE INDUS, BUT THE ARCHITECTURAL STYLE PROPOGATED BY HIM WAS IONIC WHICH REFLECTED AN ORIENTAL EXUBERANCE. HE ADOPTED ORIGINAL ASPECTS OF THE PERSIAN COURT AND SO HIS STYLE IS CALLED ‘HELLENISTIC’ AND NOT ‘GREEK’

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PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF HERA,OLYMPIA 600 – 590 BCETHE ORIGINAL WOODEN COLUMNS OF THIS EARLY GREEK TEMPLE WERE REBUILT IN STONE,PERHAPS TO PROVIDE BETTER SUPPORT FOR THE HEAVIER ROOF TILES THAT REPLACED THATCH

PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF HERA, PAESTUM 550 BCETHIS TEMPLE REPRESENTS ONE OF THE EARLIEST EXAMPLES OF THE DORIC ORDER. IT IS UNUSAL IN HAVING AN ODD NUMBER OF COLUMNS ACROSS THE SHORT SIDE, PLACING A COLUMN IN THE CENTER WHERE ONE WOULD EXPECT AN INTERCOLUMNAR SPACE FOR CENTRAL AXIAL ENTRY

PLAN OF THE TEMPLE OF APOLLO EPICURIUS, BASSAI 430 BCEALL THREE OF THE GREEK ORDERS WERE USED HERE. DORIC COLUMNS FORMED THE EXTERNAL COLONNADE, IONIC COLUMNS WERE PARTIALLY ATTACHED TO THE CELLA WALL AND A SINGLE CORINTHIAN COLUMN WAS PLACED ON THE CENTRAL LONGITUDINAL AXIS. LIGHT SHONE ON THE CULT STATUE FROM AN OPENING IN THE EAST WALL

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FLOOR PLAN (LOWER HALF) & REFLECTED CEILING PLAN (UPPER HALF), THOLOS, EPIDAUROS 360 – 330 BCE

PARTS OF THE BEAUTIFULLY DETAILED CEILING COFFERS HAVE SURVIVED AS INDICATIONS OF THE EXQUISITE HELLENISTIC DETAILING

SANCTUARY OF ASKLEPIOS AT EPIDAUROS

THE CORINTHIAN ORDER WAS EMPLOYED ON A SUBSTANTIAL SCALE IN THE THOLOS AT THE SANCTUARY OF ASKLEPIOS AT EPIDAUROS (360 – 330 BCE), A CIRCULAR BUILDING APPROXIMATELY 72’ IN DAIMETER, KNOWN NOW FORM ITS FOUNDATIONS AND REASSEMBLED FRAGMENTS PRESERVED ON SITE. EPIDAUROS WAS DEDICATED TO THE GOD ASKLEPEOS, THE SON OF APOLLO, AND BOTH GODS WERE NEREATED HERE IN A LARGE COMPLEX DEDICATED TO HEALING THRU EXERCISE, DIET, AND MEDICAL CARE. THE THOLOS IS BUT A SMALL PART OF A SITE THAT INCLUDED A STADIUM, GYMNASIA, A THEATRE, ALTARS, FOUNDATINS AND BATHS, TEMPLES, AND ACCOMMODATION FOR PATIENTS.

ITS EXTERNAL COLONNADE WAS COMPOSED OF 26 NOS DORIC COLUMNS, AND THERE WERE 14 FREESTANDING CORINTHIAN COLUMNS IN THE INNER CIRCULAR COLONNADE FITTED INTO A BLACK & WHITE RHOMBOIDAL FLOORING PATTERN. THE CEILING HAD ORNATE COFFERS WITH FLORAL DECORATIONS. HOW EXACTLY THIS BUILDING WAS USED IS NOT KNOWN. IT HAS BEEN SUGGESTED THAT THE UPPER STORY MATCHES THAT FOR A SHELTER OF A TOMB AND THAT THE CIRCULAR CORRIDORS EVIDENT FROM THE FOUNDATION REMAINS WERE EVOCATIE OF PASSAGE THRU THE UNDERWORLD TO THE TOMB OF ASKLEPIOS.

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THEATER EPIDAUROS,350-200BCE

THE THEATRE AT EPIDAUROS IS EXCEPTIONALLY WELL PRESERVED AND BEAUTIFULLY SITED IN THE LANDSCAPE, LOOKING OUT TO DISTANT HILLS. TRADITION ASSIGNS ITS DESIGN TO POLYKLEITOS, ARCHITECT OF THE THOLOS, BUT NOT ALL SCHOLARS AGREE WITH THIS ATTRIBUTION. THE THEATER WAS BUILT IN 2STAGES, THE LOWER 5000 SEATS IN 34 TIERS DATING FROM 350 BCE, WHITH THE UPPER 23 TIERS BEING ADDED IN THE SECOND STAGE.

5TH CENTURY ATHENIANS CONSTRUCTED THE THEATER OF DIONYSOS ON THE SOUTH SIDE OF THE ACROPOLIS HILL, USING THE RISING EMBANKMENT TO PROVIDE SUPPORT FOR A CONCENTRIC SEATING FOCUSED ON THE CIRCULAR ORCHESTRA, A FLAT AREA FOR DANCING. BEHING THE ORCHESTRA WAS A BACKDROP STRUCTURE, THE SKENE, & THE ARE DIRECTLY IN FRONT, THE PROSKENION, WAS A RAISED PLATFORM FROM WHICH ACTORS DECLAIMED THEIR LINES. (NOTE H OW THIS TERMINOLOGY CONTINUES TO BE USED TODAY; THE FRAMING ARCH OVER THE STAGE OF TODAY’S THEATERS IS KNOWN AS THE PROSCENIUM, WHILE THE ORCHESTRA SEATS ARE THOSE PLACED DIRECTLY IN FRONT OF THE STAGE). SEVERAL DOORS SET IN THE SKENE SERVED AS ENTRANCES & EXISTS AS NEEDED IN THE DRAMA, AND ACTORS SPOKE LINES FROM THE GODS FROM THE ROOF O FTHE BUILDINGS.

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PLAN OF THE THEATER EPIDAUROS, 350 – 200 BCE

VIRTUALLY EVERY GREEK CITY HAD ITS OWN THEATER THAT COULD ACCOMMODATE A GOOD PORTION OF THE POPULATION, AS ATTENDING FRAMATIC PERFORMANCES WERE ENCOURAGED TO PROMOTE CIVIC VALUES

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HIPPODAMUS OF MILETUS, PUPIL OF PYTHAGORA, IS OFTEN REGARGED AS THE FATHER OF CITY PLANNING. HIPPODAMUS DID NOT ‘INVENT’ THE GRID PLAN AS IT HAD EXISTED FROM EARLIER TIMES. HIS CONTRIBUTION SEEMS TO HAVE INVOLVED CONSOLIDATING & ARTICULATING THE RELIGIOUS, SOCIAL & COMMERCIAL ELEMENTS OF THE CITY CENTER WITH REGULAR BLOCKS OF HOUSES ADJUSTED TO FIT THE PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCE OF THE TOPOGRAPHY. HIPPODOMUS’S BIRTHPLACE WAS THE LEADING CITY OF IONIA. AFTER ITS DESTRUCTION BY THE PERSIANS IN 494BCE , THE CITY WAS REBUILT WITH A PLAN OF RECTANGULAR RESIDENTIAL BLOCKS AND AN ORTHOGONAL AGORA.

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STOA OF ATTALOS, ATHENS 159 – 132 BCETHIS BUILDING WAS CONTRIBUTED TO THE CITY BY ATTALOS OF PERGAMON. IT IS RECONSTUCTED FORM, IT AND THE HEPHASTEION ARE THE ONLY STRUCTURES FORM ANTIQUITY REMAINING IN THE ATHENIAN AGORA. THE COLUMN FILE ORGAIZATION OF THE STOA CAN BE TRACED BACK TO EGYPTIAN COMPLEXES SUCH AS THE TEMPLES OF QUEEN HATSHEPSUT & MENTUHOTEP.

TOWN PLANNING WENT BEYOND SPECIFYING THE LOCATION OF THE CIVIC BUILDINGS, THE LAYOUT OF STREETS, AND THE POSITIONING OF OPEN SPACES, TO ENCOMPASS DESIGN OF TYPICAL SINGLE – FAMILY HOUSES FOR AN ESTIMATED POPULATION OF 15,000 TO 20,000. HOUSES WERE CONSISTENTLY ORIENTED WITH THEIR MAJOR ROOMS OPENING TO THE SOUTH, AND THE MEGARON FORM ALREADY FAMILIAR FROM MYCENAEAN TIMES WAS USED AGAIN AS THE BASIC LIVING UNIT OF THE HOUSE. DURING HELLENISTIC PERIOD BOTH ARCHITECTURE & T.P. BECAME MORE ELLABORATE AND THEATRICAL.

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PLAN OF PAESTUM (POSEIDONIA) 7TH CENTURY BCE

THIS GREEK COLONIAL CITY WAS LAID OUT WITH ELONGATED BLOCKS ON THE ORTHOGONAL PATTERN. ACROSS THE CENTER WAS THE PULIC SECTOR, WITH COMMERCIAL STRUCTURES, GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS, & TEMPLES, INCLUDING THE TEMPLE OF HERA.

THIS SITE WAS SUBMERGED BY THE SEA DURING THE MIDDLE AGES BUT IS LOCATED AGAIN ON DRY LAND TODAY

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THE HIGH PLINTH ON WHICH THE ALTAR STOOD BECAME THE LOCATION FOR A FRIEZE OVER 300’ IN LENGTH & SCULPTED WITH SCENES OF BATTLES BETWEEN GODS AND GIANTS, AN OBVIOUS ALLUSION TO THE RECENT BATTLES WITH THE CELTS.

INTERWINED WINGS, ARMS, AND WRITHING SNAKE BODIES CREATE A DYNAMIC COMPOSITION. EVEN THE HAIR ON THE GODS’ HEADS AND BEARDS FALLS IN ANIMATED COILS. THE HIGHLY DRAMATIC FRIEZE CONTRASTS WITH THE ELEGANT COLONNADED BUILDING ABOVE, AND IT ALSO COMPLEMENTS THE EUQALLY DRAMATIC SITE, AN ARCHITECTURAL TOUR DE FORCE THAT HAS LITTLE OF THE RESTRAINT AND SUBLIMATED FLEEING THAT GOVERNED THE DESING OF THE ATHENIAN ACROPOLIS.

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WHILE ARCHAELOGY ON MINOAN SITE IN CRETE HAS NOT YET ESTABLISHED A SATISFACTORY PICTURE OF MINOAN DESIGN THINKING. EVIDENCE DOES SUGGEST SOME KIND OF EXPERIENTIALLY BASED PLANNING, OR PERCEPTUAL THINKING, AS OPPOSED TO ABSTRACT, GEOMETRIC ORDERING, OR CONCEPTION THINKING.

THE MAINLAND MYCENAEANS INVENTED THE MEGARON, WITH ITS TWO SPATIAL UNIT PLAN OF PRODOMOS AND DOMO. THE MEGARON ANTICIPATED THE CLASSICAL GREEK TEMPLE PLAN, WITH ITS 3 SPATIAL UNITS : PRONAOS, NAOS OR CELLA AND OPISTHODOMUS.

THE END

THE APPROACH TO THE PARTHENON WAS ALONG A ROUTE WITH CONSTANTLY CHANGING ORIENTATIONS, CULMINATING IN AN OBLIQUE VIEW OF THE FREE STANDING TEMPLE THROUGH THE COLUMN SCREEN OF THE PROPYLAEA. SUCH A FLUID SYSTEM OF MOVEMENT, COMPARABLE TO MINOAN DESIGNS, GAVE WAY IN THE HELLENISTIC PERIOD TO GEOMETRIC REGULARITY, AXIALITY, AND RIGOROUSLY ORGANIZED BUILDING ENSEMBLES AND ENVIRONMENTS. AND THIS NEW TYPE OF PLANNING WAS LATER APPROPRIATED BY REPUBLICAN ROME. IN THE 19TH CENTRY, THE CLASSICAL LANGUAGE OF ANCIENT GREEK ARCHITECTURE WOULD REAPPEAR THROUGHOUT EUROPE IN THE FORM OF THE GREEK REVIVAL.