Reconstructing Christian Lifeways: A bioarchaeological study of medieval inhabitants from...

RECONSTRUCTING CHRISTIAN LIFEWAYS:

A bioarchaeological study of medieval

inhabitants from Portmahomack, Scotland

and Norton Priory, England.

Shirley Curtis-Summers

Thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements of the

University of Liverpool for the degree of Doctor in Philosophy

April 2015

“The pattern of disease or injury that affects any group of people

is never a matter of chance. It is invariable the expression of stresses

and strains to which they were exposed, a response to everything in

their environment and behaviour. It reflects their genetic inheritance,

the climate in which they lived, the soil that gave them sustenance

and the animals or plants that shared their homeland. It is influenced

by their daily occupations, their habits of diet, their choice of

dwelling and clothes, their social structure, even their folklore

and mythology.”

(Calvin Wells 1964: 17).

iii

Reconstructing Christian Lifeways: A bioarchaeological study of medieval

inhabitants from Portmahomack, Scotland and Norton Priory, England.

Shirley Curtis-Summers

Abstract

This thesis investigates lifeways of medieval Christian communities from

Portmahomack, Northeast Scotland and Norton Priory, Northwest England, to

ascertain the extent to which skeletal indicators of diet, disease or trauma reflect

religious or social influences. Osteology and palaeopathology methods on human

adult and sub-adult skeletons from Portmahomack (6th

to 17th

century) and Norton

Priory (12th

to 16th

century) was undertaken to provide evidence relating to the four

key themes proposed in this study: ‘biological or familial affinity’, ‘the living

environment’, ‘trauma and conflict’, and ‘diet and nutrition-related stresses’. Stable

carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis of bone collagen from adult humans from

Portmahomack (including and a sub-sample of sub-adults) and Norton Priory were

measured for dietary reconstructions. Faunal bone collagen was also analysed from

Portmahomack and Norton Priory (plus a selection of fish bones from Chester

Cathedral) to provide isotopic baselines to reconstruct human diets.

The results suggest past lifeways of Christian communities from Portmahomack and

Norton Priory can indeed be successfully reconstructed through bioarchaeology. The

evidence from this study has found that skeletal traits, alongside burial evidence, can

elucidate familial affinities, especially from Norton Priory, and that differences in

cultural and religious practices are reflected within the living environment of

ecclesiastic and lay groups. Evidence of violence, reflecting interpersonal conflict

and vulnerability was found from both Portmahomack and Norton Priory, which was

inconsistent with the role of ecclesiastic and lay communities that were expected to

follow strict Christian doctrines. Stable isotope data revealed a diachronic change in

diet at Portmahomack; no fish were consumed during the monastic period, whereas

significant amounts were consumed by layfolk in the later periods, suggesting

Christian dietary practices changed over time. The isotope data from Norton Priory

reflected a more homogeneous diet that did not change greatly over time, suggesting

conformity to the same fasting practices.

Overall, this study has demonstrated that adopting a multidisciplinary

bioarchaeological approach, integrating skeletal, chemical, archaeological, and

historical evidence, results in a powerful research tool that enables reconstructions of

medieval Christian lifeways and interpretations of religious and social influences

therein.

iv

Acknowledgements

I would like thank the Arts & Humanities Research Council (AHRC) for funding this

research; the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC) for funding the isotope

analysis, and Historic Scotland for contributing toward the Portmahomack isotope

analysis.

I would like to give a special thank you to my primary supervisor, Jess Pearson, for

her endless motivation, guidance and invaluable comments on this thesis, and for her

support and empathy during difficult times. This thesis would have been a shadow of

its former self without her. I would also like to give special thanks to my supervisor,

Harold Mytum, for his support, advice and many helpful comments.

Many thanks to Martin Carver and Cecily Spall, for granting me access to the

Portmahomack skeletal material and for all their help and advice. Many thanks also

to Justin Garner-Lahire and the FAS Heritage team, and to Michele Cadger, Tony

Watson and the people of Portmahomack for entrusting me with such precious

material. Huge thanks also to Lynn Smith, Frank Hargrave and the Board of Trustees

from Norton Priory for granting me access to their skeletal collection and to Lynn,

for all her invaluable help along the way. Thanks also to Oxford Archaeology North

and to OR3D for supplying Norton Priory digital images and to Andrew Abram and

Robert Connolly for their expert advice.

Grateful thanks to the following people for their help throughout this research: Krish

Seetah, Sue Stallibrass, Matilda Holmes, Hannah Russ and David Orton for faunal

species identification; Angela Lamb at NERC for isotope mass spectrometry training,

Matt Grove for his advice on statistical analysis, and Simon Mays, Clark Spencer

Larsen, Jo Buckberry, Anthea Boylston, Alan Ogden and Charlotte Roberts for their

expert opinions and advice. Thanks also to Liz MacDonald at the Royal Liverpool

University Hospital Radiology Department, for x-raying some of the skeletal

material. Huge thanks also to my friends and colleagues for their help, support and

encouragement. There are too many to mention but you know who you are.

This journey has come with the usual challenges one expects during a PhD, but some

unexpected difficult times have also occurred and one source of inspiration has been

my sister Trish. Her bravery, resilience and strength have motivated me to succeed.

Throughout all of this however, the one person who has given me unconditional love

and constant support is my husband Colin. He has been with me every step of the

way, through tears, tantrums and joy, and his constant positivity has given me the

strength I never knew I had. I can never thank you enough darling, so I’ll simply say

‘I love you’ and ‘please pour me a dram!’

Shirley Curtis-Summers,

University of Liverpool, April 2015.

5

Table of Contents

Abstract .................................................................................................................. iii

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................... iv

Table of Contents .................................................................................................. v

List of Figures ........................................................................................................ xiii

List of Tables ......................................................................................................... xvii

Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction .................................................................................................. 2

1.2 Research Context ......................................................................................... 4

1.3 Research Questions and Hypotheses ........................................................... 5

1.4 Thesis Structure ........................................................................................... 6

Chapter 2: Historical Background: Christianity in Medieval Britain ............. 8

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 9

2.2 Clarification of Chronology and Terminology ........................................... 9

2.3 Setting the Scene: Religious Orders in Medieval Britain ........................... 14

2.3.1 The Rule of St Columba ..................................................................... 16

2.3.2 The Rule of St Columbanus ............................................................... 16

2.3.3 The Rule of St Benedict ..................................................................... 17

2.3.3.1 The Benedictine Order ........................................................ 17

2.3.3.2 The Cistercian Order .......................................................... 19

2.3.4 The Rule of St Augustine ................................................................... 20

2.3.4.1 The Augustinian Order ....................................................... 22

2.3.4.2 The Premonstratensian Order ............................................. 23

2.4 Christianity in Medieval Britain: an Overview ........................................... 24

2.4.1 Christian Conversions in Early Medieval Britain .............................. 27

2.4.2 Christianity in Mid to Late Medieval Britain ..................................... 35

2.4.3 Christianity and the Laity in Medieval Britain .................................. 39

2.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 46

Chapter 3:Archaeological background ............................................................... 47

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 48

3.2 Socio-economic Background ...................................................................... 48

3.3 Archaeological Background: Portmahomack ............................................. 50

3.3.1 Burials at Portmahomack ................................................................... 52

3.3.1.1 Period 1 Burials (c.550 – c.700) ............................................ 52

3.3.1.2 Period 2 Burials (c.700 – c.800) ............................................ 53

3.3.1.3 Period 3 Burials (c.900 – c.1100) ......................................... 54

6

3.3.1.4 Period 4 Burials (c.1100 – c.1600) ........................................ 54

3.3.1.5 Period 5 Burials (c.1600 – c.1700) ........................................ 56

3.3.2 Faunal Remains at Portmahomack ..................................................... 56

3.3.3 Economic Activity at Portmahomack ................................................ 58

3.4 Archaeological Background: Norton Priory ............................................... 62

3.4.1 Historical Overview of Norton Priory................................................ 63

3.4.2 Burials at Norton Priory ..................................................................... 64

3.4.2.1 Burials in the Nave, North Aisle and West Front .................. 65

3.4.2.2 Burials in the North and South Transepts .............................. 67

3.4.2.3 Burials in the East of the Church ........................................... 68

3.4.2.4 Burials in the Cloister and Chapterhouse .............................. 69

3.4.3 Faunal Remains at Norton Priory ....................................................... 70

3.4.4 Economic Activity at Norton Priory .................................................. 73

3.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 75

Chapter 4:Lifeways in Medieval Britain ............................................................ 77

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 78

4.2 Health in Medieval Britain .......................................................................... 79

4.2.1 Lifestyle Factors ................................................................................. 80

4.2.2 Medicine and Surgery ........................................................................ 87

4.2.3 Disability and Impairment.................................................................. 96

4.3 Diets in Medieval Britain ............................................................................ 97

4.3.1 Diets of the Peasantry......................................................................... 99

4.3.2 Diets of Ecclesiastics.......................................................................... 106

4.4 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 113

Chapter 5: Stable Light Isotopes: Principles and Applications ....................... 114

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 115

5.2 Bone Structure, Function and Turnover ...................................................... 115

5.3 Collagen Degradation, Contamination and Integrity .................................. 119

5.3.1 Collagen Degradation......................................................................... 119

5.3.2 Collagen Contamination .................................................................... 121

5.3.3 Collagen Quality Indicators ............................................................... 121

5.4 Why Use Collagen?..................................................................................... 123

5.5 What are Isotopes? ...................................................................................... 124

5.6 Notation and Terminology .......................................................................... 124

5.7 Fractionation ............................................................................................... 125

5.8 Carbon Isotopes in Terrestrial Ecosystems ................................................. 126

5.9 Nitrogen Isotopes in Terrestrial Ecosystems .............................................. 128

5.10 Carbon and Nitrogen Trophic Level Effects ............................................... 131

5.11 Carbon Isotopes in Aquatic Ecosystems ..................................................... 133

5.12 Nitrogen Isotopes in Aquatic Ecosystems .................................................. 134

7

5.13 Previous Isotope Applications: An Overview ............................................. 135

5.14 Previous Isotope Applications: A European Perspective ............................ 136

5.15 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 137

Chapter 6: Materials and Methods ..................................................................... 139

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 140

6.2 Skeletal Materials ........................................................................................ 140

6.3 Osteology methods ...................................................................................... 141

6.3.1 Determination of Sex ......................................................................... 141

6.3.2 Age-at-Death: Categorisation............................................................. 142

6.3.3 Assessing Age-at-Death ..................................................................... 143

6.3.4 Stature Estimation .............................................................................. 146

6.3.5 Osteometric Analysis ......................................................................... 146

6.3.6 Non-metric Analysis .......................................................................... 147

6.4 Palaeopathology methods ........................................................................... 148

6.4.1 Dental Pathologies ............................................................................. 149

6.4.1.1 Dental Calculus ................................................................... 149

6.4.1.2 Dental Caries ....................................................................... 150

6.4.1.3 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia .................................................. 150

6.4.1.4 Periodontal Disease ............................................................. 151

6.4.1.5 Dental Abscesses and Granulomas ..................................... 151

6.4.1.6 Ante-mortem Tooth Loss .................................................... 152

6.4.1.7 Dental Wear ......................................................................... 152

6.4.1.8 Dental Anomalies ................................................................ 153

6.4.2 Skeletal Pathologies ........................................................................... 153

6.4.2.1 Infectious and Respiratory Diseases ................................... 153

6.4.2.1.1 Treponemal Disease ............................................. 154

6.4.2.1.2 Leprosy ................................................................. 154

6.4.2.1.3 Tuberculosis ......................................................... 155

6.4.2.1.4 Periosteal New Bone ............................................ 156

6.4.2.1.5 Sinusitis ................................................................ 156

6.4.2.1.6 Nasal Concha Bullosa........................................... 157

6.4.2.2 Metabolic Diseases .............................................................. 157

6.4.2.2.1 Rickets and Osteomalacia ..................................... 158

6.4.2.2.2 Scurvy ................................................................... 159

6.4.2.2.3 Internal Frontal Hyperostosis ............................... 159

6.4.2.2.4 Osteoporosis ......................................................... 160

6.4.2.2.5 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis ........... 160

6.4.2.2.6 Paget’s Disease of Bone ....................................... 160

6.4.2.3 Developmental and Congenital Anomalies ......................... 161

6.4.2.4 Neoplasms ........................................................................... 162

6.4.2.5 Circulatory Disorders .......................................................... 162

6.4.2.6 Joint Diseases ...................................................................... 163

8

6.4.2.6.1 DISH ..................................................................... 164

6.4.2.6.2 Schmorl’s Nodes .................................................. 164

6.4.2.7 Fractures and Trauma-related Pathologies .......................... 165

6.4.2.8 Sharp-force Trauma ............................................................. 165

6.5 Stable Isotope Methods ............................................................................... 166

6.5.1 Human Sample Selection ................................................................... 166

6.5.2 Faunal Sample Selection .................................................................... 167

6.5.3 Sample Preparation for Isotope Analysis ........................................... 168

6.5.3.1 Demineralisation .................................................................... 169

6.5.3.2 Gelatinisation and Filtering ................................................... 170

6.5.3.3 Lyophilisation and Sample Weighing ................................... 170

6.5.4 Analysis by Mass Spectrometry ......................................................... 170

6.6 Statistical Analysis ...................................................................................... 171

6.7 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 171

Chapter 7: Results................................................................................................. 173

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 174

7.1.1 Presentation of Summary Data........................................................... 174

7.2 Osteology Results ....................................................................................... 175

7.2.1 Demographic Overview ..................................................................... 175

7.2.2 Stature Estimation .............................................................................. 181

7.2.3 Osteometric Analysis ......................................................................... 182

7.2.4 Non-metric Analysis .......................................................................... 188

7. 3 Palaeopathology Results ............................................................................. 192

7.3.1 Dental Pathologies ............................................................................. 193

7.3.1.1 Ante-mortem Tooth Loss ....................................................... 193

7.3.1.2 Dental Wear ........................................................................... 195

7.3.1.3 Dental Calculus ...................................................................... 197

7.3.1.4 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia .................................................... 199

7.3.1.5 Dental Caries ......................................................................... 200

7.3.1.6 Dental Abscesses and Granulomas ........................................ 201

7.3.1.7 Periodontal Disease ............................................................... 203

7.3.1.8 Miscellaneous Dental Pathologies and Anomalies ................ 204

7.3.2 Bone Pathologies ................................................................................ 206

7.3.3 Infectious and Respiratory Diseases .................................................. 208

7.3.3.1 Treponemal ............................................................................ 208

7.3.3.2 Leprosy .................................................................................. 208

7.3.3.3 Tuberculosis ........................................................................... 209

7.3.3.4 Periosteal New Bone ............................................................. 210

7.3.3.5 Maxillary Sinusitis ................................................................. 214

7.3.3.6 Nasal Concha Bullosa ............................................................ 214

7.3.4 Metabolic diseases ............................................................................. 215

7.3.4.1 Rickets ................................................................................... 215

9

7.3.4.2 Scurvy .................................................................................... 216

7.3.4.3 Osteoporosis .......................................................................... 216

7.3.4.4 Cribra Orbitalia ...................................................................... 217

7.3.4.5 Porotic Hyperostosis .............................................................. 218

7.3.4.6 Internal Frontal Hyperostosis ................................................ 218

7.3.4.7 Paget’s Disease of Bone ........................................................ 219

7.3.5 Developmental and Congenital Abnormalities .................................. 220

7.3.5.1 Spina Bifida Occulta .............................................................. 220

7.3.5.2 Developmental Anomalies of the Axial Skeleton ................. 221

7.3.5.3 Miscellaneous Congenital/Developmental Anomalies .......... 223

7.3.6 Neoplastic Disease ............................................................................. 224

7.3.6.1 Benign Tumours .................................................................... 224

7.3.6.2 Malignant Tumours ............................................................... 224

7.3.7 Circulatory Disorders ......................................................................... 225

7.3.7.1 Osteochondroses .................................................................... 226

7.3.7.2 Slipped femoral capital epiphysis .......................................... 226

7.3.8 Joint Diseases ..................................................................................... 227

7.3.8.1 Vertebral Body Joint Disease ................................................ 227

7.3.8.2 Vertebral Facet Joint Disease ................................................ 231

7.3.8.3 Extra-vertebral Osteoarthritis ................................................ 238

7.3.8.4 Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis .............................. 244

7.3.8.5 Ankylosing Spondylitis ......................................................... 245

7.3.8.6 Miscellaneous Joint Diseases ................................................ 246

7.3.8.7 Schmorl’s Nodes .................................................................... 247

7.3.9 Trauma ............................................................................................... 249

7.3.9.1 Fractures and Trauma-related Pathologies ............................ 250

7.3.9.2 Sharp-force Trauma ............................................................... 256

7.4 Stable Isotope Results ................................................................................. 259

7.4.1 Collagen Quality ................................................................................ 259

7.4.2 Portmahomack Isotope Results .......................................................... 260

7.4.2.1 Isotope Data: Fauna ............................................................... 260

7.4.2.1.1 Cattle (Bos) ................................................................ 262

7.4.2.1.2 Deer (Cervidae) ......................................................... 263

7.4.2.1.3 Sheep/Goat (Ovis/Capra) .......................................... 265

7.4.2.1.4 Pig (Sus) .................................................................... 266

7.4.2.1.5 Dog (Canid) .............................................................. 267

7.4.2.1.6 Marine Fish ............................................................... 268

7.4.2.1.7 Freshwater Fish ......................................................... 270

7.4.2.2 Isotope Data: Adult Humans ................................................. 271

7.4.2.2.1 Adult diets: Period 1 (c.550 – c.700) ....................... 272

7.4.2.2.2 Adult diets: Period 2-3 (c.700 – c.1100) ................... 274

7.4.2.2.3 Adult diets: Period 4 and 5 (c.1100 – c.1700) ........... 277

7.4.2.3 Isotope Data: Sub-adult Humans ........................................... 282

7.4.3 Norton Priory Isotope Results ............................................................ 286

10

7.4.3.1 Isotope Data: Fauna ............................................................... 286

7.4.3.1.1 Cattle (Bos) ................................................................ 288

7.4.3.1.2 Deer (Cervidae) ......................................................... 289

7.4.3.1.3 Sheep/Goat (Ovis/Capra) .......................................... 289

7.4.3.1.4 Pig (Sus) .................................................................... 290

7.4.3.1.5 Bear (Ursus) .............................................................. 292

7.4.3.1.6 Marine Fish ............................................................... 292

7.4.3.2 Isotope Data: Adult Humans ................................................. 293

7.4.3.2.1 Adult diets: 12th

and 13th

century .............................. 295

7.4.3.2.2 Adult diets: 14th

century ............................................ 297

7.4.3.2.3 Adult diets: 15th

century ............................................ 300

7.4.3.3 Isotope Data: Pathology Case Study ..................................... 302

7.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 304

Chapter 8: Discussion ........................................................................................... 307

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 308

8.2 Health and Society in Medieval Britain ...................................................... 311

8.3 Indicators of Bio-cultural or Familial Affinity............................................ 312

8.3.1 Osteometric Analysis ......................................................................... 312

8.3.2 Non-metric Analysis .......................................................................... 314

8.3.3 Congenital Anomalies ........................................................................ 316

8.4 The Living Environment ............................................................................. 317

8.4.1 Periosteal New Bone .......................................................................... 318

8.4.2 Rib Periosteal New Bone ................................................................... 319

8.4.3 Maxillary Sinusitis and Nasal Concha Bullosa .................................. 321

8.4.4 Infectious Diseases ............................................................................. 323

8.4.5 Vertebral Joint Disease ...................................................................... 327

8.4.6 Extra-vertebral Osteoarthritis ............................................................. 330

8.4.7 Schmorl’s Nodes ................................................................................ 332

8.4.8 Miscellaneous Joint Conditions: Os acromiale .................................. 333

8.4.9 Neoplasms and Circulatory Disorders ............................................... 335

8.4.10 Miscellaneous Conditions: Paget’s Disease of Bone ....................... 340

8.5 Trauma and Conflict ................................................................................... 342

8.5.1 Fractures and Dislocations ................................................................. 343

8.5.2 Sharp-force Trauma ........................................................................... 348

8.6 Diet and Nutrition-Related Stresses ............................................................ 351

8.6.1 Dental Calculus .................................................................................. 352

8.6.2 Dental Caries ...................................................................................... 353

8.6.3 Dental Enamel Hypoplasia (DEH) ..................................................... 354

8.6.4 Abscesses, Granulomas and Periodontal Disease .............................. 356

8.6.5 Dental Wear ....................................................................................... 359

8.6.6 Stature ................................................................................................ 360

8.6.7 Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hyperostosis (DISH) .............................. 362

11

8.6.8 Gout .................................................................................................... 363

8.6.9 Rickets ................................................................................................ 364

8.6.10 Scurvy .............................................................................................. 366

8.6.11 Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis ....................................... 366

8.6.12 Stable Isotope Evidence of Diet ....................................................... 369

8.6.12.1 Faunal Diets ......................................................................... 369

8.6.12.2 Human Diets: Portmahomack .............................................. 375

8.6.12.3 Human Diets: Norton Priory ................................................ 381

8.6.12.4 Human Diets: Site comparisons .......................................... 384

8.7 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................... 391

Chapter 9: Conclusions and Further Work ....................................................... 395

9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 396

9.2 Research Synthesis ...................................................................................... 396

9.2.1 Bio-cultural or Familial Affinity: Concluding Remarks .................... 396

9.2.2 The Living Environment: Concluding Remarks ................................ 397

9.2.3 Trauma and Conflict: Concluding Remarks ...................................... 399

9.2.4 Diet and Nutrition-related Stresses: Concluding Remarks ................ 400

9.3 Final Conclusion ......................................................................................... 402

9.4 Further Work ............................................................................................... 403

9.4.1 Paget’s Disease of Bone ..................................................................... 403

9.4.2 Markers of Activity ............................................................................ 404

9.4.3 Sub-adult Isotope Analysis ................................................................ 404

9.4.4 Adult Tooth Collagen Isotope Analysis ............................................. 404

9.4.5 Strontium and Oxygen Isotope Analysis ........................................... 405

References .............................................................................................................. 407