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Chapter 56: Conservation BiologyAP BIOLOGY 2012
Conservation Biology
Conservation biology integrates: ecology, evolutionary biology, physiology, molecular biology, genetics, and behavioral ecology
Restoration Ecology - applies ecological principles to return degraded ecosystems to conditions as similar as possible to the natural state
Biodiversity Crisis
Tropical forests contain the greatest concentrations of species and are being destroyed at an ever increasing rate
Rates of species extinction are difficult to determine
The current rate is higher than in the recent past, and this is thought to be a result of human activities.
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Levels of Biodiversity
Three components
Genetic Diversity
Species Diversity
Ecosystem Diversity
Genetic diversity in a vole population
Species diversity in a coastal redwood ecosystem
Community and ecosystem diversity across the landscape of an entire region Fig. 56.3
Endangered vs. Threatened Species
Endangered species: a species in danger of becoming extinct throughout its range
Threatened species: species that are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future
Hundred Heartbeat Club - Harvard biologist E. O. Wilson identified species with fewer than 100 individuals remaining
Philippine eagle
Javan rhinoceros
Yangtze River dolphin
Fig. 56.4
Benefits of Species Diversity
Many pharmaceuticals contain substances derived from plants
Loss of species results in a loss of genetic diversity
Loss of one species impacts other species (ex. bats as pollinators)
Fig 56.5
Fig. 56.6
4
5
6
Ecosystem ServicesProcesses through which natural ecosystems and the species they contain help sustain human life
Purification of air and water
Detoxification and decomposition of wastes
Cycling of nutrients
Moderation of weather extremes
Pollination
Dispersal of seeds
Control of pests
Major Threats to Biodiversity
Habitat destruction (Habitat fragmentation)
Introduced species (Invasive species)
Over-exploitation (over-harvesting)
Disruption of interaction networks
(a) Brown tree snake
(b) Kudzu
Fig. 56.8
Population ConservationSmall-population Approach - study the processes that can cause very small populations finally to become extinct
Sensitive to positive feedback loop (extinction vortex)
Key factor that drives it is the loss of genetic variation necessary to enable evolutionary responses to environmental change
Small population
Genetic drift Inbreeding
Lower reproduction
Reduction in individual
fitness and population adaptability
Higher mortality
Loss of genetic
variability
Smaller population
Fig. 56.12
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Minimum Viable Population Size
Minimum Viable Population (MVP) - smallest population size at which a species is able to sustain its numbers and survive
Population Viability Analysis (PVA) - reasonably predict a population’s chances for survival (usually expressed as a specific probability of survival over a particular time)
Population ConservationDeclining-population Approach
Focuses on threatened and endangered populations that show a downward trend regardless of population size
Emphasizes the environmental factors that caused a population to decline in the first place
Requires that the population declines are evaluated on a case-by-case basis with a step-by-step conservation strategy
Steps for Analysis1. Confirm that the population is in decline
2. Study the species’ natural history
3. Develop hypotheses for all possible causes of decline
4. Test the hypotheses in order of likeliness
5. Apply the results of the diagnosis to manage for recovery
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Case Study: Red-Cockaded WoodpeckerRequire specific habitat factors for survival
Has been forced into decline by habitat destruction
Breeding cavities constructed and new breeding groups were formed
Once habitats were maintained and new breeding cavities were formed, the species began to rebound
Red-cockaded woodpecker
(a) Forests with low undergrowth (b) Forests with high, dense undergrowth
Fig.56.16
Sustaining LandscapesSustaining the region helps biodiversity of all ecosystems
Must understand past, present, and future patterns of landscape use to make biodiversity a part of land-use planning
Boundaries are defining features of landscapes
As fragmentation increases biodiversity tends to decrease
(a) Natural edges
(b) Edges created by human activity Fig. 56.16
Studies of Fragmented Forests
Two groups of species: those that live on the edge of the forest and those that live in the interior
Fig. 56.17
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Movement Corridor
Narrow strip of quality habitat connecting otherwise isolated patches
Humans sometimes create artificial corridors
Promote dispersal and help sustain populations Fig. 56.18
Establishing Protected AreasSlows the loss of biodiversity
Much of the focus is on hot spots (small areas with large concentrations of endemic species and large numbers of endangered and threatened species)
Good choices for nature reserves but identifying them is not always easy Terrestrial biodiversity
hot spots Marine biodiversity hot spots
Equator
Fig. 56.19
Nature ReservesExtensive reserves are important for far-ranging animals
Many cases the reserves are smaller than the actual area needed to sustain the population
Zoned reserves are established as conservation areas
Kilometers
100 0 50
WYOMING MONTANA
MONTANA
IDAHO
IDA
HO
W
YOM
ING
ne Sho sho R.
ows R.
Yell tone
Snake R.
Yellowstone National Park
Grand Teton National Park Biotic boundary for
short-term survival; MVP is 50 individuals.
Biotic boundary for long-term survival; MVP is 500 individuals.
Fig. 56.20
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
CARIBBEAN SEA
PACIFIC OCEAN
National park land Buffer zone
Pan a
ma
(a) Zoned reserves in Costa Rica
(b) Tourists in one of Costa Rica’s zoned reserves
Fig. 56.21
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Nutrient EnrichmentCritical load - amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity
If nutrients exceed critical load, they will leach into groundwater and runoff into aquatic ecosystems
Fig. 56.23
Winter Summer
Fig. 56.24
ToxinsBiological Magnification - retained substances become more concentrated with each successive step up in trophic level
Some toxins accumulate in body tissues
DDT
PCBs
Herring gull eggs 124 ppm
Lake trout 4.83 ppm
Smelt 1.04 ppm
Phytoplankton 0.025 ppm
Zooplankton 0.123 ppm
Con
cent
ratio
n of
PC
Bs
Fig. 56.25
Greenhouse Gasses
Increase in the concentration of atmospheric CO2
Year
CO2
Temperature
CO
2 con
cent
ratio
n (p
pm)
Ave
rage
glo
bal t
empe
ratu
re (°
C)
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
390
380
370
360
350
340
330
320
310
300
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.6
14.5
14.4
14.3
14.2
14.1
14.0
13.9
13.8
13.7
13.6
Figure 56.27
Fig. 56.27
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CO2 and Forest Ecology
Forest-Atmosphere Carbon Transfer and Storage (FACTS-I) Experiment (1995)
How does elevated CO2 influence tree growth, carbon concentration in soils, insect populations, soil moisture, and growth of plants?
Fig. 56.28
Depletion of Atmospheric OzoneEarth is protected from UV rays by the Ozone layer
Thinning caused mainly by CFCs
350
300
250
200
150
100
0
Year
Ozo
ne la
yer t
hick
ness
(Dob
sons
)
1955 ‘60 ‘65 ‘70 ‘75 ‘80 ‘85 ‘90 ‘95 2000 ‘05 ‘10
Chlorine atom
Sunlight
Chlorine
O2
CI2O2
O2
CIO
CIO
O3
Fig. 56.29 - 56.30
September 1979 September 2009
Acid Precipitation
Burning of organic matter releases oxides of sulfur and nitrogen that react with water to form sulfuric acid and nitric acid
Acids fall with precipitation (pH less than 5.6)
Impacts aquatic pH and soil chemistry
4.6
4.6
4.3
4.1
4.3
4.6
4.6 4.3
Europe
North America
Field pH
≥5.3
5.2–5.3
5.1–5.2
5.0–5.1
4.9–5.0
4.8–4.9
4.7–4.8
4.6–4.7
4.5–4.6
4.4–4.5
4.3–4.4
<4.3
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