History of the Qur᾽an and the Qur᾽an in History

History of the Qur’an and the Qur’an in History

Mahmoud AyoubHartford Seminary

My contribution to this issue of the Muslim World journal on Judaism and Islamis broadly concerned with the Qur’an as a revealed scripture and its place inMuslim life and piety. Before embarking on this task, it may be useful to take

a brief look at the Qur’an’s historical context, nature and structure. The aim of this essayis to present the Qur’an as Muslims have understood and lived by it. This short article willnot discuss Western critical Qur’an scholarship and the Muslim apologetic tradition of theQur’an as a primary source of all branches of human knowledge. This is to say, I shallnot discuss the concept of I’jaz (miraculous inimitability) of the Qur’an, although itconstitutes one of the ancillary sciences of Qur’anic exegesis.

History of the Qur’anThe Qur’an is a unique sacred book. It is believed to be at one and the same time a

“glorious Qur’an” eternally preserved with God in “the well-guarded tablet”1 and a bookof moral and spiritual guidance. It is accepted by all Islamic legal and theological schoolsas the word of God that was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad throughout hisprophetic career piecemeal, in portions of unequal length.

Muhammad was born in the city of Makkah in Arabia in 569 or 570 CE. He is believedto have been chosen by God to be His messenger to the Arabs and the rest ofhumankind. Thus he is called al-mustafa (the elect of God). Muhammad is believed byMuslims — as the Qur’an itself asserts — to be “God’s messenger and the seal of theprophets.” The Qur’an is likewise regarded as God’s final revelation to humankind2.

Like many men of the tribe of Quraysh of Makkah, Muhammad rejected the idolworship of his people. He often resorted to solitude in the Mount al Nur and cave of Hiraoutside Makkah, far from the humdrum of the city to meditate on the marvels of God’screation and the sad moral plight of his own people. One night, as he was in deepmeditation, a human apparition came to him, later identified as Gabriel ( Jibril ), theangel of revelation, and delivered to him the first five verses of the Qur’an:

1 See Q. 85:21–22.2 See Q. 33:40; and –Q. 5:48-: where the Qur’an declares that it came to confirm the scriptures that camebefore it and to stand as guardian (muhaymin) over them.

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Recite in the name of your Lord who createdCreated man from a blood clotRecite, for your Lord is most magnanimousWho taught by the pen;Taught man that which he did not know3

Following this numinous encounter, Muhammad wandered aimlessly among thehills and ravines of Makkah trying to understand the meaning and significance of thisawesome experience. On several occasions, we are told, he saw Gabriel seated on athrone like seat, filling the horizon, so that in whichever direction Muhammad lookedup, he would see him. Gabriel addressed Muhammad saying, “,you are the Messenger ofGod and I am Gabriel.”4

After a short interruption of revelation,5 it resumed and continued till the end of theProphet’s life in 632. In the cave of Hira’ the angel solemnly ordered Muhammad saying,“iqra’”, (recite or read) from which the word “Qur’an” is derived. Thus the term Qur’anmeans recital. Therefore, a proper reading or recitation (qira’ah or tilawah) of theQur’an must be in Arabic, the language in which it was revealed.

Two terms are used in the Qur’an to denote revelation: wahı (direct verbalcommunication) and tanzıl (sending down revelation through a heavenly messenger).6

wahı is a general expression denoting in this context urgent divine communication toprophets, messengers, and other righteous persons, such as the prophet Zachariah andhis son John the Baptist, Jesus and his mother Mary, and the mother of Moses.7 Tanzıl,in contrast, is God’s sending down revelation over a specified period of time, as was thecase with Moses, who received the Torah over a forty-day period on Mt. Sinai, orMuhammad who received the Qur’an through the angel Gabriel over a period of morethan two decades. It must be observed that the revelation of the Qur’an combines bothwahı- direct communication by Gabriel on God’s behalf — and tanzıl — Gabrielcoming down to him from God with revelations.

Makkah, Muhammad’s birthplace, was an important commercial caravan station andhome of the Ka’bah, an ancient pilgrimage sanctuary. Makkah was not a desertsettlement, but a bustling urban center inhabited by the Quraysh, a homogeneous,well-ordered and peaceful tribe. Both the Ka’bah and Makkah’s geographical locationgave the city, which lies in an arid and uncultivable valley, a good measure of economicprosperity. Economic well-being, however, brought with it materialistic lack of concernfor the welfare of the orphans, the poor and destitute. The earliest revelations of theQur’an condemned in the strongest terms these and other ills of Makkan society.

3 Q. Verses 1-5 of Surah 96. All Qur’anic quotations used in this essay are my own translations.4 Ibn hisham 2375 Bukhari , tafsir Hadith No.36 Ayoub, Mahmoud. The Qur’an and Its Interpreters. (Albany: State University of New York, 1992) p.107 See Q. 3:45, 19:30–33 and 28:7

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The message of the Qur’an revolves around faith in the One God (tawhid) and theperformance of righteous acts. The Qur’an frequently addresses the Muslims as thosewho “have faith and perform good deeds.” A good example of this two-dimensionalmessage is the following brief surah of the Qur’an, which was addressed to the Prophetand to every person of faith thereafter:

Have you considered him who gives the lie to the [Day of] Recompense!Such is he who repulses the orphan,and who does not urge the feeding of the needy.Woe to them who praybut who are negligent in their prayersthose who make a showand withhold assistance.8

As revelations came to the Prophet, he recited them to crowds that often gathered inand around the Ka’bah and dictated them to a group of devoted followers known as“scribes of revelation.” Already during the Prophet’s life a class of Qur’an reciters (Qura)and teachers appeared among his companions, and carried the Qur’an into other landsof Muslim domains far away from Arabia. This led to the rise of different readings of thesacred book, which soon became subjects of sharp debate and disagreement.

Many of the Prophet’s companions and wives made their own partial collections ofthe Qur’an known as masahif, (PL of mushaf, books or codices) which they used in theirprayers and devotions. Soon, however, the need for an official recession of the Qur’anwas realized and met9. Tradition has it that the first caliph Abu Bakr, with the approvalof the second caliph ‘Umar b. al-Khattab, appointed a young and trusted scribe ofrevelation called Zayd b. Thabit to gather together these scattered texts from the “breastsof men” and any objects with a flat surface, such as bones, leather, stones, pieces ofpottery and date palm leaves, on which verses or larger passages of the Qur’an werewritten. Zayd’s mushaf remained with the two caliphs until they died. Before his death,‘Umar charged his daughter Hafsah, who was one of the Prophet’s wives, to guard wellZayd’s mushaf.10

Under the auspices of the third caliph ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan, Zayd headed a committeeof four men who relied on Hafsah’s collection in producing the official recension of theQur’an, henceforth known as al-mushaf al-‘Uthmanı (the ‘Uthmanic codex).11 It is this‘Uthmanic mushaf, with minor orthographic emendations and proper vocalization,which was collected within less than twenty years of the death of the Prophet that

8 Q. 107; The Arabic word ma’iun here translated as assistance also means a cooking pot or utensil9 Ibn Kathır, Fada’il al-Qur’an, Maktabat Ibn Taymiyyah, Cairo, 1995/1416 p.55 ff10 Burton, John. The Collection of the Qur’an. (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1977) p.11911 Ibid

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remains the official written Qur’an of all Muslims. The 1924 royal Egyptian edition hasbecome the standard edition, used by Muslim and non-Muslim readers and scholars.

The Nature, structure and titles of the Qur’anMuslims believe the Qur’an to be the Word of God sent down to Muhammad from

a heavenly archetypal source of all revealed scriptures, which the Qur’an calls ummal-kitab, mother or essence of the Book.12 The word kitab has a variety of meanings andsignifications. It literally means a book bound between two covers, a letter, or anywritten communication. It also signifies the record of deeds which every human beingwill be given on the day of resurrection. The signification most pertinent to our presentdiscussion is scripture. The term kitab is used in the Qur’an not only to refer to revealedscriptures, but also to identify faith-communities, such as Jews and Christians who arecalled in the Qur’an ahl al-kitab (people of the Book). Muslims are enjoined to believein every book that God had revealed before the Qur’an, whether it be known orunknown.

The Prophet Muhammad is told by God in the Qur’an, “We shall lay upon youweighty speech.”13 This burden has been understood by Qur’an commentators andtraditionalists both literally and allegorically. When revelation came to the Prophet,while at home, he is reported to have fell into an altered physical state and called on thepeople of his household to cover him up with a mantle.14 When at times it came uponhim while traveling on camelback, the camel knelt down under the weight of therevelation. God declares in the Qur’an, “Were We to send down this Qur’an onto amountain, you would see it humbled and torn asunder from fear of God.”15 The Qur’analso speaks of a Qur’an by means of which mountains would be set in motion and deadpeople are spoken to.16 It further describes itself as a source of “healing of what is inthe breasts.”17 One of the titles of the opening surah (al-Fatih· ah) is al-Shafiyah (theHealer).18

In size, the Qur’an is roughly equal to the New Testament. It is arranged in 114chapters or sections called surahs of unequal length. The longest is Surah 2,al-baqarah,(the Cow), which consists of 286 long verses, dealing with a variety ofsubjects. The shortest surah, al-kawthar, (Surah 108; “abundance”) consists of mere tenwords divided into three brief verses. The word surah derives from the trilateral rootS-W-R, meaning a wall or enclosure that geographically marks off a city or any enclosed

12 See Q.3:7,13:39,43:4. The expression umm al-kitab is also used in the Qur’an to refer to verses thatare clear and decisive (muhkamat), as will be explained later.13 Q. 73:5.14 Q. 74:1–715 Q. 59:21.16 Q. 13:3117 Q. 10:5718 See vol. I of my book The Qur’an and its interpreters, p. 44.

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space. Except for surahs 8 and 9, all other surahs of the Qur’an are separated from oneanother by the invocation of God’s name: “In the name of God, the All-merciful, theCompassionate.”

The word ayah (pl ayat) means divine revelation or divine sign. The order of verses,or ayat in each surah is believed to have been fixed by the Prophet himself. But thenon-chronological order of the surahs themselves was made by the original compilers ofthe ‘Uthmanic mushaf, Zayd and his collaborators. They arranged the surahs largely bylength, so that the book begins with al-Fatih· ah (opening) surah, consisting of 7 shortverses, followed by al-baqarah (the Cow), which is the longest surah of the Qur’an.Therefore, the earliest chronologically revealed surahs were placed at the end of themushaf.

For the purpose of study and legislative implementation of the precepts and rulingsof the Qur’an in Muslim society, jurists and Qur’an commentators devised a roughchronology of its revelations. The Prophet Muhammad began preaching his new faith inaround 610 in Makkah. In 622 he migrated with a group of his followers to the city ofYathrib, later called Madınah, which became the capital of the first Islamic common-wealth. The migration, or hijrah of the Prophet Muhammad from Makkah to Madınahbecame the central event of Muslim history; it marks the beginning of the Islamiccalendar. Thus the early surahs, revealed before the hijrah, are known as Makkan surahs,regardless of where they were revealed. Likewise, the surahs that were revealed after thehijrah, regardless of where they were revealed, are known as Madınan surahs. It must,however, be observed that often Madınan surahs contain Makkan verses, and Makkansurahs contain Madinan verses.

The Qur’an describes itself by several names or titles. The Words Qur’an and kitabare most often used to refer to it. It is also called dhikr (remembrance), or al-dhikral-hakım (the wise remembrance). Another title of the Qur’an is al-furqan (the Criteriondistinguishing truth from error) and al-azım (the Great), al-karım (the Noble), andal-majıd (the Glorious)19 Qur’an.

The Qur’an in Muslim PietyReference has already been made to the reciters and teachers of the Qur’an. These

individuals who have dedicated their physical, mental and spiritual energies to the study,teaching and devotional recitation of the sacred Book are called the bearers (hamalah)of the Qur’an. One such person was the pious companion of the Prophet usayd b.Hudayr who related to the Prophet that as he was reciting a surah of the Qur’an the nightbefore, he heard when he came to the end of it a strange sound behind him, whichfrightened him and his horse. usayd continued: “I then looked back and saw something

19 Q. 85:21

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like lamps between heaven and earth. . . . I could not go on [reciting].” The Prophet said,“These were angels, descended to hear the recitation of the Qur’an. Had you gone on,you would have seen wonders”20

The bearers of the Qur’an partake in the gift of prophethood. In an interestingtradition related on the authority of Abu Umamah, another pious companion, theProphet said: “He who is given one-third of the Qur’an is given one-third ofprophethood. He who is given two-thirds of the Qur’an is given two-thirds ofprophethood, and he who can recite [from memory] the entire Qur’an is given completeprophethood, except that no revelation is sent down to him.” On the day of resurrection,the Prophet went on, “It shall be said to him . . . ‘Recite and rise up!’ He shall thus reciteone verse and rise up one station until he recites all that he knows of the Qur’an. It shallthen be said to him, ‘Come forth! . . . Do you know what is in your hands?’ He shall havein his right hand everlasting life and in his left the bliss [na’im] of Paradise” 21

In praise of those who spend their days and nights studying and reciting the Qur’an,the Prophet is reported to have said, “There are no people assembled in one of thehouses of God to recite the Book of God and study it together, but that divine tranquility(sakınah) descends upon them. Mercy covers them, angels draw near to them and Godremembers them in the company of those who are with Him.”22

Muslim piety has endowed the Qur’an with a dynamic and living personality. It hasthe power to guide Muslims to the right way and protect them from error in this life. Itwill, moreover, be their judge and intercessor with God on the day of judgment. It thusplays a salvific role in Muslim society, which in some ways is akin to that of Christ inChristianity. In an eschatological tradition, reported on the authority of ’Ali Ibn Abi Talib,the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet, the latter predicted a great sedition (fitnah)will befall the Muslim community after him. ‘Ali asked how such a calamity could beaverted? The Prophet replied, “By means of the Book of God! In it is the reportconcerning those who were before you, the narrative of what is to come after you, andthe criterion of judgment among you. . . . Whoever seeks guidance in anything otherthan it, God shall cause him to go astray. It is the rope of God; it is the ‘wiseremembrance’ [Q. 3:58] and ‘the straight way.’ With it, hearts shall not swerve nortongues utter confusion. The learned shall never be sated of it. It shall not wear out fromconstant use, nor will its marvels ever be exhausted. . . . Whoever utters it speaks truth,and whoever abides by it shall have his rich reward. Whoever judges by it shall judgejustly, and whoever calls others to it shall be guided to the straight way.”23

20‘Mad al-Din Abi al-Fida’ Isma’il Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qur’an al-‘Azim, Beirut, Dar al-Fikr 1966 VII,

p. 474.21 Abu ‘Abdallah Muhammad b. Ahmad al-‘Ansari al-Qurtubi, al-Jami’ li-Ahkam al-Qur’an, Cairo, Daral-Kitab al-‘Arabi, p. 8.22 Ibn Kathir VII, p. 475.23 Ibid, p. 534.

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The Qur’an is the framework and focus of the daily lives of Muslim individuals andsocieties. With the words of its opening surah, which are recited by the father in thechild’s ear at birth, an infant is welcomed into the world. With the recitation of the samesurah a business deal or contract is concluded, and a marriage agreement is sealed.Finally, with the words of the Qur’an a dead person is carried to his-her final abode.

Like the Hebrew Bible, the Gospels and most other ancient scriptures, the Qur’an isessentially an oral scripture. As an oral sacred book, it is not silently read, but melodicallychanted or recited. Early in Muslim history, Qur’an recitation developed into an art,demanding a beautiful voice and musical virtuosity. A clear distinction is, however,drawn between tatrıb singing that would evoke in the listeners an ecstatic feeling — andtaghannı (non-rhythmical sober chanting), which is meant to evoke a feeling of awe,tranquility and sadness.

Two styles of Qur’an recitation were developed. The first is tajwıd (making good orbeautiful). This is an artistic style, wherein the reciter can demonstrate his/her musicaltalent, his/her beautiful voice, and virtuosity. The second is tartıl (slow and deliberatesimple chanting). The use of musical instruments is not allowed in the recitation of theQur’an. Reciting, or even handling a copy of the Qur’an must be done in a state of ritualpurity, awe and humility. The following Prophetic hadith tradition expresses well theideal attitude of pious reciters: “This Qur’an was sent down in sorrow. Weep, therefore,when you recite it. If you cannot weep, then pretend to weep. Chant it, for whoever doesnot chant it is not one of us.”24

Daily Public recitations of the Qur’an on radio and television is a common practicein all majority-Muslim countries. Public recitations are also held on special religiousoccasions, such as the Prophet’s birthday and the night of his journey from “the sacredmosque” of Makkah to “the farthest mosque” of Jerusalem, “whose precincts Godblessed.”25 But the most important public recitations are those held during the thirtynights of the fasting month of Ramadann. For this purpose, the Qur’an is divided intothirty parts (ajza’, sing. Juz’) of equal length. Each night one juz’ is melodiously chantedby a prayer leader in the devotional prayers called tarawih.

The earliest schools for children in the Muslim world were the Qur’an madrasas,where the Qur’an served as the foundation of the children’s education. A specialoccasion in the life of a boy or girl is when she-he has memorized the entire Qur’an byheart, or at least learned to read it with the help of a mushaf. This is called khatm(completing) a recitation of the Qur’an. A complete recitation is also held on behalf ofa dead person, where special food is usually served, as a meritorious act.

It has already been observed that the Qur’an is a guide and faithful companion forMuslims throughout their journey from this world to the next. Indeed, a pious Muslimjourney through this life in the Qur’an. The bearer of the Qur’an who completes a

24 Ibid, p. 481.25 Q. 17:1. See also 53:1–18, which alludes to the Prophet’s night journey to heaven (mi’raj).

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recitation and expresses his intention to begin another, by reciting the opening surahand the first five verses of the second, is therefore called the sojourning traveler (al-halal-murtahil). Abu ‘Abd al-Rahman al-Sulamı, a famous Qur’an reciter and scholar whobelonged to the second generation (tabi`un) of Muslims, would lay his hand on the headof a student after completing the Qur’an recitation, bless him, and say, “Fear God, for Iknow no one better than you if you abide by what you know.”26

Understanding the Qur’anThe Qur’an repeatedly calls on its hearers to use their reason in understanding its

revelations.27 It challenges them to ponder it seriously, then they would know that it isfrom God. “For had it come from any other source than God, they would have found init much discrepancy.”28 In spite of the great diversity of its themes, the Qur’anic messageexhibits a remarkable degree of unity and coherence.

For all faithful Muslims, the Qur’an is a book of moral and spiritual guidance. Itopens with a prayer for guidance, “Guide us to the straight way.”29 It is noteworthy thatthis prayer is immediately followed in the second surah by the assertion: “This is thebook in which there is no doubt, [a source of] guidance to the God-fearing.” Since theprimary function of the Qur’an is to guide humankind to God and the Good, it must beunderstood, pondered, and lived by.

The Qur’an has two dimensions, a human dimension as a source of moral guidance,which is termed zahir (exoteric or outer dimension), and an inner, or esoteric,dimension (batin), which is free from the limitations of space and time. This earthlyQur’an which often dealt with mundane social issues of the nascent Muslim communityis nonetheless an earthly manifestation of God’s eternal and infinite Word. The Qur’anstates: “Say, if the ocean were ink for the words of my Lord, the ocean would beexhausted before the words of my Lord are exhausted.30

The Qur’an contains moral and legal precepts relating to lawful (halal ) and unlawful(haram) commands and prohibitions. It recounts stories of bygone nations and theirprophets. It communicates its teachings through parables, similes and metaphors, andadmonitions. It announces divine promises to the righteous of the bliss of Paradise, andthreats to the wicked of punishment in hell. Finally, the Qur’an establishes for Muslimindividuals and the community certain obligations ( fara’ıd) of prayers, almsgiving,fasting during the month of Ramadan, the rites of the pilgrimage (hajj) to the Ka’bah, andstriving (jihad) in the way of God.

26 Qurt·ubı I, p. 6. See my book The Qur’an and its Interpreters vol. I, pp. 14–15.27 Q.2:242 3:118 13:428 Q. 4:82.29 Q. 1:6. The Arabic words al-sirat al-mustaqım lexically mean the strait road or highway, not the straitpath, as they have generally been rendered into English, perhaps to parallel the straight and narrowpath of the gospels.30 Q. 18:109; see also 31:27.

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Throughout their history, Muslims have dedicated some of their best minds to theelucidation and interpretation of the Qur’an. Thus grammarians, jurists, historians andhadith traditionalists methodically developed special sciences (‘ulum) of the Qur’an.However, all Qur’anic sciences could be subsumed under the science of tafsır(exegesis), which is the primary goal of all Qur’anic sciences.

One of these sciences deals with the occasions of revelation of historical andlegislative Qur’anic surahs and verses. Many were revealed in answer to questions raisedby curious Muslim and non-Muslim individuals and groups. Others came down inanswer to specific legal and moral problems arising in the Muslim community.Knowledge of the occasions, or reasons, (asbab al-nuzul ) of the revelation of legislativeverses of the Qur’an was crucial for the formation of legal schools (madhahib) in earlyIslam.

The Qur’an is intimately involved in the affairs of Muslim society. This is clearlydiscernable in the science of the occasions of revelation, just discussed, and the scienceof abrogation (naskh), which has received much attention from Qur’an scholars. Someof the earlier Qur’an’s legislative verses were interpreted to have been abrogated orsuperseded by later verses dealing with similar issues. Abrogation of an earlier legislativeverse by a later one may occur in one of three instances. The first is abrogation of theprecept or ruling (hukm) of the verse, while its text or reading (tilawah) continues to berecited.31 Secondly, the ruling of a verse may subsist, while its text may be abrogated, asin the case of the stoning verse of adulterous men and women. This controversial verseis not in our mushaf, but it is said to have been revealed during the Prophet’s final illness.The palm leaf on which it was written was eaten by a stray goat, but its ruling remainsoperative.32 Thirdly, in rare instances both ruling and text are suppressed or abrogated.It must, however, be observed that there is no agreement among scholars on theabrogated and abrogating verses, or the number of each.

Reference has already been made to the clear and decisive(muhkamat) verses of theQur’an. These are verses capable of only one clear and unambiguous meaning orinterpretation. They are predominantly legislative verses. They are contrasted in theQur’an with multivalent (mutashabihat) verses, whose ultimate meaning is known toGod alone. The Qur’an declares: “He it is who sent down the Book to you. In it are versesclear and decisive-they are the mother of the Book-and others multivalent. As for thosein whose hearts is deviancy, they follow that in it which is multivalent, desiringdissension, and desiring its interpretation (ta`wılta`wıl ). Yet no one knows itsinterpretation except God . . .”33

31 See Q. 2:106 and 16:101, 89:2232 Al-Bukharı (h· adıth no. 1944) on the authority of ‘A’isha. <http://hadith.al-islam.com/Page.aspx?pageid=192&BookID=29&PID=1934>. Accessed on March 22nd, 2014.See also Burton, The Collection of the Qur’an, p. 8633 Q. 3:7. See also my book The Qur’an and its Interpreters II, pp. 20– for a general discussion of thisverse.

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The term mutashabihat (multivalent) also means resembling one another in idiom,but not in meaning. They include verses which speak of God as “sitting up (istawa) onthe throne;” “fashioning Adam with His own two hands”. And “coming [on the day ofresurrection] with the angels rank upon rank.” Moreover, the Qur’an speaks of God’seyes, God’s face, God’s hand and God’s side. The issue here is whether these and otherattributes of God should be taken literally or metaphorically.34

Corresponding to the “clear and decisive” and “multivalent” verses of the Qur’an aretwo approaches to its exegesis. These are tafsır (exegesis) and ta`wıl (interpretation).The word tafsır is derived from the trilateral root f-s-r, which means unveiling oruncovering, as when a woman unveils her face, or when dawn unveils the sky of thedarkness of night. The purpose of tafsır is to illuminate a verse or passage of the Qur’anwith regard to its place in the surah to which it belongs, whether its occasion ofrevelation was in answer to a specific question or problem, whether it is abrogated orabrogating, whether it is Makkan or Madinan, and whether it has a specific or generalpurport or application.

Like the Qur’an itself, its exegesis began as oral transmission of interpretativetraditions attributed to the Prophet, one of his companions, or their successors. Aroundthe mid second century AH [eighth century CE] written commentaries began to appear.Early in the development of the science of tafsır was a special discipline concerned withthe elucidation of the meanings (ma’anı) of difficult or unusual words and phrases ofthe Qur’an. In fact, this discipline is known as the Science of ma’anı (meanings) of theQur’an.

The first and most important source of interpretation of the Qur’an is the Qur’anitself. Where it provides or suggests an explanation of a word, phrase or ruling, norecourse to any other source is necessary. The second source is the sunnah of theProphet which was a living commentary on the Qur’an. Thus tafsır based on theprophetic tradition is known as tafsır bi-al-ma’thour (exegesis through prophetictradition). It primarily refers to elucidation of the precepts (ahkam) of the Qur’an,concerning which the well-known historian, jurist and Qur’an commentator Muhammadb. Jarir al-Tabarısays, “Knowledge of [these] cannot be reached except throughelucidation by the Messenger of God for his community. No one is allowed to speakconcerning this aspect except through the elucidation of the Messenger of God of itsinterpretation to him, either by means of an actual text [hadith] or a proof which he [theProphet] had established for his community concerning it.”35

In contradistinction of exegesis by means of prophetic tradition is exegesis by meansof the opinion of the exegete. In a tradition related on the authority of ‘Abdullah Ibn‘Abbas, the Prophet’s cousin, who was called tarjuman (interpreter) of the Qur’an, the

34 Q20:5 34:75.54:14 55:27 3:7335 Abu Ja’far Muhammad b. Jarir al-T· abarı, Jami’ al-Bayan ‘an Ta’wil Ay al-Qur’an, Edited Ed.Mahmoud Muhammad and Ahmad Muhammad Shakir. Cairo: Dar al-Ma’arif, 1954, I, p. 74.

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Prophet is reported to have warned, “Whoever speaks concerning the Qur’an accordingto his own opinion, let him expect his seat in the Fire.”36 This prophetic dictum isproblematic for two reasons. The first is that hadith literature has little that is trustworthyon Qur’anic exegesis and a relatively small number of Qur’anic verses can be trulyconsidered legislative verses. Secondly, as Islam spread into vast areas of Asia, Africa andfor centuries, into Europe, commentaries on the Qur’an that can speak to differentcultures, and eventually different languages, based on individual opinions were boundto appear. Therefore, by the fourth century AH, commentaries representing legal andtheological, Sufi and Shi’ ı schools of thought were added to an enormous and stillgrowing literature. As I write this sentence I am sure that someone somewhere is writingyet another commentary on the Qur’an.

The well-known Qur’an scholar Badral-Diın al-Zarkashi comments on the prophetichadith related by Ibn ‘Abbas as follows: “If this hadith is sound, then its trueinterpretation is that whoever speaks about the Qur’an merely according to his ownopinion without recourse to anything but his own words, even if he arrives at the truth,would miss the right path . . . this is because this would be an opinion without anysupporting evidence.” Zarkashi cites another hadith of the Prophet in support ofexegesis based solely on the opinion of the exegete: “The Qur’an is malleable, capableof many types of interpretation. Interpret it, therefore, according to the best possibletype.”37 This encouraged the development of esoteric interpretation (ta`wıl) of theQur’an.

Another factor that helped establish the legitimacy of the science of ta`wıl is theconcept of the many levels of meaning of the Qur’an and hence the need for differenttypes of tafsır . Al Tabarı al Tabarı reports on the authority of Ibn ‘Abbas: “There are fouraspects of tafsir. one which the Arabs know through their language; another for theignorance of which no one may be excused; another aspect which only the learnedknow; and finally an aspect which is known only to God.”38 The aspect that is knownonly to God is the day of resurrection and fulfillment of its portents. More to the pointof our discussion is a tradition reported on the authority of ‘Ali Ibn Abi Talib, “Norevelation of the Qur’an came down but that it has an exoteric and an esotericdimensions. Every word (harf ) has a limit or boundary (hadd) and every limit has anopening (muttala’)”, pointing to further dimensions.39

Early commentators like Al Tabarı [d. 923-310] used tafsır and ta`wıl interchange-ably. In fact Al Tabarı rarely used the word tafsır in his highly regarded and substantial

36 Ibid, I, p. 77.37 Badral-Dın al-Zarkashı al-Burhan fi ‘Ulum al-Qur’an. Ed Muhammad Abu al-Fadl Ibrahim. Beirut:Dar al-Ma’arifII, p. 171.38 T· abarı, I, p. 75.39 (2014, 03 03). Retrieved 03 03, 2014, from Islamweb.net: http://library.islamweb.net/hadith/display_hbook.php?bk_no=77&hid=65&pid=34141 Al-Qasim Sallam, Fad· a’il al-Qur’an. Narrated by‘Alı-Zayd on the authority of al-Hasan back to the Prophet. http://library.islamweb.net/hadith/display_hbook.php?bk_no=77&hid=65&pid=34141. Accessed on March 22nd, 2014.

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commentary. The famous theologian Maturıdı entitled his voluminous commentary onthe Qur’an Ta`wılat al-Qur’an (Interpretations of the Qur’an). This is because; hethought that proper exegesis (tafsır ) was the prerogative of the Prophet and hiscompanions. It seems that Maturidi regarded ta`wıl as a form of ijtihad, or rational effortof the exegete of the Qur’an. Ta`wıl is, in the view of Zarkashi, the act of “referring averse back to whatever meanings it can bear.”40

Later commentators have used tafsır to mean exoteric exegesis of the Qur’an andta`wıl to refer to its hidden (esoteric) meanings and mysteries. Thus a true exegete(mufassir ) must possess special characteristics that would enable him to discover thesehidden meanings and mysteries. He must have knowledge of the religious sciences. Hemust be pious and at peace with himself and the world around him. He must as wellpossess the requisite depth of intuition that would enable him to discern the many levelsof meaning of the Qur’an. Zarkashi explains some of these levels of meanings thus,“Outward expressions or explanations [‘ibarat] are for the generality of men; they are forthe ear. Subtle allusions [isharat] are for the elect; they are for the mind. Subtleties ofmeaning [lata’if] are for the friends [awliya’] of God; they are glimpses [mashahid] ofdivine presence. Truths or realities [haqa’iq] belong to the prophets; they are theirsubmission [istislam] to God.”41

ConclusionThe aim of this short essay is to present the history of the Qur’an as a revealed

scripture and its place as a source of moral and spiritual guidance in the life and historyof the Muslim community. For a millennium and a half countless millions of Muslimshave lived and died by the Qur’an. Furthermore, through the centuries the Qur’an hasserved as the fountainhead of Islamic art and civilization. While it may be argued that theHebrew Bible and the New Testament were produced by the “people Israel”andthe “Church of Christ” respectively over centuries of their history, the Qur’an shaped the“Muslim ummah” and was shaped by it.

Because of limitations of scope and purpose, I had to leave out much that should beincluded in any discussion of the Qur’an. I say nothing about the Qur’anic view of otherscriptures or prophets before Muhammad. Nor do I mention the crucial role of savantsof the People of the Book, like the Jewish rabbi K’ab al-Ahabr [d. 652-32]42, the two sonsof Munabbih Wahb [d.725-114] and Humam [d.719-101] of the Yaman and many otherswho helped Muslims understand better their own scriptures, the Qur’an and prophetichadith tradition.

40 Zarkashi, II, p. 148.41 Ibid, II, pp. 153–54.42 Eliade, Mircea, and Charles J. Adams. “Muslim — Jewish Polemics.” The Encyclopedia of Religion vol2. (New York: Macmillan, 1987) p. 396

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In early Islam, traditionists like Al Tabarı readily acknowledged their indebtednessto “the people of the first Scripture, that is the people of the Torah, later Muslim scholarsrejected Muslim-Jewish exchange of beliefs and traditions as Israelitic stories (isra’iliyat)that must be rejected. I am convinced that one of the primary goals of Jewish-Muslimdialogue ought to be to revive our rich common heritage and learn from it. I hope thatthis essay can serve as a small step towards that goal.

History of the Qur’an and the Qur’an in History

441© 2014 Hartford Seminary.