Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Introduction to

Anatomy & PhysiologyHeadings

Vocabulary

Important Info

•Anatomyoscience of

structureorelationships

revealed by dissection imaging techniques

•Physiologyoscience of body

functions

Clinical Observational Techniques•Palpation

ofeel body surface with hands pulses and breathing

rates

•Auscultationolisten to body sounds

with stethoscope abnormal fluid in lungs

•Percussionotap on body surface and

listen to echo air in intestines

Levels of Organization

•Chemical

•Cellular

•Tissue

•Organs

•System Level

•Organismic Level

Levels of Structural Organization•Chemical Level - atomic and molecular level

•Cellular Level - smallest living unit of the body

•Tissue Level - group of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together on one task

•4 basic tissue oepithelium

omuscle

oconnective tissue

onerve

•Organ Levelogrouping of 2 or more tissue types into a recognizable structure

with a specific function.

•Organ Systemocollection of related organs with a common functionosometimes an organ is part of more than one system

•Organismic Level - one living individual.

Interactions of Body Systems•Example: Integumentary System & Skeletal System

oSkin produces vitamin D needed for CA absorption and bone

growth

oBone marrow produces cells which help the skin resist

infection.

Life Processes•Metabolism = sum of all

chemical processesobreakdown of large

molecules into small obuilding new structural

components (proteins)oproviding chemical energy

for cells

•Responsivenessodetect & respond to changes

in internal or external environment

osome typical responses muscle contraction, electrical

signals, hormone or glandular secretion

•Movement oany structural levelobody, organ, cell or cell

component

•Growthoincrease in number or size

of cells or the material found between cells

•Differentiationospecialization of cells

for a specific functionostem cells give rise to cells

that specialize

•Reproductionoformation of new cells or

new individuals

Autopsy•Postmortem examination of body by dissection

•Purposeoconfirm or determine

cause of deathosupport findings of

other testsoprovide info on effects

of drug usageoeducate healthcare

studentsoreveal congenital defects

Homeostatis•Maintaining the internal

environment within physiological limits (internal balance)

•First described by French physiologist, 1813-1878

•Process named by Walter Cannon, 1871-1945

•Exampleoblood glucose level is kept

within narrow range 70-110/100ml

Homeostasis of Body Fluids•Delineation of fluid compartments

•Intracellular Fluid (ICF) = w/i cells

•Extracellular Fluid (ECF) = o/s cells

Intercellular Fluid = tissue fluid =

interstitial fluid

Plasma = fluid portion of blood

•Composition of fluids change as substances move between compartments

onutrients, oxygen, ions and wastes move in both directions across capillary walls

Control of Homeostasis•Homeostasis is continually

being disrupted by:oExternal Stimuli

intense heat, cold , and lack of oxygen

oInternal Stimuli psychological stresses exercise

•Disruptions are usually mild & temporary

•If homeostasis is not maintained, death may result

Neural and Endocrine Controls•Maintaining a controlled

conditionosensory receptors detect change

in a monitored variableonervous system and/or endocrine

system responds

•Ex: Control of blood gas leveloexercise increases blood CO2

levelsosensory receptors detect changeonervous system increases heart

and breathing rates to remove excess CO2

oadrenal gland releases epinephrine to increase heart and breathing rates

Components of Feedback Loop•Receptor omonitors a controlled condition

•Control Center odetermines next action

•Effectororeceives directions from the

control center

oproduces a response that changes controlled condition

Negative & Positive Feedback Loops•Negative Feedback Loopooriginal stimulus reversed omost feedback systems in the body are negativeoused for conditions that need frequent adjustmentobody temperature, blood sugar levels, blood pressure

•Positive Feedback Loopooriginal

stimulus intensifiedonormal childbirth

Homeostasis of Blood Pressure•Pressure receptors in walls of

certain arteries detect an increase in BPoBlood Pressure = force of blood on

walls of vessels

•Brain receives input and signals heart and blood vessels

•Heart rate slows and arterioles dilate (increase in diameter)

•BP returns to normal

Positive Feedback during Childbirth

•Stretch receptors in walls of uterus send signals to brain

•Brain releases hormone (oxytocin) into bloodstream

•Uterine smooth muscle contracts more forcefully

•More stretch, more hormone, more contraction etc.

•Cycle ends with birth of the baby & decrease in stretch

Homeostatic Imbalances•Disorder = abnormality of function

•Disease = homeostatic imbalance with distinct…oSymptoms: changes in body function felt by patient such as nausea oSigns: changes in body function that can be observed by doctor

such as rash or fever

•Diagnosis: skill of distinguishing one disease from another

•Epidemiology: how disease is transmitted

•Pharmacology: how drugs used to treat disease

Basic Anatomical Terminology

•Regions of the body

•Anatomical position

•Anatomical planes, sections and directional terms

Anatomical Position

•Standardized position describing directional termsostanding upright

ofacing the observer, head level

oeyes facing forward

ofeet flat on the floor

oarms at the sides

opalms turned forward

•Prone Position = lying face down

•Supine Position = lying face up

Common Regional Names

•Clinical terminology based on a Greek or Latin root word.

•Fill in worksheet to help remember the terms

She is standing in the Anatomical Position

Planes & Sections

•Plane: imaginary flat surface that passes through the body.

•Section: one of the 2 surfaces (pieces) that results when the body is cut by a plane passing through it.

Sagittal Plane•Sagittal Plane

odivides the body or an organ into left and right sides

•Midsagittal Planeoproduces equal halves

•Parasagittal Planeoproduces unequal halves

Other Planes and Sections

•Frontal or Coronal Planeodivides the body or an organ into front

(anterior) and back (posterior) portions

•Transverse or Horizontal Planeocross-sectional

odivides the body or an organ into upper (superior) or lower (inferior) portions

•Oblique Planeosome combination of 2 other planes

Planes and Sections of the Brain(3-D anatomical relationships revealed)

•Horizontal Plane

•Frontal Plane

•Midsagittal Plane

Major Directional Terms

Superior & Inferior•Dorsal or Posterior

oBack of the bodyoBrain is posterior to the

forehead.

•Ventral or AnterioroFront of the bodyoSternum is anterior to

the heart.

•Superior

oTowards the head

oEyes are superior to mouth.

•Inferior

oAway from head

oStomach is inferior to the

heart.

•Dorsal & Ventral

Medial or Lateral•Medial

onearer to midline of bodyoHeart lies

medial to lungs

•Lateralofarther from midline of bodyoThe thumb is on the lateral

side of the hand.

•Proximalonearer to attachment of the limb

to the trunkoThe knee is proximal to the

ankle.

•Distalofarther from attachment of the

limb to the trunkoThe wrist is distal to the elbow.

Proximal or Distal

•Brain is posterior to the forehead.•Eyes are superior to mouth.•Stomach is inferior to the heart.•Sternum is anterior to the heart.•The knee is proximal to the ankle.•Heart lies medial to lungs

•The wrist is distal to the elbow.•The thumb is on the lateral side of the hand.

Dorsal Body Cavity•Near dorsal surface of body

•2 subdivisionsoCranial Cavity

holds the brain formed by skull

oVertebral or Spinal Canal contains the spinal cord formed by vertebral

column

•Meninges (system of membranes) line dorsal body cavity

Ventral Body Cavity•Near ventral surface of body

•Visceral Organs (viscera): A group of internal organs housed in the ventral cavity

•2 subdivisions

oThoracic Cavity: above diaphragm

oAbdominopelvic Cavity: below diaphragm

•Diaphragm = large, dome-shaped muscle

•Organs called viscera

•Organs covered with serous membrane

Abdominopelvic Cavity

•Inferior portion of ventral body cavity below diaphragm

•Encircled by abdominal wall, bones & muscles of pelvis

Thoracic Cavity

•Encircled by ribs, sternum, vertebral column and muscle

•Divided into 2 pleural cavities by mediastinum

•Mediastinum contains all thoracic organs except lungso"middle" section of the chest cavity

Mediastinum

•Area behind the breastbone

•Midline wall of tissue that contains heart and great vessels, esophagus, trachea and thymus.

Serous Membranes•Thin slippery

membrane lines body cavities not open to the outsideoparietal layer lines

walls of cavities (outside)

ovisceral layer covers viscera (internal organs) within the cavities

•Serous fluid reduces friction

Pleural & Pericardial Cavities

•Visceral Pleura: clings to surface of lungs

•Parietal Pleura: lines chest wall

•Visceral Pericardium: covers heart

•Parietal Pericardium: lines pericardial sac

Peritoneum

•Visceral Peritoneum --- serous membrane that covers the abdominal viscera (organs)

•Parietal Peritoneum --- serous membrane that lines the abdominal wall

Abdominopelvic Regions & Quadrants

•Describe locations of organs or source of pain

•Tic-tac-toe grid or intersecting lines through navel

Medical Imaging•Allows visualization of structures without

surgery

•Useful for confirmation of diagnosis

•Examples of imaging techniques

Conventional Radiography•A single burst of xrays

•Produces 2-D image on film

•Known as radiography or xray

•Poor resolution of soft tissues

•Major use is Osteology: study of bones

Computed Tomography (CT Scan)

•Moving x-ray beam

•Image produced on a video monitor of a cross-section through body

•Computer generated image reveals more soft tissue detailokidney & gallstones

•Multiple scans used to build 3D views

Digital Subtraction Angiography(DSA)

•Radiopaque material injected into blood vessels

•Before and after images compared with a computer program

•Image of blood vessel is shown on a monitor

Ultrasound (US)•High-frequency sound waves

emitted by hand-held device

•Safe, noninvasive & painless

•Image or sonogram is displayed on video monitor

•Used for fetal ultrasound and examination of pelvic & abdominal organs, heart and blood flow through blood vessels

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)•Body exposed to high-energy magnetic field

•Protons align themselves relative to magnetic field

•Pulse of radiowaves used to generate an image on video monitor

•Can not use on patient with metal in their body

•Reveals fine detail within soft tissues

Positron Emission Tomography(PET)

•Substance that emits positively charged particles is injected into body

•Collision with negatively charged electrons in tissues releases gamma rays

•Camera detects gamma rays & computer generates image displayed on monitor