View
215
Download
1
Category
Preview:
Citation preview
REVIEW
OF LITERATURE
Review of Literature
20
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The present review concerns mainly about the oil yielding seeds and
internally seed-borne mycoflora isolated from them.
Seed-borne pathogens are a serious threat to seedling establishment.
Amongst many assays used for detection of seed-borne pathogens visual
examination based on characteristic symptoms including discoloration, shrivelled
and reduced seed size is the most common, for separating healthy and diseased
seeds(Walcott, 2003). Two different most common methods, blotter paper and
agar plate method were used to detect seed borne mycoflora. The mycoflora
associated with Nigella sativa was studied by Srivastava and Chandra (1983).
Deena and Basuchaudhary, (1984) detected seed-borne mycoflora of chilli both on
agar and blotter method and 25 fungal isolates were recorded. The mycoflora
associated with cocoa beans, ectophytically (Blotter method) and endophytically
(agar plate method) were studied by Bopaiah and Mohanan, (1984). To test the
seed mycoflora of sunflower seed, samples were collected and tested with blotter
paper technique (Bhutta, 1998). Standard blotter, agar plate method and deep
freezing blotter method were employed to detect the seed-borne Cladosporium
oxysporum on five seed samples of sesame (Khati and Pandey, 2002).Using
standard blotter and deep-freezing techniques, seed-borne mycoflora of 35 samples
of sunflower were studied by Sharfun–Nahar et al., 2005. Fungi associated with
stored seeds of Triticum, aestivum, Oryza sativa, Zea mays, Helianthus annuus,
Review of Literature
21
Glycine max, Arachis hypogaea were isolated (Javed and Anjum,
2006).Pathogenic fungi were obtained from germplasm samples of Sesame
indicum using modified (ISTA)blotter test (Agrawal et al.2006). The study was
conducted on seeds of 7 cultivars of sunflower to detect phytopathogenic fungal
species (Afzal et al.2010).Standard blotter method was used for isolation of seed-
borne fungi associated with groundnut (Ibiam and Egwu,2011). Aspergillus niger
and other Aspergillus species were dominant pathogens on groundnut, Rasheed et
al. (2004). Chaetomium sp.was detected from safflower by Smail et al. (2004),
Curvularia lunata was reported as mycoflora of soybean by Popoola and
Akyushi(1986) and phytopathogenic Alternaria alternata was isolated from
sunflower by Nahar et al. (2005). Aspergillus niger and A.flavus are dominant seed
borne fungi and are responsible for change in physiological properties of seeds
(Rathod, 2012).
Isolation of fungi from seeds of Momordica charantia were done with
blotter paper method and agar plate method using (ISTA 1993), their germination
percentage were also calculated (Shakoor et al., 2011) Storage fungi increased
gradually during the increasing period of storage. Standard blotter method (ISTA
2003) was used for isolation of mycoflora of rice and seed germination percentage
was also calculated (Nghiep and Gaur, 2005). Five different types of media viz-
PDA, Richard’s agar medium, Czapek- Dox agar medium, Brown’s agar medium
and Yeast extract agar medium were tested for best mycelial growth of the isolates
(Naik et al., 2010).
Review of Literature
22
Six strains of Aspergillus fumigatus were studied on basis of virulence
and their spore size measurement was measured (Smith, 1977). A petri plate
method is described to screen pathogenicity of fungi from diseased seedlings of
plant roots, seeds or soil (Christensen et al., 1988). The morphology of
filamentous microorganisms plays an important role in fermentation metabolism.
Morphological studies of Paecilomyces japonica during cultivation in the
bioreactor have been correlated with rheological behavior of the fermentation
broth(Singh et al., 2001).Fungal pathogens were isolated from stored groundnut
seeds(Oluma and Nawankiti,2003). Isolates of Fusarium were obtained from
seeds of Vigna unguiculata (L.) by means of blotter test and slide cultures
(Rodrigues and Menezes, 2006). Morphological studies in identification of
Aspergillus versicolor showed conidia with roughened conspicuously echinulate,
3-4 µm in diameter (Guan et al., 2007). Aspergillus is major producer of
carcinogenic aflatoxins in crops worldwide and is also an important opportunistic
human pathogen in aspergillosis. Fusarium moniliforme was observed as
important seed-borne pathogen of soybean. After invasion of the fungus, rapid
degradation of cell wall occurred followed by intercellular and intracellular
development of the fungus (Muzahid E.Rahman et al. 2010).
Pathogenicity of the Cladosporium on cucurbits was proved by reproducing
symptoms on inoculating the leaves with conidial suspension of one week old
culture grown on PDA in distilled water within 7-10 days (Maharshi, 1982). Seven
fungi were isolated as endophytes from Musa acuminata and were inoculated on
Review of Literature
23
banana leaves in vitro to test their pathogenicity (Photita et al., 2004). Four
Fusarium isolates obtained from diseased koa plants (Acacia koa) were tested for
pathogenicity (Dudley et al. 2007). On studying the effect of seed-borne pathogens
of wheat and barley on crown and root rot disease Fusarium, Alternaria and
Bipolaris showed pathogenicity Al-Sadi, (2010). Pathogenicity of Fusarium
semitectum as a seed-borne pathogen in Dalbergia sissoo was confirmed by
artificial inoculation in healthy host tissue which resulted in disease (Gupta et al.,
2011).
Technique for Thin-layer chromatography and use of different solvents for
detection of different lipid fractions and separation of total lipids of animal and
plant origin were described by Mangold, (1961 and 1964).). Studies of glycolipids
and phospholipids of immature soybean were performed by Singh and Privett
(1970). Study of lipids of maturing grains of corn and changes in their polar lipids
were studied by Weber (1970) Corn oil analysis was performed by Weber,
(1974).Different type of polar lipids in sunflower seeds were detected by Grewal et
al. (1978). Soybean oil oxidizes rapidly at frying temperatures due to presence of
high percent of unsaturated fatty acid. This causes loss in both nutritional and
sensory qualities. Some sterols have been reported to reduce frying oil
deterioration. Two sterols from oat i.e. delta5 avenasterol and β-sitosterol were
added to soybean oil and their antioxidant effect was studied at 1800C (White and
Armstrong, 1986). Composition of lipid in seeds of Cassia absus, C. fistula and C.
occidententalis were detected by thin-layer chromatography, (Zaka, 1988). Five
Review of Literature
24
soybeans cultivars were analyzed to determine the total fatty acid and triglyceride
composition. (Yang and Peng,1990). Alcoholysis of soybean oil with methanol,
ethanol n-propenol and n-butenol was investigated and thin layer chromatography
of soybean oil was performed with silica gel plates and iodine vapour was used for
spot detection (Kildiran et al. 1996). Thin layer chromatography of maize oil
extract with Blig and Dyer method showed different amount of neutral and polar
lipids (Onyango, 2000). Lipid thin layer chromatography was performed by Folch
method using chloroform methanol as solvent. Thin layer chromatography of corn
oil was performed with silica gel plates and iodine vapour was used as spot
detector (Feng et al., 2002). Thin layer chromatography was performed for
estimation of Thiram, on treated seeds of maize. TLC with silica gel plates and
iodine vapour for detection of fungicides on chromatogram were used (Prajapati
and Agrawal, 2005). Thin layer chromatography was performed with oil obtained
from fresh maize and the fraction was found to be ulcer protective in nature
(Tovey, et al. 2005). Safflower oil was tested for iodine value, saponification
value and different lipid contents (Rafiquzzaman et al., 2006). Oil content,
peroxide value, iodine value, saponification value and acid value were determined
by following the method of AOAC-1995 (Sharma, 2007). Thin layer
chromatography for detection of new compounds resulting due to oxidation and
thermal alterations of unsaturated fatty acid was performed and amount of polar
lipids helping in determination of nutritional significance of total 25% polar
compounds limitation established for frying oils were detected (Gloria Marquez-
Review of Literature
25
Ruiz, 2009). Diacyglycerides are more beneficial then triglycerides.
Diacyglycerides are stored in the human lever and here lipid oxidation of fatty acid
causes breakdown instead of storage of fat (Marimuthu et al., 2010). The acid
value, peroxide value and iodine value of crude sesame oil was calculated
(Alymeni et al. 2011). High acid value may be an indication of rancidity, oxidation
and high degree of biological activity and deterioration of non-oily constituents
such as carbohydrates and proteins, which may also affect the nutritive value of
oils (Artman,1969).
Thin layer chromatography with silica gel plates of chloroform extract of
seeds of chironji, walnut, apricot and sal were performed for detection of aflatoxin
spots and aflatoxin B-1 was detected as major type of aflatoxin present in oil seed
samples (Shukla and Singh, 2006). Corn seeds and grain having a higher oleic acid
content conventional corn were developed by virtue of heritable genes for
increased oil and oleic acid content (Leto et al., 2001).Lipid profile of cultured
cells of apple and apple tissue were tested with thin layer chromatography and
neutral and polar lipids were separated with sulphuric acid charring method
(Prabha et al., 1988). Yeast lipids were detected with thin layer chromatography
using silica gel as adsorbent and iodine vapour as lipid spot detector and non-
polar lipids i.e. free fatty acid, diacylglycerols, triacylglycerols, sterols and steryl
esters and polar lipids viz.- glycerolphosphoslipids and sphingolipids were detected
(Schneiter and Daum, 2006). Experiments performed with commercial corn oil
showed that phytosterols comprising less than1% of commercial corn oil
Review of Literature
26
substantially reduced cholesterol absorption and may account for part of the
cholesterol lowering activity of corn oil (Ostlund et al., 2002).
Nutritional evaluation of pigeon pea meal showed high content of
potassium and phosphorus (Nwokolo, 1987). Pottasium and phosphorus are
needed as diet supplements required to maintain the osmotic balance of body fluid
and the pH of the body (NRC, 1989). Substantial changes in the mineral content of
seeds due to fungal infestation was reported Nair(1994). Mineral composition of
healthy and diseased seeds of vegetables were studied by Narain 1986, that of
legumes by Nair 1994 and of rice by Kohli 2004. Mineral composition of oil
bearing seeds and kernels of Peanut, sunflower, corn, safflower, soybean, cotton,
sesame, cumin, almond, rape and walnut were determined (Ozcan, 2006).
Composition and biophysical characteristics of soybean was studied by
Saleemullah et al., (2006). Nutritional potential of the leaves and seeds of Solanum
nigrum were studied using atomic absorption spectrophotometer after acid
digestion of the samples (Akubugwo et al. 2007). Mineral composition of cashew
nut showed potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorous, zinc and iron
(Akinhanmi and Atasle, 2008).Evaluation of mineral content and functional
properties of fermented maize flour blended with bambara groundnut was studied
by Mbata et al.,(2009). Determination of mineral content in methanolic safflower
extract was studied by Lee, Y. et al., (2009). Mineral contents of oil bearing seeds
of whole and dehulled Nigerian seasame seed were determined (Bamigboye et al.,
2010). Nutritional composition of bread nut seeds was studied by Adeleke and
Review of Literature
27
Abiodun(2010). Mineral analysis of seed of Lophira lanceolata with atomic
absorption was detected by Lohlum et al. (2010). Chemical and nutrient analysis
of Gingerbread Plum (Neaocarya macrophylla) seeds was performed by Amza et
al., (2010).The maintenance of dietary mineral balance in the human body is very
important since they are part of enzyme involvement in fundamental biological
processes. Mineral composition of sesame seeds were determined by atomic
absorption spectrophotometer(Alyemeni et al., 2011).The nutritional functional
properties of the seed flour of three varieties of Carica papaya were analysed for
their mineral contents (Adesuyi et al., 2011).
Effect of pH and temperature on different fungal isolates such as, A.
niger was studied by Denning et al. (1993), Joseph et al. (2009)and Andrea et al.
(2010). Study on A. fumigatus was done by Rechardo et al. (2004), Sriranganadane
et al. (2010), on Fusarium species by Joseph et al. (2009), on Trichoderma viride
by Juwaiedi et al. (2010), on Chaetomium species by Methew et al. (2008), on
Fusarium species by Gulati et al. (2005), on Fusarium oxysporum and A. terreus
by Yadav et al. ( 2006), on Alternaria alternata by El-sayed (2006), on Curvularia
species by Jiezhang et al. (2010), Pattnaik and Gupta, (2008) and Brecht et
al.(2007).
Cladosporium herbarum and Humicola grisea isolated from city waste
were tested for growth at different temperature and pH (Mehra and Jaitly, 1995).
Review of Literature
28
Effect of temperature and pH on Fusarium moniliforme and F. proliferatum was
studied by Marin et al., (1995). The effect of light, temperature and pH on four
bioluminescent fungi were investigated on cultures of Armillaria, Mycena
citricolor, Omphalotus and Panellus stipticus (Weitz et al., 2001). Four fungi
causing head blight of wheat Fusarium avenaceum, F. culmorum, F. graminearum
and Microdochium nivale was studied for their growth at optimum temperature
with potato dextrose agar plate method (Rossi et al., 2002). The effect of
temperature , pH and sodium chloride concentration on the growth of the
Monascus ruber, spoilage microorganism for table olive was studied (Panagou et
al., 2005). The effect of pH on growth and sporulation on the Aspergillus niger
isolates from two groundnut cultivars was studied by Kale, (2005). Effect of
sewage sludge alkalization and acidification on keratinolytic and keratinophilic
fungi was studied by Ulfig, (2005). Influence of culture media and environmental
factors on mycelial growth and sporulation of Lasiodiplodia theobrome (Pat.)
Griffon and Maubl was studied (Saha et al., 2008). The mechanism for the pH
relationships of fungal and bacterial growth in soil was investigated by Rousk et
al., (2010). Lentinus tuberregium (Fr.), an edible fungus was studied for growth
development at different pH and temperature (Manju Nathan and Kaviyarasan,
2011). Effect of pH on growth of fungus and bacteria in grassland soils was
studied and found that bacterial growth decreased and fungal growth increased and
lower pH (Rousk et al. 2011). Experiment on production of protease and growth
Review of Literature
29
characteristics of Aspergillus sydowii was performed in Czapek- Dox broth (A. K.
Sharma et al. 2011).
Protein content in crude and purified enzyme was measured by Patil and
Shastri, 1985. Protein content of Aspergillus niger mycelium was determined
(Jernejc et al. 1986). Protein concentration was determined in leaves of
Andrographis paniculata(Ghosh et al. 2004). Total protein of Paecilomyces
tenuipes was determined with bovine serum albumin as the standard (Xu and Yun,
2004). The effect of magnetic field, the quantity of sawdust and culture age were
studied on content of soluble protein of Chaetomium globosum and Trichoderma
viride (Manoliu and Oprica, 2008). The fungal protein of Aspergillus oryzae was
determined with glucosamine during different cultivation time (Chen et al. 2010).
Protein content of Aspergillus niger, Curvularia lunata, Curvularia geniculata,
Neurospora crassa and Penicillium lanosum was determined by Madhanraj et al.
2010. Protein patterns for three Aspergillus species i.e., Aspergillus fumigatus, A.
flavus and A. niger was obtained (Leila et al. 2010). Protein content of Aspergillus
niger and Aspergillus awamori was determined using the Folin phenol reagent by
Spelzini et al. 2011. Concentration of protein in crude and purified amylase
extracts was calculated (Khan et al., 2011). Protein content in different seed-borne
fungal isolates was calculated (Nair 1994, Bindu 1997, Kohli 2004). Ptrotein
quantity was estimated in three strains of Aspergillus niger, also in Penicillium
camemberti, Tricophyton terrestre, Cladosporium cladosporoides (Lone et
al.,2012).
Review of Literature
30
Amino acid metabolism in Aspergillus flavus showed absence of tryptophan
and presence of methionine in trace amount. (Pillai and Shrinivasan, 1956). Amino
acid composition of Penicillium griseofulvin during development in submerged
culture was determined by Bent and Morton (1964). Genetic control of uptake of
amino acid in Aspergillus nidulans showed uptake of various common amino
acids. (Sinha, 1969). Alpha amylase of Aspergillus oryzae showed presence of 19
common amino acids. (Stein et al. 1960).
Different range of pH influencing the lipase production by Penicillium
oxalicum and Aspergillus flavus was studied by David kirsh, (1934). Aspergillus
niger and A. terreus were tested for promising hydrolytic lipase activity with
Sorbitan monolaurate(Tween-20)by the method of Sierra(1957). In soybean food
fermentation industry growth conditions for protease production by Rhizopus
oligosporus, Mucor sp. and Actinomucor elegans were studied (Wang et al. 1974).
lipolytic(Sierra G.) amylolytic and proteolytic(Hankin and Anagnostakis) activity
was studied in isolates of Aspergillus flavus, A.tenuis, Curvularia lunata and
Curvularia pallescens. Lipolytic activity was detected by measuring the zone of
crystal formation beyond the extremity of fungal colony (Prasad, 1979 and Gupta,
G., 2001). Different isolates of fungi from sunflower seeds were tested for lipase
production (Roberts et al. 1987). Extra cellular lipase produced by Rhizopus
oligosporus was tested for different carbon sources and incubation period (Nahas,
1988). Extracellular amylase synthesis by Aspergillus flavus and Penicillium
purpurescence showed maximum enzyme productivity after 7 days incubation at
Review of Literature
31
450C (Olama and Sabry, 1989). Culture media containing oil by gum acacia was
tested for lipase production by Rhizopus oligosporus (Ghosh et al., 1996). The
activities of amylase and invertase in ten varieties of mango at different maturity
stages were determined (M. Rahman et al., 1997). The activities of different
enzymes viz-protease, peroxidase amylase, cellulose, invertase, ascorbic acid
oxidase and polyphenol oxidase were tested on leaves of different ages of Moringa
olefera (Khatun et al. 2003). The amylase obtained from Aspergillus flavus isolate
was produced under optimum substrate concentration of starch (EL- Safey and
Ammar, 2004). Extra cellular lipase produced by Botrytis cinearea is able to
hydrolyse unsaturated long chain fatty acid esters, known to be component of
cutine and waxes (Ilona and Jan, 2004).
The increase in concentration of starch as substrate in the culture medium
enhanced fungal growth and enzyme production in Mucor spp. (Vahidi et al.
2005).The optimal pH and temperature for amylase production in Penicillium
rugulosum was studied by Tiwari et al., (2007). Ecological screening for lipolytic
moulds and process optimization for lipase production from Rhizopus oryzae using
tween twenty was studied by Shukla and Gupta, (2007). Effect of pH on alpha
amylase of activity of Trichoderma viride was tested and the optimum temperature
was found 300C with optimal pH range between 6 and 7.(Mahmood Muzahid
Rahman, 2008). Microorganisms are important source for enzyme production.
The Aspergillus species produce a large variety of extracellular enzymes, of which
amylases are of significant industrial importance. Many important industrial
Review of Literature
32
enzymes such as amylase, lipases and cellulases are produced by fermentation of
filamentous fungi (Davecha et al., 2009). Three starch degrading fungal species
were isolated Aspergillus spp., Mucor spp. and Geotrichum candidum and highest
raw starch hydrolysing α-amylase activity was shown by the species G. candidum
after 72hours incubation (Silva et al., 2009). α-Amylase hydrolyses starch to a
range of products such a glucose and maltose. Amylase activity of five fungal
strains of two fungi Aspergillus niger and A. flavus showed maximum α-amylase
activity after 48h incubation (Shafique et al., 2009). Amylase activity of A. flavus
was highest at 300C temp. and 6 pH(Sasi et al., 2010). Aspergillus spp. produced
many enzymes such as cellulases, xylanases, amylases, proteases and lipase.
Aspergillus joponicus isolated from the paper nest of Ropalidia marginata showed
lipase production at pH 7, 300C and 7 days old culture.(Jayaprakash and Ebenezer,
2010). Lipolytic activity of Trichoderma reeseii was tested for optimal
temperature and pH. Lipase activity was confirmed by zone of clearance on
trybutrin agar medium (Rajesh et al.,2010). The lipolytic activity of storage fungi
of safflower was studied using different nutritional sources and variable results
were tested for degree of lipase production (Kakde and Chavan, 2011).Fifteen
fungal isolates of Aspergillus, Penicillium and Trichoderma showed a high
potential for amylase production (Khokhar et al., 2011).
The sensitivity of different micro-organisms to griseofulvin and their ability
to take up the antibiotic, especially into their acid and protein fractions were
studied by. El- Nakeeb and Lampen, (1965). The radial colony growth and germ
Review of Literature
33
tube specific growth rate of Absidia glauca decreased with griesofulvin. (Trinci
and Gull, 1970). Griseofulvin deteriorates spindle and cytoplasmic microtubules
influencing cell division and outgrowth of hyphal tips (Borgers, 1980).
Tetracycline analogs were tested, (minocycline) against Aspergillus fumigatus, A.
flavus, and A. niger (Hughes et al., 1984). Griseofulvin inhibits growth of A.
flavus.(Sher Richard K.1989). Use of tetracycline sorbate for control of
Aspergillus fumigatus.(Roy et al., 1991). Antifugal properties of serotonin
reuptake inhibitors against Aspergillus spp. were studied in vitro (Lass Florl et al.,
2001). Antifugal drug resistant mechanism was tested with amphotericin B and
griseofulvin (Anderson, 2005). Griseofulvin obtained from Xylaria sp. showed
antifungal activity against Corticium sasaki,Botrytis cinerea, Puccinia
recondita(Park et al., 2005). Antifungal activity of griseofulvin was tested against
Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Rhizoctonia sp (Agarry and Edremoda, 2007).
Tertracycline alters drug susceptibility in Candida albicans and Aspergillus
fumigatus (Oliver, 2008). Streptomycin was tested against Aspergillus niger, A.
flavus and A. fumigatus(Thenmozhi and Kannabiran, 2010). Griseofulvin reduced
growth of Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans. Norfloxacin also showed
reduction of growth in Aspergillus sp. (Ternikar, 2010). Tetracycline inhibits
growth of Aspergillus niger (Sajjan, Sangita 2010). Griseofulvin showed inhibition
of growth in Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum
(Mbatchou et al. 2010). Novel norfloxacin analogues reduced growth of Candida
albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus(Dina, 2011). Antimicrobial activity of
Review of Literature
34
thiazolidinone norfloxacin hybrids were tested against Candida albicans and A.
niger (Vikas kumar et al. 2011). Griseofulvin showed antifungal activity against
Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger and A. clavatus. (Bhalodia and Shukla, 2011).
Griseofulvin binds microtubules and inhibits fungal mitosis.
Pisum sitivum was protected from Fusarium solani f. sp. pisi by kitazin P
an organophosphorus fungicide causing inhibition of cutinase (Koller et al., 1982).
Seed-borne Alternaria tenuissima in pigeonpea was controlled by bavistin, thiram,
captan, benomyl and difolatal. (Mahendra Pal,1984). The rust disease of pearl
millet was controlled by bavistin (Pawar and Ghuge, 1987). The effect of
fungicides benomyl, carbendazim, chloroleb, kitazin, edifenphos, thiabendazole
and wetable ceresan was tested on production and activity of enzymes in
Rhizoctonia solani (Kannaiyan, 1988). Effect of organophosphorus fungicide
iprobenfos (Kitazin-P) was tested against Pyricularia oryze (Binks et al. 1993).
Seed treatment with benomyl, vitavax, captan, dithane and bavistin showed
significant reduction in infection of rhizosphere and rizhoplane mycoflora of
soybean (Farzana Ali, 1997). Bavistin was found be efficatious in controlling the
growth of A. Parasiticus (Dehuri et al., 1998). The impact of fungicide, binomyl,
kitazin, mancozeb and tridemorph on population of fungi bacteria and enzymatic
activities was studied by Shukla, 2000. Aspergillus infection in silkworm was
tested with bavistin (Singh et al. 2002). The toxicity of chlorothalonil on the
growth of yeasts was tested and growth inhibition was seen. Chlorothalonil reacts
with sulfhydryl groups present in protein or in cofactors and this is the mechanism
Review of Literature
35
of its fungicidal activity (Jae-Ho shin et al. 2003). Five fungicides viz- bavistin ,
rovral, cupravit, dithane M-45, and thiovit were tested against conidial germination
of Fusarium oxysporum (Alam et al. 2004). Varieties of Magnaporthe grisea were
treated with kitazin P and carbendazim for development of resistant mutants
(Zhang chuan, 2004). Carbendazim, captan, and their different combination were
found effective against Fusarium moniliforme effecting stored maize seeds
(Mahajan et al., 2004). Two fungicides viz- bavistin and dithane M-45 were tested
for effect on mycorrhizal fungi of sunflower crop (Agrawal et al. 2005).
Chlorothalonil at the concentration of 0.09% proved most effective controlling the
Citrus disease in Ethiopia (Tessega et al., 2006). Fungicides carbendazim and
chlorothalonil was found quite effective against Alternaria alternata causing leaf
spot of datepalm (Pal et al. 2008). Bavistin exerted antifungal activity against
Aspergillus niger, F. oxysporum, A. flavus and A. alternata.(Sayyed and
Chincholkar, 2009). Formlin and bavistin were tested for inhibiting the radial
colony growth of fungi, obtained from Oyster mushroom (Pervez et al., 2009). The
efficacy of carbendazim 50% WP against Fusarium oxysporum was tested
(Srivastava et al. 2010). The effect of fungicide carbendazim, canjcozeb, Copper
oxychloride, captan and captafol on Aspergillus flavus was studied by food-
poisoning technique (Rathod et al. 2010). Chlorothalonil(11µg/g) caused 16.4%
and 2.6% inhibition of soil respiration (Stefani et al. 2010). Five synthetic
fungicides such as bavistin, blitox, captan, dithane and thiram were tested against
Altenaria alternata, Aspergillus flavus, Curvularia lunata, Drechslera oryzae,
Review of Literature
36
Drechslera halodes and Fusarium moniliforme (Mohana et al., 2011). Synthetic
fungicides dithane M-45, captan, benlate , thiram and bavistin were tested against
Aspergillus alternata, Fusarium. solani, F. moniliforme and Curcularia lunata
(Lalitha et al. 2011). The seeds of Cercospora leaf spot were treated with bavistin
(Carbendazim) to study disease incidence (Ali et al. 2011).Bavistin showed
inhibition zone against Aspergillus niger (16mm) and Fusarium
oxysporum(13mm) (Hemavani and Thippeswamy, 2012). Aspergillus niger and
Aspergillus terreus showed higher percentage of growth inhibition while testing
with different concentrations of tested fungicides followed by other isolates.
The antifungal activity of leaf extract of Datura alba and Cannabis sativa
was tested against fungal isolates (Pandey, 1982). Essential oil of turmeric showed
antifungal and insect repellant activities (Saju et al. 1998). Turmeric is credited
with biopesticidal properties (Khanna,1999). Turmerin of turmeric was found to be
an efficient antioxidant, DNA protactant, and antimutagen (Srinivas et al. 2004).
Effect of 5 powder spices using poison food technique was evaluated against
fungal pathogens, out of which clove completely checked the growth of pathogens
(Pereira et al. 2006). 34 medicinal plant extract against Sarocladium oryzae
causing sheath rot in rice were tested for fungitoxicity ( Yadav and Thrimurty,
2006). Leaf extract of locally available 10 plants including some obnoxious weeds
viz- Ipomea cornia , Lantana camara, Solanum xanthocarpum, Eupatorium
edenophorum, Dodonea viscosa, Jasminum dispermum, Eucalyptus citrodora,
Agave ameriacana and Sapium insigne were evaluated against fungal
Review of Literature
37
pathogens(Ashok kumar, 2006). Nutmeg oil and turmeric oil showed antifungal
properties against Penicillium chrysogenum (Matan and Matan, 2007). Asafoetida
oil at 0.1 and 0.15 % showed fungal growth inhibition, while blackcumin showed
little effectivity at 0.15%. Blackcumin is used in treating fungal infection of A.
flavus, A. niger, and Penicillium sp. blackcumin seed oil is used as remedy as one
of the most virulent and difficult pancreatic cancer. Nutmeg also showed
antifungal property against various plant pathogenic fungi such as Alternaria sp.
and Colletotrichum sp.(Jun young cho, et al., 2007). Nigella sativa extract and oil
inhibited the production of aflatoxin by 5% (Maraqa et al. 2007). Extracts of nine
botanicals viz- marigold, neem, ashoka , parthenium, ginger, vinca, makoy, tulsi
and garlic were tested against Sclerotium rolfsii causing Collar rot of lentil (Singh
et al. 2007). Sufficient testing of these extracts will indicate the possibility of
further field using. The phenolic compounds found in clove and turmeric may
denature the enzymes responsible for spore germination hence growth of the
pathogens gets inhibited. Blackcumin showed efficiency in inhibiting aflatoxin
production by A. flavus. It can be exploited as food preservative to minimize
mycotoxin effects. (Maraqa et al.2007). The cumin oil caused 100% growth
inhibition in different species of Aspergillus, A. alternata, C. lunata and F.
oxysporum (Pandey et al. 2007). Alcoholic extract of turmeric showed good
control over A. flavus and A. parasiticus (Jham et al. 2007). Leaf extract of
Lantana camara inhibited the growth and effectively killed the Parthenium
hysterophorus (Singh R. 2008). Leaf extracts of 55 plants species were tested for
Review of Literature
38
their toxicity against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi causing wilt in Pisum sativum
(Rao et al. 2008). Three essential oils extracted from Cybopogon citrates, Ocimum
gratissimum and Thymus vulgaris were tested for their ability to control seed-
borne infection of Alternaria padwickii, Bipolaris oryzae and Fusarium
moniliforme in naturally infected seeds ( Nguefack et al. 2008). Antifungal activity
of the ethanolic extract of different plants parts of 45 medicinal plants were tested,
against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. lycopersici (Srivastava and Yadav, 2008).
Screening of extract of four plant species viz- Chromolaema odarata, Ageratum
houstonianum, Polygoum hydropiper and Tagetes erecta was done against
Colletotrichum capsici using poisoned food technique (Deka et al. 2008).
Antifungal activity of 16 spices were tested against different root rot fungi and F.
solani, Rhizoctonia solani and Macrophomina phaseolina. R. solani was inhibited
by turmeric and nutmeg by Shahnaz Dawar et al. (2008). The aqueous flower
extract of Cassia alata( Linn.) was investigated for antifungal activity by agar
diffusion method against five fungi, Aspergillus flavus, A. parasiticus, Fusarium
oxysporum, Helminthosporium oryzae, Candida albicans and Microsporum
audouinni (Abubacker et al. 2008). Asafoetida showed antifungal and allelopathic
effect against Trichoderma sp. and Pleurotus sp. It also increases the level of
detoxification enzymes in the body (Angelini P., et al. 2008). Antifungal effect of
essential oil on in vitro growth of pathogenic fungi were tested.(Uzma sitara et al.
2008). Turmeric and Lantana sp. showed control against anthracnose of papaya
caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides (Jaiswal et al. 2009). Turmeric and
Review of Literature
39
clove fully controlled A. flavus infecting rice grains (Reddy et al. 2009).
Antifungal properties of five spices were used for control of Fusarium
oxysporum.(Adekunle et al. 2009). Antifungal activity of aqueous extract of some
spices were tested against bean rust (Uromyces sp.) out of eight spices tested
blackcumin showed most effective results at 2 and 3 % concentration (Arslan Umit
et al. 2009). Clove and turmeric gave best results amongst all five tested spices.
Clove and turmeric showed higher inhibitory effects on Alternaria and Fusarium
sp.(Suwichyanon and Kunasakdakul, 2009). Ethanolic extract of turmeric and
blackpepper showed good antimicrobial activity.( Pundir and Jain 2010). The
mechanism of action of Nigella sativa is inhibition of DNA synthesis by inhibition
of histone deacetylase enzyme interacting with the chromosome. While screening
of Nigella sativa seeds plant extracts against the various pathogenic fungal strains
for antifungal evaluation, thymoquinone present in Nigella sativa seeds was found
active for antifungal activity (Suthar et al., 2010).Antimicrobial activity of clove
oil was tested against Aspergillus flavus, A. niger, Paecilomyces lilacinus and
clove oil was found quite active.(Joseph and Sujatha, 2011).
Recommended