roman architecture-students.pptx

7/23/2019 roman architecture-students.pptx

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INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY

The Ancient Romans were

responsible for signicante!elopments in

engineering" arches# briges#

a$%e%cts# !a%lts# omesb%iling materials "concretecit' planning#

architect%re " T%scan orerCol%mn),

p%blic b%ilings# an militar'facilities(

These incl%e amphitheatres#


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INTRODUCTION*+YSICA,-.ATUR.S/

ROM. Ancient Rome islocated in Italy,Europe, near theMediterranean Sea.

Italy is 600 miles longand 150 miles ide.

!he "odies o# aterare the Adriatic Sea,

Ionian Sea, and theMediterranean Sea.!he types o# ri$er is!i"er Ri$er, and %oRi$er


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Accoring to m'tholog' Romanci!ili0ation was forme on these!en hills(The se!en hills were rstocc%pie b' small settlementsthat were not gro%pe norrecogni0e as a cit' calle

Rome(The se!en hills1 eni0ens 2began to participate in a seriesof religio%s games# whichbegan to bon the gro%ps(

The cit' of Rome# th%s# cameinto being as these separatesettlements acte as a gro%p#raining the marsh' !alle'sbetween them an t%rning

them into mar3ets "fora&in,atin&(

Schematic map o# se$en hills o# Rome

ncient Rome


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ANCI.NT ROM.

the se$en hills o# current Rome,

'$e (the A$entine, aelian, Es*uiline, +uirinal,

and iminal hills) are populated ithmonuments, "uildings, and par-s.

!he apitoline ill no hosts Rome/s city hall,

and the

%alatine ill "elongs to the main archaeologicalarea.


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-ORMATION/ MOD.RN CONC.*T In the 9th cent%r' 5C# there were Italic

spea3ers :,atins "in the west Sabines

"in the %pper !alle' of the TiberUmbrians "in the north8eastSamnites"in the So%th Oscans an others :share the penins%la with two other

ma;or ethnic gro%ps/ the .tr%scans inthe North# an the


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CI?I,I@ATION

Romede$eloped"ecause o# itsS!RA!E2I3&A!I&4 A4

ER!I3E S&I3!he city o#Romeoriginatesas a $illage o#the 3atiniin the7th century 8

.tr%scans

Rome ,ati%m


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ROMAN .M*IR./ MOD.RN CONC.*T

Early Rome, ith its Repu"lican

Megistrates, ton council(Senatus) andton meetings (comitia), "y a series o#s'stematic con$%ests created an umpireround the Mediterranean consisting o#

di9erent nationalities accepted as allies.!he Roman empire "ecame a #usionconsisting o# the practical estern idea o#one %ni!ersal societ' in hich all menmight li$e in con#ormity ith Roman la andthe &riental conception o# an Emperor: 2odith a throne:alter demanding a common

worship and loyalty.!his union "eteen the est and the east


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MONARC+Y TO R.*U5,ICAN The fo%nation of Rome/ c( B( 5(C(

.tr%scan 3ings B 5(C( E%li%s Caesar 2F844 A%g%st%s GH A D G824 A(D(8888 Un3nown

Nero 8BH8F9 ?espasian FH8H +arian 22829 Septim%s Se!er%s 2HG8G22 The capital# Rome# mo!e to

5'0anti%m b' Constantine8 F8 .n of the western .mpire an

mo!ements of 5arbarians starte 4F A(D(


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ROMAN DYNASTYMonarch'/ is a s'stem of go!ernment inwhich so!erenit' is act%all' emboie inone or more persons "3ing& until death or

a"dication.Rep%blic/ is a form of


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2eographical conditions

!he protection o# Rome as "uilt 15miles inland on the crest o# se$en hills

co$ered ith #orests o# oa- and chestnut

Alps, Apennines mountains protectedRome, "ut did not isolate it.

InK%encingfactors


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Rome gre #rom pastoral(relating to a or- o#priest or teacher gi$ing help and ad$ice onpersonal matters) settlements on the %alatine

hill and surrounding hills appro;imately


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IN-,U.NCIN< -ACTORS 2eological condition

!he "uilding materials o# early Italycentered in Etruria.

!he ironas got #rom island o# .lba,copper #rom neigh"ouring islands.

&ther materials used "y them erestoneand timber(

%lenty o# "uilding stone T%fao# $aryingdegree o# hardness as a$aila"le

*eperino, a stone o# $olcanic eruption#rom mount Al"ano is also a$aila"le


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Religio%s conitions( Religion was a f%sion of i)erent c%lts b%t was largel'

inK%ence b' .tr%scans# the earl' settelers of ital'( In co%rse time# man' of the Roman


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esta > 2oddess o# hearth or sacred 're (esta rose to a high position in the Roman

%antheon and estal $irgins ho loo-ed a#ter

religious rites. in the temple o# $esta, she got much importance

than ordinary priests.) Sol > !he Sun 2od

3una > the Moon 2oddess %an > the god o# ?oc-s

!o mortals:::

ercules: the god o# strength Aescula pius > the god o# healing

orship o# god as entire a matter o# statepolicy

%riesthood as not poer#ul as in Egypt.


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ROM. IN MYT+O,O


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ROM. IN MYT+O,O


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Rome timeline

Roman ingom an Rep%blic

753 BCAccording to legend, Romulusfounds Rome.

753509 BCRule of the seven Kings of

Rome.

509 BC Cretion of the Re!u"lic

390 BC#he $uls invde Rome. Rome

sc%ed.

&'()*(' BC !ic%les +unic rs

*(')(( BC

-ocil nd Civil rs.

mergence of /rius, -ull,

+om!e nd Cesr

(( BC 1ulius Cesr ssssinted.


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.TRUSCAN 6A,,.D TO6NCI?ITADI5A


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ARC+IT.CTURA, C+ARACT.R .AR,YROM./B82F 5(C(

"TOM5 P +OUS.S&

@p to the se$enth century 8..there ere no "uildings o#architectural signi'cance in central

Italy. A roc- cut tom" at er$eteri ith

lo alls o# attle and dau", lo

"enches o# earth or ru""le aroundthem and thathed roo# is thee;ample o# architecruralsigni'cance.- tomb of thathed roof


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"TOM5 P +OUS.S&

Roo#s and ceiling "eams ere gi$enintermediate support in the larger

tom"s "y columns hich ta-e a$ariety o# #orms, s*uare, polygonal orcircular in plan, sometimes ?utedand ith a $ariety o# capitals

including crudely cut doric and Ionic.Some o# the later tom"s ha$eatria(open space) ith roo#s sloping

inard to a central opening to drain


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"TOM5 P +OUS.S&

In?uence o# 2ree- traders: thealls ith tim"er and mud "ric-ha$ing large house,

its internal court and li$ingroom #or richer mem"ers o# thecommunity.

It had ?at or sloping car$ed orco9ered ceilings,

car$ed doorays, and coloured

dados around the alls


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"TOM5 P +OUS.S&

In important "uildings, the#acing o#ten co$ered ith

plaster or ith ala"asterand mar"le.

E$ery house had an alter#or #amily gods


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ARC+IT.CTUR. IN T+. *RO?INC.S.QAM*,.S

6est part of Rome Maison arree and the amphitheatre in

4imes

!he !heatre in &range %ont u 2ard near Rome

.ast an in North Africa !emple o# upiter at 8aal"e- e;ceeds in

height ith re#erence to 2ree-temples( not in siBe)


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ARC+IT.CTURA, C+ARACT.R"T.M*,.S&

@p to se$enth centurytemples ere no more than

sacred enclosure ith simpleopen air alters.!he ordC !emplumC

originally means only aspace on the ground or in thes-y mar-ed out #or the

purpose o# ta-ing omens.(a


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!emples ere the enclosure tohouse the 2od or cult image.

!he original name #or thisstructure as simply DaedesC or"uilding.

It as rectangular in plan,raised on a podium and had aider spreading roo# partlysupported "y outer columns.

ARC+IT.CTURA, C+ARACT.R


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Site %lan and #orm arrangement o#

temples!he temple "uilding as set at the

"ac- o# the enclosure #acing theentrance and had a "lan- rear all.

An open air alter as retained on thea;is "eteen the #orm o# the temple"uilding and the entrance to the

enclosure.!he a;ial arrangement as

emphasised "y raising the "uilding ona podium, and "y pro$iding entrance

steps only at #ront #acing the alter.


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@sually the columns ereemployed only at the #ront o#

the "uilding to assist incarrying the roo# o# the porch.

&ccasionally they ere usedat the sides also "ut erene$er carried round the

hole periphery o# the


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T.M*,.S

Site is a commandingposition in relation to city

#orum!he alter as set

immediately in #ront o# the

entrance steps A;ial planning


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ARC+IT.CTURA, C+ARACT.RT.M*,.S

!he cell as a simple

rectangular room, though it asnot unusual #or there to "e threecells side "y side #or a triad o#

gods. here there as only one cella,

there might "e open ings at

the sides, gi$ing a $ery similarplan.

E;. !emple o# upiter &ptimus

Ma;imus (Etruscan temple)


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ARC+IT.CTURA, C+ARACT.R

!he proportions ere shalloer in

comparison to 2reece, ma-ing thehole structure more nearly s*uarein plan. E;. !emple o# upiter&ptimus Ma;imus (Etruscantemple)

Its podium as 5


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ARC+IT.CTUR.O*TIMUS

MAQIMUS

8ac- all o# thetemple/s

ront corner o#temple/s

#oundation


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E%piter / the s3'


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# ( ( 2& /T.M*,.

It is a pseudo:peripteral pro:style he;a styleorder

A cell hich is ha$ing attached hal#:columnsaround the cella.

!he enta"lature ha$ing rich detailing.

ornice ith modillions. !he temple stood on its podium ithin a

#orum surrounded "y porticoes.


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C.,,A O- MASON CARR..


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MAISON CARR..


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+A?.N&

A sanct%ar', in its original meaning,is a sacred place, such as a shrine.8y the use o# such places as a sa#eha$en, "y e;tension the term has

come to "e used #or any place o#sa#ety. Some roman temple "uildings ere

set in their on sanctuary precincts

and others at the head o# the #orum.!he use o# sanctuary as not

religious "ut di9erent.


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SANCTUARI.S

E;. Sanctuary and !emple o#ortuna %rimigenia %alestrina

3arge rectangular precinct on#airly le$el ground. It as ?an-ed on "oth sides

"y ros o# shops. It had a theatre stage and

stepped seating #acing the

centrally placed temple.

*A,.STRINA


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*A,.STRINA

The sanct%ar' is constr%cte onse!eral terraces that rise %p a steeperhillsie abo!e the basilica an c%riawitho%t an' interconnection betweenthem(

A c%ria# pl%ral c%riae# is an assembl'#

co%ncil# or co%rt# in which p%blic#oLcial# or religio%s iss%es areisc%sse an ecie( In ancientRome# the pop%lace was i!ie into

c%riae# which met in orer to


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SANCTUARY AT*A,.STRINA There are se!en terraces in all#

connecte b' steep Kights ofsteps#

Thir an fo%rth b' long rampsthat climb from each sie tomeet the centre(

The fth an siJth terraces areface b' porticoes which once

containe shops(


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SANCTUARY AT*A,.STRINA

SiJth terrace ha three porticosin sies an bac3 In the centre of the rear porticoes

a Kight of steps leas to the small

semicirc%lar top terrace( This ser!e as the orchestra for

the theatre# an was s%rro%neb' steppe seating(

-i ll h f h


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SANCTUARY AT*A,.STRINA

-inall'# at the top of theseating#a semicirc%lar #o%ble portico frame a

ro%n temple# which wasthe climaJ of the wholegran composition(


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-ORUMS &riginally an irregularly shaped open

space ser$ing as mar-et, generalmeeting place and the setting #orpolitical discussion anddemonstration.

Multipurpose space, hemmed in "yunplanned groups o# dellings, shopsand or- shops.

ormal rectangle closed at one end "ya temple or secred enclosure.

&n other side it ould "e largely

surrounded " colonnades and u"lic


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-ORUM O- CA.SAR AND T.M*,. O- ?.NUS


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,AT. R.*U5,ICAN AND .AR,YIM*.RIA, ROM. G 5(C( ON6ARDS

Introduction o# ne types o#"uildings such as "aths, "asilicasand places o# pu"lic

entertainment.(apart #rom #orumand temples)

Introduction o# ne proportionsrelating to the use o# di9erentmaterials


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ARC+IT.CTURA,C+ARACT.R !im"er as replaced "y stone &penings ere made narroer and

spanned "y arches

al# columns ere placed in #ront o# allcontaining the openings and thesem"lance o# an enta"lature asconstructed "eteen them and a"o$e

the arch "y means o# "loc-s o# stoneproGecting #orards #rom the all !he arched openings in the all ere

#ramed "y the columns and

enta"lature , and the order "ecame


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,AT. R.*U5,ICAN AND .AR,YIM*.RIA, ROM. G 5(C( ON6ARDS

!he adoption o# the classical2ree- orders: orinthian

!he com"ination o# theseorders ith an arched #ormo# construction

idespread use o# $aultedand domed #orms.(groin$ault)


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5ASI,ICA

!he "asilica as one o# 'rstlarge scale roman "uildingtypes in hich the interiortoo- precedence o$er thee;terior.

It as in one scene a smallenclosed #orum surrounded "yits on colonnades or stoas.


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5ASI,ICA /EU


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5ASI,ICA

Its central space usuallyrectangular li-e the #orumhad a trussed tim"er roo#and as open at the sides toloer aisles "ehind the

colonnades 3ight #re*uently came #rom

clerestory indos a"o$e

the colonnades and there


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5ASI,ICA!he most specialiBed use o#

"asilica as #or dispersing o#Gustice #or hich purpose there

as o#ten an apse opening o9 thecentre o# one side or o# one endo# the central rectangle.

E;. 8asilica o# %ompeii hich may indicate that the #orm

came to Rome #rom ampegna.

5ASI,ICAS


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5ASI,ICAS 8asilica, %ompeii

Rectangular hall a"out 6m;5mithout any apse "ut ith a tri"unal atthe #ar end.

A single order o# tall Ionic columns

(made o# "ric-s) ran around all sidesinternally, presuma"ly to carry a tim"erroo#.


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ARC+IT.CTURA,


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ARC+IT.CTURA,D.?.,O*M.NT Alongside these de$elopments , there

ere #urther changes in ton planningand in housing.

!he "eginning made "y Augustus on theconstruction o# a ne #orum in Romeas carried #urther 'rst "y 4ero andthen most nota"ly "y !raGan to gi$e therelated and almost #rom the olosseumto the #oot o# the capitol.

As part o# !raGanCs contri"ution, Romeac*uired "oth its largest "asilica and its

'nest mar-et comple;.

ARC+IT.CTURA, D.?.,O*M.NT INT.RIOR D.SI


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ARC+IT.CTURA, D.?.,O*M.NT INT.RIOR D.SI


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ARC+IT.CTURA, D.?.,O*M.NTINT.RIOR D.SI


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5AT+S Series o# rooms o# $ery di9erent #orms

re?ecting their uses in the "athingse*uences, hich progressed #rom acold plunge to a arm room and then a

hot room. !he rooms ere compactly grouped

together, seemingly ithout anyattempt at 'rst to produce anarchitecturally meaning#ul ensem"le.

8ath o# erculaneum, "ath o# aracalla,"ath o# !raGan, "ath o# iocletian hich

as con$erted into church o# S. Maria

T+.RMA. O- CARACA,,A


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T+.RMA. O- CARACA,,A#ROM. The Caracalla bath compleJ of

b%ilings was more a leis%recentre than ;%st a series of

baths( The =baths= were thesecon to ha!e a p%blic librar'within the compleJ( ,i3e otherp%blic libraries in Rome# there

were two separate an e$%alsi0e rooms or b%ilings one for


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T+.RMA.CARAC.,,A#

ROM.

Stands on a plat#orm 0 #t high containingstore rooms, #urnaces, hypocausts and hot:air

ducts.

T+.RMA. CARAC.,,A


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T+.RMA. CARAC.,,A The baths consiste of a central-rigiari%m"col room& meas%ring BB( b'

G4 metres "29JH ft& %ner three


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The libraries were locate in eJeraeon the east an west sies of the

bath compleJ( The entire north wallof the compleJ was e!ote to shops(

The reser!oirs on the so%th wall ofthe compleJ were fe with water

from the Mercian A$%e%ct( !he A$%a Marciaas the longest o# the

11a*ueducts that supplied the city o#ancient Rome.

!he still:#unctioning Ac*ua elice #rom1576 runs on long stretches along theroute o# the A*ua Marcia. !he Ac$%a-eliceis one o# the

modern(1576)a*ueducts o# Rome

Thermae Caracella# Rome

+Y*OCAU


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ST

A h'poca%st ",atinhypocaustum& was anancient Roman s'stem of%nerKoor heating# %seto heat ho%ses with hotair( The wor eri!es fromthe Ancient


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Calari%m /This was the hottest room in thereg%lar se$%ence of bathing rooms after thecalari%m# bathers wo%l progress bac3

thro%gh the tepiari%m to the frigiari%m(

The tepiari%m was the warm "tepidus&bathroom of Roman 5aths heate b' a

h'poca%st or %nerKoor heating s'stem(Thespecialt' of a tepiari%m is the pleasantfeeling of constant raiant heat which irectl'a)ects the h%man bo' from the walls anKoor(

A frigiari%m is a large col pool at the Romanbaths( It wo%l be entere after the calari%man the tepiari%m# which were %se to open

the pores of the s3in( The col water wo%l

CO,OSS.UM ROM.


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CO,OSS.UM ROM.

!he Colosse%malso -non as

the -la!ian Amphitheatre, isan o$al Amphitheatre in thecentre o# the city o# Rome, Italy.

8uilt o# concrete and stone, it isthe largest amphitheatre e$er"uilt and is considered one o#

the greatest or-s o#architecture and engineering.


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CO,OSS.UM ROM.!he olosseum is situated Gust east o#

the Roman orum. onstruction "eganunder the emperor ?espasianin A, and as completed in 70 Aunder his successor and heir Tit%s.urther modi'cations ere madeduring the reign o# Domitian (71T=6).

!hese three emperors are -non asthe la$ian dynasty, and theamphitheatre as named in 3atin #orits association ith their #amily name.

CO,OSS.UM ROM.


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CO,OSS.UM ROM.!he olosseum could hold, it is

estimated, "eteen 50,000 and 70,000spectators, ha$ing an a$erageaudience o# some 65,000 it as used#or gladiatorial contests and pu"licspectacles such as moc- sea "ettles,animal hunts, e;ecutions, re:enactments o# #amous "attles, and

dramas "ased on classical mythology.!he "uilding ceased to "e used #orentertainment in the early medie$al

era. It as later reused #or such


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CO,OSS.UM ROM.

ORD.R


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!here are three distinct orders in Ancient 2ree- architecture> oric,Ionic, and orinthian. !hese three ere adopted "y the Romans, homodi'ed their capitals. !he Roman adoption o# the 2ree- orders too-

place in the 1st century 8. !he three Ancient 2ree- orders ha$esince "een consistently used in neo:classicalEuropean architecture.8oth the oric and the Ionic order appear to ha$e originated inood.


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ORD.RS8CORINT+IAN Mar- ilson ones, ho 'nds that the ratio o# total

column height to column:sha#t height is in a 6>5ratio, so that, secondarily, the #ull height o# columnith capital is o#ten a multiple o# 6 Roman #eet hilethe column height itsel# is a multiple o# 5. In its

proportions, the orinthian column is similar to theionic column, though it is more slender, and standsapart "y its distincti$e car$ed capital. !hea"acus upon the capital has conca$e sides tocon#orm to the outscrolling corners o# the capital,

and it may ha$e a rosette at the center o# each side.orinthian columns ere erected on the top le$el o#the Roman olosseum, holding up the least eight,and also ha$ing the slenderest ratio o# thic-ness toheight. !heir height to idth ratio is a"out 10>1.U
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthian_orderhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corinthian_order


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CORINT+IAN ORD.R &ne $ariant is the !i$oli &rder, #ound at

the !emple o# esta , !i$oli. !he !i$oli &rder/s orintinan apital has

to ros o# Acusthus its a"acus is decorated ith o$ersiBe

?euron in the #orm o# hi"iscus ?oersith pronounced spiral pistils.

!he column ?utes ha$e ?at tops. !he#rieBe e;hi"its #ruitsag(moti#) suspended "eteen8ucrania. A"o$e each sag is a rosette.

!he cornice does not ha$e modillions.


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AU.DUCTS

Roman a*ueduct#rom %ools o#

Solomon toerusalem.

!he A*ueducts o#Sago$ia, Spain

*ONT DU


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*ONT DU


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CIRCUS.S/ CIRCUSMAQIMUS

!he Circ%s MaJim%s(3atin#or greatestor largest circus, in Italian

Circo Massimo) is an ancient Romanchariot racingstadiumandmass entertainment $enue located in Rome, Italy. Situated in the$alley "eteen the A$entineand %alatinehills, it as the 'rst andlargest stadium in ancient Romeand its later Empire. It measured61 m (,0


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CIRCUS MAQIMUS

!he ircus Ma;imus as sited on the

le$el ground o# the alley o#Murcia (Vallis Murcia), "eteen Rome/sA$entine and %alatine ills. In Rome/s

early days, the $alley ould ha$e "eenrich agricultural land, prone to ?ooding#rom the ri$er !i"er and the streamhich di$ided the $alley. !he stream as

pro"a"ly "ridged at an early date, at theto points here the trac- had to crossit, and the earliest races ould ha$e

"een held ithin an agricultural


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T+.ATR. @sually constructed on le$el ground Raised stage set in #ront o# it as

"ac-ed "y a tall structure,

e;tending #rom one side o# theauditorium to the other.

In Asia Minor and in Syria and mosto# 4orth A#rica the theatres hadproGecting roo# o$er the stage andan aning to gi$e some #urthershade #rom sun glare and heat

,SYRIA


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SYRIA

IM*.RIA, ROM.


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IM*.RIA, ROM. Replan large areas ith straight

"road streets @se o# tim"er as $irtually

prohi"ited

%rincipal alls and ?oors at leastere made o# concrete.

%orticos ere made up o# 're

resistant materials E;. A"andoned port ton o#

ostia

IM*.RIA, ROM.


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IM*.RIA, ROM.

Ros o# arches ere carried on tall

slender piers onstruction o# last large "asilica in

the capitol 8asilica 4o$a.

It as "egun "y Ma;entius andcompleted "y constentine

3arge rectangular groin $aulted hall

that had pre$iously ser$ed as thecentral hall: the rigidarium:o# thegreat "ath comple;es.

Its e;terior $irtually loo-s a top

IM*.RIA, ROM.


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IM*.RIA, ROM.

,AT.R IM*.RIA, ROM.


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,AT.R IM*.RIA, ROM."ADB4829& 4ero to adrian Spatial planning oncrete # or $aulting

Interior decoration "egan at this time E;terior as usually relati$ely plain and

unadorned apart #rom a #acing o# stuccoor mar"le

%antheon presented e;ternally acompletely un"ro-en all sur#ace apart#rom the portico

8aths all sur#aces ere "ro-en "y ros

o# indo o enin s in a rh thmic

,AT.R IM*.RIA, ROM.


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,AT.R IM*.RIA, ROM."ADB4829& %u"lic or-s Roads, 8ridges

a*educts


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5RID


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D.-.NC. 6A,,S AND


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+I**ODROM. ippodrome o# omitian or Stadium

(160 ; F7 m). !his is a structure hichhas the appearance o# a Roman ircusand hose name means ircus in2ree-, "ut is too small to accommodate

chariots. ippodromes ere originallyareas #or e;ercising horses, "ut later inRome, ippodrome as used todescri"e elongated rectangular gardens.It can also "e descri"ed as a 2ree-Stadium that is a $enue #or #oot races.oe$er, its e;act purpose is disputed.

hile it is certain that during the


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AM*+IT+.ATR. Similar as theatre It as theatre in the round, ith its

seating completely encompassing thecentral arena.


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*ORTICO ?I,,A 8lan- street #aZade Rooms to either side ere let o# as shops aZade opened into another court alays

unroo#ed and uses as a garden

!his as surrounded "y colonnades (peristyle) And more pri$ate rooms. Sites #acing the sea 2ood $ie o# surrounding landscaping

&pen plan Mar"le #or columns alls ere pained #resco decoration applied to

se$eral successi$e coats o# stucco.


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+OUS.S %eople li-e to li$e near a"out the central

district or #orum so e 'nd congestionin central district around #orum in Rome

roed tenements se$eral storeys highand constructed ith tim"er #rames andmud "ric- alls

ire and structural collapse seem toha$e "een common until the great 'reo# A 6F re"uilding in a moresu"stantial manner.

,ime concrete/It was forme b' means of stones an


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It was forme b' means of stones anmortar which ha the importantgraient po00olana#The po00olana is a !olcanic earth# wasrail' a!ailable near *o00%oli# a !illagenear mo%nt ?is%!i%s in Ital' an hence

ac$%ire the name po00olana(This po00olana was s%bstit%te for sanan was miJe with lime to pro%cemortar of !er' goo strength an it has

the propert' of setting e!en %nerwater(The proportions of the ingreients!arie epening %pon the nat%re of

wor3(

*ANT+.ON# ROM.


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#A(D(2298C(2G9

ANCI.NT


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ANCI.NT


99/107

%A4!E&4 AS &RIE4!E AE 4&R!,I! A 3&42 8EE4 !&@2! !A! !E @RRE4! 8@I3I42 AS8@I3! 8Y A2RI%%A, I! 3A!ER A3!ERA!I&4S @4ER!A[E4, A4

!IS AS I4 %AR! 8EA@SE & !E I4SRI%!I&4 &4 !E R&4! &!E !EM%3E %A4!E&4 & A2RI%%A A 8EE4 &M%3E!E3YES!R&YE E\E%! &R !E A]AE. 3ISE E!3A4 AR2@ES !A!!E %RESE4! &4S!R@!I&4 8E2A4 I4 11F, @4ER !RAA4, &@RYEARS A!ER I! AS ES!R&YE 8Y IRE &R !E SE&4 !IME(&R&S. .1). SE REE\AMI4E ER8ER! 83&/S 1=5= %A%ER,!E %A4!E&4 & A2RI%%A AS 8EE4 E&RA!E 8Y I&2E4ES

& A!E4S, A4 !E ARYA!IES, 8Y IM, I &RM !E&3@M4S & !A! !EM%3E, ARE 3&&[E @%&4 AS MAS!ER%IEES& E\E33E4E> !E SAME, !&&, I! !E S!A!@ES !A! ARE%3AE @%&4 !E R&&, A4 !A! &4E & 3E&%A!RA/S %EAR3SAS @! I4 A3 S& !A! EA A3 XMI2! SERE AS %E4A4!S&R !E EARS & E4@S, I4 !E %A4!E&4 A! R&ME


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A2RI%%AI4ISE !E &4S!R@!I&4 & !E8@I3I42 A33E !E %A4!E&4. I! AS !IS 4AME,%ERA%S 8EA@SE I! REEIE AM&42 !E IMA2ESI E&RA!E I! !E S!A!@ES & MA4Y 2&S,I43@I42 MARS A4 E4@S^ 8@! MY &4 &%I4I&4& !E 4AME IS !A!, 8EA@SE & I!S A@3!E

R&&, I! RESEM83ES !E EAE4S. CASSIUS I! "IS#!$% !& $!M' *+,*+SI4E !E RE4AISSA4E !E %A4!E&4 AS 8EE4@SE AS A!&M8. AM&42 !&SE 8@RIE !ERE ARE!E %AI4!ERSRA%AE3SA4_I& A @R8I4& A4A44I8A3E ARRAI, !E &M%&SER ARA42E3&&RE33I, A4 !E ARI!E!8A3ASSARE %ER@__I.

RE4AISSA4E>%&%E @R8A4 III (16


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RE4AISSA4E>%&%E @R8A4 III(16

ME3!E &4. M&S! & !E 8R&4_EAS @SE !& MA[E8&M8ARS&R!E &R!IIA!I&4 & AS!E3SA4!/A42E3&, I! !E REMAI4I42AM&@4! @SE 8Y !EA%&S!&3I AMERA&R ARI&@S&!ER &R[S.I! IS A3S& SAI !A! !E 8R&4_EAS @SE 8Y 8ER4I4II4 REA!I42 IS

AM&@S 8A3AI4A8&E !E I2A3!AR& S!. %E!ER/S 8ASI3IAM&ER4> !& [I42S & I!A3YARE8@RIE I4 !E %A4!E&4> I!!&RI&EMA4@E3E IIA4 @M8ER!& I, AS E33

AS @M8ER!&/S +@EE4, MAR2ERI!A.

!E %&R IS EI2! &3@M4 S IE A4 !REE EE%
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombard_(weapon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant'Angelohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant'Angelohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Camerahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berninihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter's_Basilica_baldachinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter's_Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margherita_of_Savoyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margherita_of_Savoyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umberto_I_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Emmanuel_II_of_Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter's_Basilicahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altarhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Peter's_Basilica_baldachinhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berninihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apostolic_Camerahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant'Angelohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castel_Sant'Angelohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombard_(weapon)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIIIhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII


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!E %&R IS EI2! &3@M4 S IE A4 !REE EE%,!E @43@!E M&4&3Y!I &3@M4S & E2Y%!IA42RA4I!E ARE 1FM I2. !E 8ASE IS 1.5M A4 !E !&%IS 1.


103/107

.I


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CORINT+IAN CA*ITA,S CARRY T+..NTA5U,ATUR. 6+IC+ MARS T+.DI?ISION 5.T6..N T+. T6OSTOR.YS(

A5O?. T+. N.QT STOR.Y IS T+.DOM.# 6IT+ A ,AR


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T+. SUAR. CO--.RS AR. D.SI


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ATTIC AND T+.R. AR. A,SO +IDD.N?OIDS(A5O?. T+. ,.?., O- T+. +I


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Dion'si%s of

+alicarnass%s/F 5C after 5C&was a

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