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What Was the Scientific
Revolution?
• A revolution in human understanding
and knowledge about the physical
universe
• 17th century
“Science” Before
the Scientific Revolution
• Based almost entirely on reasoning
• Experimental method or observation wasn’t used at all
• Science in medieval times
• Alchemy
• Astrology
• Aristotle
• The Bible A medieval alchemist
Factors Leading to
the Scientific Revolution
• Rise of universities
• Contact with non-
Western societies
• The Renaissance
• The Reformation
• Exploration
Roots of Scientific Thought:
Ptolemy
• 2nd century CE Greek
astronomer,
mathematician, and
geographer
• Geocentric (earth-
centered) model of the
universe
• Motion of the planets
The Bible and Science
• the world also is established, that it cannot be
moved” (Psalms 93:1).
"Then spoke Joshua to the Lord in the day when the
Lord delivered up the Amorites before the children
of Israel, and he said in the sight of Israel, Sun,
stand thou still upon Gibeon" (Joshua 10:12). If the
Sun had already been standing still, Joshua should
have ordered the cessation of the Earth's diurnal
motion in order to get more time for slaughtering
Amorites.
Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543)
• Polish astronomer
and
mathematician
• Concerning the
Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres
(1543)
Models of the Universe:
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Geocentric: the Earth is at
the center of the universe; all
heavenly bodies move
around the Earth
Heliocentric: the Sun is at
the center of the universe; all
heavenly bodies move
around the Sun—including
the Earth
Luther
• There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes round instead of the sky, sun and moon, just as if somebody moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must needs invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! That fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside-down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth"
• Martin Luther, Table Talk, on Copernicus.
Tycho Brahe (1546–1601)
• Danish astronomer
• Amassed accurate astronomical data
• Theorized a system distinct from both the Ptolemaic and Copernican ones
• Argued that the Moon and Sun revolve around the Earth while other planets revolve around the Sun
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)
• German astronomer and
mathematician
• Didn’t agree with Tycho’s
interpretation of data
• Disagreed with Copernicus,
claiming that other bodies
moved in elliptical motion,
as opposed to circular
motions
• Theorized three laws
Kepler’s Three Laws of
Planetary Motion• Law of Ellipses: Planets
orbit the sun in elliptical patterns
• Law of Equal Areas: The speed of planetary motion changes constantly depending on the distance from the Sun
• Law of Harmonies: Compares the movement of all the planets, claiming a similarity in their motion
Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)• Italian mathematician,
astronomer
• “Father of Science”
• Telescopes and astronomical discoveries
• Theory of falling objects; disproved Aristotle
Galileo’s
telescopic
drawing of
the moon
New Invention: The Telescope
• Invented in
the
Netherlands
• Galileo
• Newton
Illustration of
Galileo at his
telescope
Dialogue on the Two Chief
Systems of the World
• Galileo’s major
work
• Written in 1632
• Argued in favor
of the heliocentric
model of the
universeFrontspiece
from the
Dialogue; from
left to right, the
figures shown
are Aristotle,
Ptolemy, and
Copernicus
Galileo vs. the Catholic Church
• The church
condemned
heliocentric
conceptions of
the universe
• The Roman
Inquisition
• Galileo’s trial
• Galileo recants,
put under house
arrest
19th-century depiction of Galileo before the Inquisition tribunal
Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
• English astronomer,
physicist, and mathematician
• Synthesized the works of
Copernicus, Kepler and
Galileo
• The Principia
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• First Law: Law of Inertia
• Second Law: Fundamental Law of Dynamics
• Third Law: Law of Reciprocal Actions
Rationalism
• Reason, not tradition, is the
source of all knowledge
• René Descartes (1596–1650)
• French philosopher and
mathematician
• Cogito ergo sum (“I think,
therefore, I am”)
• Deductive reasoning
René Descartes
Empiricism
• The belief that experience is
the only true source of
knowledge
• Roger Bacon
• Shift toward empiricism a
hallmark of the Scientific
Revolution
• Helped lead to the
development of the
scientific methodRoger Bacon
Francis Bacon and
the Scientific Method
• 1561–1626
• English philosopher and
empiricist
• Inductive reasoning
• Argued for experimental
methodology
The Scientific Method
Science as a multiple-step process:
3. Test the
theory with
experiments
2. Develop a
theory that
explains the
object or
phenomenon
1. Observe an
object or
phenomenon
Medicine Before
the Scientific Revolution
• Based on
tradition
• The ChurchIllustration
depicting a
bloodletting,
an accepted
medical
procedure
before the
Scientific
Revolution
Ancient Medicine:
Galen (131–201 CE)
• Greek physician
• On the Elements According
to Hippocrates
• “Bodily humours”
• Two types of blood
• On the Use of the Parts of
the Body
Medieval Medicine:
The Catholic Church
• Provided for care of
the poor and the sick
• Minor clerics took
on physician-like
roles
• Eventually,
university-trained
physicians displaced
clerical physiciansClerics treat a royal patient with leeches
Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564)
• Belgian anatomist
• On the Fabric of the Human
Body
• Corrected many of Galen’s
errors
William Harvey (1578–1657)
• English physician
• On the Movement of the
Heart and Blood in
Animals
• Described the functioning
of the heart and
circulatory system
• Disproved Galen’s
theories
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
(1744–1829)
• French biologist
• Early theory of evolution
• Philosophie Zoologique
• Lamarck’s “laws”
Mathematics
• Math symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division
• Analytical geometry: Descartes
• Calculus: Newton
+-
New Invention: The Telescope
• Invented in the
Netherlands
• Galileo
• Newton
Illustration of
Galileo at his
telescope
New Invention: The Microscope
• Hans Janssen
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
• Robert Hooke
A Janssen microscope, c.1600Hooke’s drawing of a flea
(from Micrographia)
New Invention:
The Pendulum Clock
• Invented by Christiaan
Huygens, a 17th-century
Dutch scientist
• Allowed scientists to more
accurately measure time
Huygens’s design for a pendulum clock
New Invention: Barometer
• Invented by 17th-century
Italian physicist Evangelista
Torricelli
• The barometer measures air
pressure
Torricelli’s barometer experiment
New Invention: Thermometer
• Invented in the
17th century by
Santorio
Santorio, an
Italian scientist
• Ferdinand II
• Gabriel
Fahrenheit
• Anders Celsius
Illustration depicting
Santorio’s thermometer
Santorio Santorio
New Invention:
Mechanical Calculator
• Invented by
Wilhelm
Schickard, a
17th-century
German
inventor
• Gottfried
von
Leibniz’s
“Step
Reckoner”Wilhelm Schickard
A 1624 sketch Schickard made
of his calculator
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