To live amongst the dead: an ethnographic exploration of mass graves in Cambodia Caroline

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Bennett, Caroline (2015) To Live Amongst the Dead: an Ethnographic Exploration of Mass Gravesin Cambodia. Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) thesis, University of Kent,.

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UNSPECIFIED

Toliveamongstthedead:anethnographicexplorationofmassgravesinCambodia

CarolineBennett

PhDinSocialAnthropology

September2015

94,989words

SchoolofAnthropologyandConservationUniversityofKent

CanterburyKent,UK

Abstract

Thisthesisusesmassgravesasalensthroughwhichtoexaminehowpeoplein

contemporaryCambodiausetheKhmerRougeperiod(1975–1979)to

reconstituteandre-imaginetheworldtheylivein.Basedonsixteenmonthsof

multisitedethnographicfieldwork,thisthesiswillarguethattheKhmerRouge

regimewasacriticalevent(Das1997)inCambodianlife,andassuchhastriggered

are-shapingofrelationshipsbetweenlocalandthenational,andthenationaland

theglobal,leadingtonewformsofsocialandcommunitylifeandactioninpost

KhmerRougeCambodia.Asphysicalmarkersofviolenceandpoliticalinstability,

massgravesareinherentlypoliticalandarticulatethesere-imaginationsonthe

state,community,andindividuallevel.TheCambodianstateexercisesand

legitimatesitsauthoritybyconstructingmodernhistoryinreferencetoanarrative

ofliberationfromtheKhmerRouge,andthe‘innocentsuffering’ofCambodiaand

itspeople,whilelocalcommunitiesuseBuddhismandanimismtonarrateand

conceptualisetheperiod,bringingitintoexpectedandunderstandableevents

withinKhmerBuddhistcosmology.Theseapproachesarenotnecessarilyin

oppositiontooneanother,butratherrepresenttheoverlappingpluralityof

connectionswithmassgraves.

Thisthesisprovidesauniqueexplorationofsocialrelationshipstomassgravesin

Cambodiacontributingtodebateswithintheanthropologyofpolitics,violence

andcollectivememorybyexamininghowmomentsofnationalmassviolencere-

shapethestateandrelationshipswithinit,andhowdestructiveperiodsof

violencenonethelesscreatenewfieldsfortheimaginationofthepolitical,the

religious,andthesocial.ItalsocontributestotheemergingfieldofCambodian

ethnographythatcombineslocalconsiderationswithwidernationalandgeo-

politicaldiscoursesandhowtheseareplayedoutatthelocallevel.

Allworkinthisthesis,andallphotographspresented,aremyown,exceptwhere

otherwisestated.

Bennett(2015):Toliveamongstthedead 3

Acknowledgements

ThisPhDwassupportedbyfundingfromtheEconomicandSocialResearch

CouncilSoutheastDoctoralTrainingCentre(grantnumberES/J500148/1),for

whichIamverygrateful.

ThankyoutomysupervisorsGlennBowmanandMikePoltorak,tomythirdpanel

memberJudithBovensiepen,andtothoseintheSchoolofAnthropologyand

ConservationattheUniversityofKentwhotookextratimeoutoftheir

enormouslybusyschedulestohelpandsupportmethroughoutthisprocess,in

particularDavidHenig,butalsoDanielaPelusoandMiguelAlexiades.

ToalltheKhmercommunitiesIvisited,workedandlivedin,inparticularthe

peopleofChoeungEkGenocidalCenter,KohSop,andPhnomGrahom-bygiving

generouslyofyourtimeandstoriesyougavemethisthesisforwhichIcannot

expressenoughgratitude.Andforthosewhohelpedmakeitpossible,in

particularMinaBuiJonesandJeanLucandSerenaTemman,thankyou.Iam

eternallygratefultomyresearchassistants-UmSompoah,ResPhasy,Sann

Kalyan,ButhSereibunnwath,andToemSavorn;withoutyouIcouldneverhave

navigatedKhmerlife.AndthankyoutothemanyCambodianscholarswhotook

interestinmyworkandgavevaluableinputalongtheway,mostespecially

ProfessorDavidChandler,HenriLocard,HelenJarvis,IanHarris,ErikDavis,the

VenerableKhySovanratana,CraigEtcheson,andJamesTyner.Thankyoualsoto

theNordicInstituteofAsianStudiesattheUniversityofCopenhagen,and

DORISEAatDepartmentforSocialandCulturalAnthropology,Universityof

Göttingenfortheirsupport.

MyPhDcolleaguesintheUKandCambodiadeserveaspecialacknowledgement

forkeepingmeontrack,sharingideas,andfortheongoingfunwehavetogether.

PaulChristensen,TallynGray,ColleenMcGinn,MariaPazPeirano,NataliaGarcia

Bonet,andCarinTunåker;thanksforhelpingmesurvive.Ilookforwardtoour

futureworktogether.

Tomyfamily:myparents,brothersandsisters,theirhusbandsandwives,andall

thelittleBennettsandTokgözs:thanksforbeingthere,makingmetakebreaks,

andlisteningtomyrants.

Andfinallytomypartner,SteveHull.Yougotmethroughthis.Thankyou.

TableofContents

Abstract..............................................................................................................2

Acknowledgements ............................................................................................3

ListofFigures......................................................................................................7

ListofAbbreviations...........................................................................................8

Terminology .......................................................................................................9

CambodianMaps..............................................................................................10

SectionOne:SettingtheScene .........................................................................11

Introduction .....................................................................................................11TheKhmerRougeandtheirdead ...........................................................................................................14Motivations ....................................................................................................................................................17Literaturereview ..........................................................................................................................................19Theoreticalframework ...............................................................................................................................33Whatisamassgrave? ................................................................................................................................37Thesisoutline.................................................................................................................................................41

Sectionone:settingthescene ............................................................................................................... 41Sectiontwo:diggingupthedead ........................................................................................................ 42Sectionthree:graveconcerns................................................................................................................ 44

Chapterone:Fieldsofdeath,sitesoflife-fieldsitesandmethods ....................46ChoeungEk .....................................................................................................................................................46

Makingthekillingfield ............................................................................................................................. 49AfterDemocraticKampuchea ............................................................................................................... 54ChoeungEktoday....................................................................................................................................... 60ResearchingatChoeungEk .................................................................................................................... 61

KohSop ............................................................................................................................................................66DuringDemocraticKampuchea ............................................................................................................ 68After1979...................................................................................................................................................... 70KohSoptoday .............................................................................................................................................. 73ResearchingatKohSop............................................................................................................................ 76

Othersitesandparticularmethods .......................................................................................................80Myposition ................................................................................................................................................... 82Visualmethods ............................................................................................................................................ 83Interviews ...................................................................................................................................................... 86Languageandtheuseofresearchassistants.................................................................................. 89Anoteonwriting ........................................................................................................................................ 92What’sinaname? ..................................................................................................................................... 93

SectionTwo:DigginguptheDead.....................................................................95

Chaptertwo:Spiritualremains-caringforthedead .........................................95BuddhismandanimismincontemporaryCambodia.......................................................................97Thegrievousdead .....................................................................................................................................102CareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRouge...................................................................................108

Careforthephysicalremains ..............................................................................................................108Annualritualcare .....................................................................................................................................115

Ritualresilience..........................................................................................................................................120Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................124

Chapterthree:Helpfuldead,frighteningghosts-relationshipsbetweenthelivingandthedead .........................................................................................126Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................128GhostsandspiritsinCambodia ............................................................................................................134Ethnographiccasestudies......................................................................................................................138

Rebuildinglives:thedeadatKohSop ..............................................................................................139Rebuildingthecountry:thedeadatChoeungEk.........................................................................148

Discussion ....................................................................................................................................................153Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................161

Chapterfour:Karmaandreincarnationinthekillingfields .............................164Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................166ReincarnationandkarmainKhmerBuddhism ...............................................................................169

Ethnographiccasestudies......................................................................................................................175Reintegratingthenamelessdead ......................................................................................................175Repairingrupturedrelations ................................................................................................................181Thejusticeofkarmaandreincarnation ...........................................................................................185

SectionThree:GraveConcerns .......................................................................201

Chapterfive:Pastpresent,presentpast–politicsinCambodia ......................201PoliticsincontemporaryCambodia ....................................................................................................203Raisingthedead:politicalusesofthedeadandtheirgraves....................................................209

Memorialisingviolence,forgettingnames .....................................................................................212Resurginginterest:theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia ...................217Hierarchiesofdeathinthewrittenrecord .....................................................................................221

Violentbodiesandaffectiveremains .................................................................................................223Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................230

Chaptersix:Hauntingthefuture-tourismatChoeungEk...............................234Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................236ChoeungEkinCambodianTourism ....................................................................................................241

Ethnographiccasestudies......................................................................................................................247Displayingdeath,ensuringlife ............................................................................................................248‘Ifweforgetaboutit,historywillbeerased’.................................................................................253Buildingafuturebyusingthepast ....................................................................................................256

Chapterseven:Deadoftoday,ghostsoftomorrow-electionsandthespectralKhmerRouge..................................................................................................270Theoreticalbackground ..........................................................................................................................272ElectionsinCambodia–abriefoverview .........................................................................................276EthnographicCaseStudies .....................................................................................................................278

Spiritsofthepast:the‘heroes’ofthenation ................................................................................278Spiritsofthepresent:rallyingagainsttheopposition ...............................................................284Spiritsofthefuture:fearandrumour ..............................................................................................290

Conclusion:NowistheTimefortheLiving......................................................308

References......................................................................................................319

Appendixone:DC-CamListofMassGraves ....................................................341

ListofFigures

Figureone:provincialboundaries(UN2015).........................................................10

Figuretwo:killingfielddistribution(CGP2011) .....................................................10

Figurethree:ChoeungEkstupaanddisplayedremains(source:theauthor)........59

Figurefour:KohSopp’teahkhmouch(source:theauthor) ...................................73

Figurefive:farmatKohSop.Aftertheregimebodiescoveredtheland(source:

theauthor)......................................................................................................75

Figuresix:KhmerRougeremainsandurnsofthepoorattwodifferentpagoda

(source:theauthor)......................................................................................112

Figureseven:depictionofPchumBenhatWatKampongTralach(source:the

author) ..........................................................................................................116

Figureeight:PoTonlestupawithremnantsofChengMengdecorations(souce:

theauthor)....................................................................................................120

Figurenine:NeakTaonthemainroadintoBattambang ....................................135

Figureten:ChoeungEkkillingtree(source:theauthor)......................................246

Figureeleven:humanremainsemergingatChoeungEk(source:theauthor) ....251

Figuretwelve:KhmerRougetourismatPhnomSampeau(source:theauthor)..264

Figurethirteen:KhmerRougere-enactmentatChoeungEkremembranceevent

(souce:theauthor) .......................................................................................281

Figurefourteen:protestorsatrallyagainstKemSokha,June2013(source:the

author) ..........................................................................................................288

Figurefifteen:Protestorslistentospeechesinfrontofthecheddeiofremains

(source:theauthor)......................................................................................290

ListofAbbreviations

CGDK: CoalitionPartyofDemocraticKampuchea

CNRP: CambodiaNationalRescueParty

CPK: CommunistPartyofKampuchea,colloquiallyknownastheKhmer

CPP: CambodianPeoplesParty

DC-Cam: TheDocumentationCentreofCambodia

DK: DemocraticKampuchea(1976–1979)

ECCC: TheExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia

(theKhmerRougeTrials/Tribunal)

FUNCINPEC: Front Uni National Pour Un Cambodge Indepéndent, Neutre,

Pacifique,etCoopératif

FUNSK: FrontUniNationalpourleSalutdeKampuchéa(inEnglishUFNSK)

KR: KhmerRouge

NGO: Non-GovernmentalOrganization

PRK: People’sRepublicofKampuchea(1979–1989)

S-21: Security Centre 21, which included Tuol Sleng, Prey Sar and

Takhmaoprisons,andthekillingsiteofChoeungEk(nowadaysS-21

is used almost exclusively to refer to Tuol Sleng Prison in Phnom

SOC: StateofCambodia(1989–1993)

UN: UnitedNations

UNTAC: UnitedNationsTransitionalAuthority

US: UnitedStatesofAmerica

Terminology

Ângkar: ‘TheOrganisation.’ÂngkarwasthetermtheKhmerRougegavetothemselves,andbywhichtheyarestillknownbymanypeople.

aPot: ‘ThePolPots.’ThecolloquialnameusedinCambodiatorefertomembersoftheKhmerRouge.

DemocraticKampuchea: ThenamegiventoCambodiabytheCommunistPartyofKampucheafrom1976–1979.Althoughitformallyonlyincludesthetimeperiodabove,IusetheterminthisthesistorefertotheentireperiodoftheKhmerRougerule(April17th1975–January7th1979).

Khmer: TheCambodianwordforCambodianlanguage,butalsousedtorefertoallthingsCambodian(i.e.Khmerpeople,Khmerhistoryandsoon).Throughoutthisthesis,KhmerandCambodianareusedinterchangeably.

KhmerRouge: MembersoftheCommunistPartyofKampuchea(CPK).ThenamewasfirstgiventocomradesoftheCPKbytheCambodianHeadofState,KingNorodomSihanouk,butwasquicklyadoptedbytheinternationalcommunityofCambodiaandexportedaspeoplebeganleavingCambodiaintheearly1970s.TheKhmerRougeisoftenusedinterchangeablywithDemocraticKampucheatorefertotheirwholeperiodofrule.

KillingSite: Anareawhereexecutionswereconducted–duringDemocraticKampucheathesewerealwaysconcomitantwithgravesitesandusuallyveryclosetosecuritycentres.Mostcontainmultiplemassgravepitsandlargenumbersofdead.

MassGrave: Sitesinwhichmultiplegravesexist,allresultingfromthepoliciesandpracticesoftheKhmerRougeregime.

SamayaPot: ‘TheTimeofPolPot.’AcolloquialKhmernameforDemocraticKampuchea.

YearZero: 1975,asrenamedbytheKhmerRougetoasserttheirre-inventionofCambodia.

CambodianMaps

Figureone:provincialboundaries(UN2015)

Figuretwo:killingfielddistribution(CGP2011)

SectionOne:SettingtheScene

Introduction

Thedead,wedon’tevenknowwheretheywerekilled.Therearesomany

oftheminthecountryside.Everywhere.Uncountable.Nowallwecanseeisa

mountainofbones.

-Ta,onthosekilledbytheKhmerRouge

********

MassgraveslitterCambodia’slandscape.MaterialtracesofthebrutalMaoist

KhmerRougeregimethatruledfrom1975to1979,theyareremaindersofits

violencenowinscribedonthelandscape.No-oneknowsexactlyhowmany

peopledied,norhowmanymassgravesexist,anditisunlikelythatprecise

numberswilleverbedetermined.Withsomanyyearsgoneby,manyofthe

graveshavebeenre-integratedintothelandscape;yearsoffarminghave

destroyedmanybodies;thoseexposedhavedisintegratedorbeenlost;those

lyinginunpopulatedordifficulttoaccessareasmayneverbeuncovered1.Most

authorssettleonafigureof1.7milliondead,andover19,000massgraves,but

therealitycouldbefarmoreextensiveormuchreduced.Whatisclear,however,

isthatthedeathanddevastationcausedbytheregimewasstaggering,andthat

itsimpactcontinues.Asmaterialmarkersoftheregime,massgravesmakevisible

thewaynarrativesoftheKhmerRougeregimearebeingusedtoshape

1Inaddition,theCambodiansoilishighlyacidic,andbodiesarethereforelikelytodecomposemorerapidlythaninotherlocations(BlairandBlair2014).

contemporaryCambodia,providingalensthroughwhichtoexaminehowthe

violenceofthatregimeisnegotiated,andhowtheperiodisbeingusedto‘re-

make’thecountrytoday.

ThisthesisexamineshowpeopleincontemporaryCambodiausetheKhmer

Rougeperiod,andparticularlythespaceofmassgraves,toinformandshapetheir

livestoday.StartingfromKatherineVerdery’s(1996,2000)argumentthatdead

bodiesareinherentlypolitical,Iwillextendthistoincludethespacestheyinhabit

-thelandscapes,gravesandmemorialsinwhichtheylie-examininghowthe

massgravesareusedincontemporarydiscourse(locally,nationallyand

internationally)andthroughthat,howtheatrocitiesoftheKhmerRougeperiod

areexperiencedinthepresent.Thisapproachissupportedbyaconsiderationof

JonathanSpencer’s(2007)conceptof‘thepolitical,’whicharguesthatthereisan

irreduciblypoliticaldimensiontoeverydaylife,particularlyinthere-imagination

oflifeandcommunityafterconflict,andVeenaDas’s(1997)theoryof‘critical

events,’throughwhichIwillexaminehowtheKhmerRougeregimehastriggered

are-shapingofrelationshipsbetweenthelocalandthenational,andthenational

andtheglobal,leadingtonewformsofsocialandcommunitylifeandactionin

postKhmerRougeCambodia.Thisprovokesare-imaginingandredefinitionof

traditionalcategoriesandunderstandingsofsociallife,whichgivesnewwaysof

imaginingandcreatingthestateanditspeople.Asphysicalmarkersofviolence

andpoliticalinstability,massgravesarticulateandmakevisiblethesere-

imaginationsonthestate,community,andindividuallevel.InthisthesisIexplore

thesedifferingpresentations,examininghowalthoughstate,local,andindividual

connectionsandusesofthesitesareintertwined,thedifferingneedsforeach

leadstoapluralityofconnectionswiththegraves.TheCambodianstateexercises

andlegitimatesitsauthoritybyconstructingmodernhistoryinreferencetoa

narrativeofliberationfromtheKhmerRouge,andthe‘innocentsuffering’of

Cambodiaanditspeople.Contrarytostatepresentationsaboutthelossoflife

duringthisperiod,however,IshowhowmostKhmerhavetodayreintegrated

thosekilledundertheregimethroughencounterswithghostsandspirits,andvia

reincarnation.Encounterswiththemassgravesandtheirdeadmakevisiblehow

everydayCambodianscurrentlynarrateandunderstandtheKhmerRougeregime

intermsofBuddhistcosmology,throughtheuseofconceptssuchas

reincarnationandkarma.

Basedonsixteenmonthsfieldwork,withtwomainfieldsites(ChoeungEk

GenocidalCenter,amassgraveofupto17,000people-nowanationalmemorial

andinternationaltouristsite,andasiteIcallKohSop,thekillingandgravesiteof

upto7,000people-nowaruralfarmingvillage)andwithmulti-sitedresearchat

fifteenothersitesinCambodia,myresearchcontributestodebateswithinthe

anthropologyofpolitics,violenceandcollectivememorybyexamininghow

momentsofnationalmassviolencere-shapethestateandrelationshipswithinit,

andhowdestructiveperiodsofviolencenonethelesscreatenewfieldsforthe

imaginationofthepolitical,thereligious,andthesocial.Italsocontributestothe

emergingfieldofCambodianethnographythatcombineslocalconsiderations

withwidernationalandgeo-politicaldiscoursesandhowtheseareplayedoutat

thelocallevel.

ThisintroductionwillbrieflyintroducetheKhmerRougeregime,beforemoving

ontodiscussmymotivationsforthisproject.Therelevantliteratureonwhichthis

thesisdrawswillbeconsidered,beforemovingontooutlineingreaterdetailthe

overalltheoreticalapproachforthethesis.Iwillexaminewhatconstitutesamass

graveinCambodia,beforefinallypresentingtheoverallthesisstructureand

chapterdescriptions.

TheKhmerRougeandtheirdead

LetmestartfromamomentthatchangedthecourseofCambodianlife;April

17th,1975.Onthatday,afteryearsoffightingintheforestsandmountainsof

ruralCambodia,theCommunistPartyofCambodia(nicknamedtheKhmerRouge,

acorruptionoftheFrenchKhmersRouges,atitlegiventothembyCambodia’s

formerruler,PrinceNorodomSihanouk)tookcontrolofthecountry.Muchofthe

populationwelcomedthemastheymarchedintothecapitalPhnomPenh

(Chandler2008b)becausetheysignaledapotentialendtoyearsofsufferingand

conflict:decadesofstruggleagainstcolonization;violentcivilstruggles

throughoutthe1960sand70s;LonNol’saggressiveregimefollowingthemilitary

coupthathadoverthrownSihanoukin19702inwhichupto600,000died

(ChomskyandHerman1979);andextensiveUSbombingbetween1965and1973

inwhichover2.7milliontonnesofbombsweredroppedandunknownnumbers

ofCambodianskilled3(OwenandKiernan2006).Theclockwasre-set;theyear

1975wasnowknownasYearZero,andin1976thecountrywasrenamed

DemocraticKampuchea.

TheKhmerRougeregimedevastatedthecountry.TheirMaoistrevolution,aimed

atcreatinganewCambodia-self-sufficientandindependentofexternalpowers-

includedurbanevacuation,collectivization,thedestructionofnearlyallstate

2TheLonNolregimewassponsoredandsupportedbytheU.S,whosentmilitaryaidtothecountryduringitsfiveyearsinpower,includingabombingoffensivefromFebruarytoAugust1973inwhichoverhalfamilliontonnesofmunitionsweredropped(OwenandKiernan2006).

3Togivesomescaletothis,thisismorebombsthantheAlliesdroppedduringtheentireSecond

WorldWar,includingthenuclearbombsatNagaskaiandHiroshima,whichweighed20,000and15,000tonnesrespectively(ibid.:67).

institutions,andcompleterepressionofthepopulation.Followingtheirvictory

theyimmediatelyemptiedthecities,sendingpeopleintothecountrysidetowork

onmassiveprojectsdesignedtobringaboutanidealisedagrariannation4:to

makewayforthistheydisbandedtheoldlife,destroying(thoughnotannihilating)

customaryformsoffamilylife,religion,education,healthcareandlaw.Intheir

placetheyinstalledanewlife:communallivingandeating;forced,arranged

marriages;noreligionorritual;nohealthcare;andeducationthroughwork.

Nobodyknowsexactlyhowmanypeoplediedinthethreeyears,eightmonths

andtwentydaystheKhmerRougeruledCambodia,norhowmanyofthosewho

perishedwereexecutedratherthandyingfromdiseaseorstarvation.Thedeath

tollhasprovokedmuchdebateovertheyears,withestimatesrangingfromthe

mostconservative740,800(Vickery1984),tothemostliberal3.4million

(Heuveline1998).5Mostauthorsnowsettleonafigurearound1.7million(DC-

Cam2012;Guillou2013;Hinton2005;Kiernan2003),reportingittobearound

onethirdofthepopulationatthetime.Becauseofthecontinuinguncertaintyof

thedata,Idonotuseaspecificnumberinthisthesis.Whatiscertainisthatthe

deathtollwashuge,andtheeffectdevastating.

Thebodiesofthosewhoperishedwereburiedorabandonedinmassgraves

acrossthecountry;manythousandsofmassgravesinmanyhundredsof

4SomehavearguedthattheKhmerRougewereanti-progress(Chirot1994,Salter2000),aimingtoreturnCambodiatobelikeAngkor:apre-industrialerabetweenthe9

thand15

thcenturies.

However,whilsttheyusedAngkorasanexample,itwastheirproductionlevelstheywantedtosimulate:AngkorwasCambodia’sgoldenagewhenCambodiawasinfluentialacrosstheregion.TheKhmerRouge,however,wereheavilyindustrialized.AsJamesTyner(2014)argues,theprojectstheyconductedindicatelarge-scaleindustrialisationandextensiveadministration.Intheshortperiodtheyruledtheymanagedtheconstructionofhugedams,extensivecanalsystems,airports,andlarge-scale,meticulouslyplanned,farmingregimes.Not,itwouldseem,aregimewishingtoreturntopre-industrialisation.

5AgoodcritiqueoftheprimaryattemptstocalculatethedeathtollisgivenbyBruceSharp’s

articleCountingHell(Sharp2008).

locations.6Themethodsofdisposalwerevaried:insomelocationstheKhmer

Rougeusedalreadyexitingfeaturessuchascaves,rivers,andwellstodisposeof

thebodies.Insomeareaspitsweredugandcorpsesburied,inotherstheywere

leftscatteredacrossthesurfaceofthefieldsandforestsinwhichtheywerekilled

-itwasthissightthatledjournalistDithPrantocointheterm‘theKillingFields’to

describehisencounteronhisescapeacrossCambodiatoThailand(Schanberg

1985).7Inmostareasthegravesweresimplyameanstodisposeoftheincreasing

numbersofdead,butinsomethedeadwereputtowork:fertilisingricefieldsor

coconutgroves.8WhenVietnaminvadedCambodiainDecember1978toputan

endtotheregime,theyfoundatrailofdeathastheymovedthroughthecountry.

Theyquicklyputthephysicalevidenceofthedevastationoftheregimetowork,

collectingthedeadthatlayonthesurface,diggingupothers,anderecting

memorialsdisplayingthedead.Localpeople,meanwhile,lootedthegraves

searchingforvaluables.Beyondtheseinitialdisturbances,however,themajority

ofthegraveshaveneverbeenexcavated,andthedeadremainintheground

6Estimatesexistbutarewidelyvariableforthenumberofgravesandkillingsitesacross

Cambodia.EvenoverallfiguresgivenbyresearchersandreportsfromtheDocumentationCenterofCambodia(DC-Cam)/CambodianGenocideProgramatYaleUniversity(CGP),whichmappedthegravesinatenyearproject,donotagree.CGP(2012)lists309killingsites,CraigEtcheson(oneofthefoundersoftheproject)reports432(2005:111),whilsttheinventoryofmassgravesproducedbyDC-Cam,lastupdatedin2008,lists390locations(DC-Cam2005).Thesameappliestonumberofmassgravepits:CGPlistsanestimated19,000,CraigEtcheson20,492,andtheDC-Caminventorydoesnotactuallyprovideatotalfigure,becauseatsomesitesthenumberswereinestimable,althoughthewebsitehostingthelistreports19,733.

7Thistermissoevocativeoftheextentofviolentkilling,anddisregardofthedeadthatitisnow

usedcontemporaneouslyandretrospectivelytodescribegenocideandcrimesagainsthumanityinlocationsandeventsacrosstheglobe,includingBiafra(Oguibe1998),SriLanka(Arunatilake,JayasuriyaandKelegama2001),Indonesia(Lemelson2009),andIraq(Scheer2006)tonamebutafew.

8Theadvantagesofhavingdecomposingbodiesinthesoilwerenotedlongafterthedownfallof

DemocraticKampuchea.OnchattingabouttheexperienceoflivingontopofgravesinthevillagewhereIworked,OmYayandOmSreylaughedaboutthebenefitsithadgiven:‘[theland]becameluckierbecause[it]isveryfertile:whateverwegrew,allwasgood.’Atanothersiteafarmer,whosericefieldlayacrossseveralburialpits,lamentedthatnowhehadtobuyfertilizer,whichisexpensive,whereasinthepastthericegrewwellbecauseofthe‘natural’fertilizerinthesoil(thehumanremains).

acrossCambodia.Thegraveshavebeenreturnedtoeverydaylivingspace:

houses,farms,markets,shops,androads,allbuiltontopofmassgraves.Very

fewmemorialsexist;thosebuiltundertheVietnameseadministrationhave

largelybeenneglected,andthefewnewonesthatexistaremostlyfundedby

internationallybackedNGOSorhigh-rankingbusinesspeopleandgovernment

officials.Thisthesisexaminesthesemassgravesandrelationshipstothedead

thatliewithinthem.

BythetimeIgottoCambodiain2012,theDemocraticKampucheawas33years

behindus,andtheKhmerRougeregime,althoughstillpresentintheimaginaryof

Cambodia,hadnotbeenactivefor15years.Theirviolence,however,remainsto

date,notleastinthenumbersofthosewhodiedduringtheregime;notoncedidI

meetanyonewhohadnotlostone,ifnotseveral,membersoftheirfamily,

friendsandcolleagues.Eventhosebornaftertheregimeweresubjecttothe

rupturesinkinnetworksthatthedeathofnearlyathirdofthepopulationcauses.

Theviolenceanditseffectshowever,nolongerrage;theyaresporadic,episodic,

andrelatedtospecificprovocations,asthisthesiswillshow.

Motivations

Peoplehaveoftenaskedmewhatbroughtmetothisresearch.Whygraves,and

massonesatthat?Ihavenopersonalknowledgecomparabletothatexperienced

bymyinformantswholivedthroughtheKhmerRougeregimeandthetroubled

yearsthatenvelopedit,orthatcomparestothestructuralandsymbolicviolence

sufferedbymanyKhmerpeopleincontemporaryCambodia.Ihave,however,

beenamidstmassdeathandmassgravesformanyyears.PriortomyPhDI

workedasaforensicanthropologistspecialisingintheidentificationofhuman

remainsfrommassgraves,firstinBosnia-Herzegovinawithremainsofthe

Srebrenicamassacreof1995,andtheninIraqongravesresultingfromSaddam

Hussein’sBa’athistregime.Itwasthislatterpositionthatbroughtmetothis

thesis.MyexperiencesinIraqledtoquestiontheethicsandefficacyof

internationalinterventions,andtheuseandmanipulationofmassgravesinthe

geo-politicalsphereandintheformationofstates.Thispracticalworkwiththe

graves,whichIhadenteredwide-eyedandidealistic,completewithethno-centric

notionsofjusticeandhealing,ledmetoquestionwhatmassgravesare:whothey

serveandforwhatpurpose.Itbecameclearthatthegravesandthedeadbelong

tothosewhoclaimthemtheloudest,whichvariesonthepoliticsoftheday.

InBosnia-HerzegovinagraveswereinitiallyunearthedtofindevidenceforICTY–

theInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia.Thesebodieswere

usedtoprovideevidenceofviolencebutnot,initially,identified.Foryearsafter

thetribunaltheyremainedstackedinbodybagswithnofurtherattention.

Familieswereseekingtheirmissing,however,andovertheyears,pressurebuilt

untilidentification,notevidence,becametheorderoftheday.Butlikeallbodies

resultingfromviolenceordisaster,thesebodiesremainedsitesofpoliticalpower;

theirunearthingasymbolofsolidarity,butalsoasignifier(andsometimesa

catalyst)ofongoingtension.InIraqthegraveswereunearthedbythenew

government,trainedbyUSfundedaidprogrammes.Eachsoughtevidenceof

atrocitiestovalidatetheirposition;thecoalition’s‘intervention;’thenew

government’ssuccession.Bothweresupportedbyongoingmediapresentations

oftheterrorofSaddamHussein.

IwenttoCambodiatryingtocomparethewaygraveswereviewedandtreated

theretomyexperiencesofgravesinBosnia-HerzegovinaandIraq.Whydidmost

gravesremainunearthedinCambodia?Didfamiliesseektheremainsoftheirlost

kin?Ifnot,whynot?Howwasitthatthesesites,whichinlivingmemorysaw

suchatrocitiesandholditsresults,fromwhichskeletalremainsstillemerge,have

apparentlybecomebenign?These,andmanymorequestionsbesides,ledmeto

Cambodiaanditsgraves;Iwantedtoaddress,aswell,widerquestionsabout

massgravesandtheiruseinpolitics.Ifoundmanysimilaritiesbetweentheuses

ofthegravesinCambodiaandelsewhere:inthepoliticalappropriationofsites;in

theuseoftheanonymousdeadinnarrativemanipulation;intheaestheticsof

deaththatareusedforvariouspoliticalendeavours.ButIalsofoundmany

differences,akeyonebeinghowthedeadareinvolvedinthelivesoftheliving

andtheplacethatsocio-religiouspracticesenabledthenarrationofthepastin

thepresent.

Literaturereview

Therelevantliteratureforeachchapterisreviewedthere;however,inorderto

situatethethesiswithinthewideracademy,thissectionprovidesabriefoverview

ofanthropologicalliteratureonmassgraves,massdeath,andCambodia.

Massgraveslendthemselvestoapoliticalconsideration,particularlythose

resultingfromconflictandviolence.Theresultofpoliticalaction,theyarealso

opentopoliticalmanipulationandtheharnessingforpoliticalendsoncetheir

constructioniscomplete.However,untilrecentlytheirconsiderationwithin

academicliteraturehasmostlyconcentratedonthepracticalaspectsoftheir

investigation;howtoovercomeparticulardifficultiespresentedbythemand

approachestoinvestigationandidentificationindifferentcontexts(forexample

AdamsandByrd2008;BlauandUbelaker2008;Coxetal.2007;Cox2003;Komar

andBuikstra2007).Thispracticalfocuspayslittleattentiontothesocio-cultural

aspectsofmassgraves,despitetheircapacitytoactashighlypoliticizedlocations

ofsocialmemory,as‘powerfulreservoir[s]oftraumaticmemory’(Denich1994:

367),aslocationsofidentityformationandconsolidation(ParkerPearson1999),

aspotentialsitesofconflictandtensionstagnation(Bax1997),orproducersof

socialrelations(FerrandizandBaer2008).

Workthathasstartedtoemergeonmassgravesinthesocio-culturalliterature

primarilycentresontheirunearthingandtheirrelationshipto‘themissing.’The

missingofCyprus,PaulSantCassia(2005)asserts,epitomiseatime-oldthemein

Westernliteratureandculture:theunburieddead(bothliterallyand

metaphorically)whoseliminalstatusleavesthemopenforpoliticisationand

contestedcontrolbetweenthestateandtheindividual;and,ultimately,by

researchers,astheytrytoapproachanunderstandingoftheirrealities,because

everypersonis‘engagedinthetheatricsandsecretsofpower’and‘weare

inevitablycomplicitintherealitieswearetryingtodescribe’(2005:224–225).

Butratherthananoppositionbetweenthedehumanised,collectivegazeofthe

state,andthepersonalandindividualgazeofthecommunity,controlofthedead

maybedonebyboth(Verdery1999,2002).Moderntechnologycanunitethe

two,andbringtheglobalintothemixaswell.WhenconsideringtheuseofDNA-

technologyintheidentificationofthemissingfromSrebrenica’s1995massacre

SarahWagner(2008)showsthatthefateofthemissingisanegotiationbetween

individuals,communities,andthestate,anditsadministration,thoughcontested,

maybeunifying.Identifyingthedeadsendsthemhometotheirkin.Italso,

however,bringsthemback‘intotheembraceofthestate’(ibid:255),whilst

simultaneouslyprovidingtheopportunityfor‘socialreconstruction’byWestern

governments(ibid:8);asiteatwhichtheycanrebuildpost-conflictBalkans.9DNA,

Wagnerwrites,offersatechnologyofrepair,butonly,shepointsout,forthose

deemedworthyofsuch;thosewithlives(orratherdeaths)worthknowingfor

politicalends(biopoliticsforthedead;thosewithgrievablelives(Butler2010)).

ThemissinginSpain,Jerez-FarránandAmago(2010:1)assertare‘living

mementoesofthepowerofthedeadtospeakbeyondlanguageastheymutely

remindthenationofthecrimesperpetrated.’Throughthedead,andtheir

graves,theSpanishcivilwarintrudesonthepresent,andtheirexhumationsbreak

the‘screenofsilence[that]hassurroundedSpain’smassgraves’(ibid:307).But

thissilence,LaylaRenshawcontends(2011:31)isapact,notaconspiracyas

Jerez-FarránandAmagosuggest;itis‘bothaself-andmutuallyenforced

conditionofcensorshipacrossthepoliticalspectrum.’Thedeadandtheirgraves

materialisethepastinthepresent,butthismaterialisationisshapedbythe

indicesofthedeadbeforetheyareexposed.Thisbearsmuchresonancewith

contemporaryCambodia,andIappreciatethewayRenshawengageswiththe

differentframesofreferencethatcollideatexcavation.Butsheessentialises

traumaandnormalisesitastheaffectiveresultofencounterswithFranco's

regime,aswellasassumingthenecessityofindividualidentification10.Shealso

assertsthattheorganisationexhumingthedead,theAHRM11,doesnothavea

coherentapproachtothepoliticalcontentofcommemorationbecausethey

9And(IalwaysfeltwhenIwasthere)theunearthingofgravesandidentificationofremains,paidformostlybywesterngovernments,providedameansbywhichtheycouldsymbolicallyatonefortheneglectofthatsmallenclaveofSrebrenica,aneglectwhichledtotheexecutionofnearly9,000menandboys;therapeofhundredsofwomen.

10Whenolderpeoplesheinterviewedtoldhertheyfeltnoneedforindividualidentificationor

burialbeyondthecollectiveshecomments‘theexplanatorymeetingandthereburialceremonyseemedhighlyeffectiveinovercomingthisresistancetothenecessityofindividualisingthebody’(Renshaw2011:128,myitalics).

11AsociaciónparalaRecuperacióndelaMemoriaHistorica.

devolveittothefamilies(ibid:231),overlookingthatthisinitselfisapolitical

manoeuvre,onethatlegitimateskinoverstateastheownersofthedead.

Butthemissingisaparticularcategoryofperson,definedentirelybyabsence,and

restingonanassumptionthattheycan(andshould)bereturned,bothphysically

andmetaphorically,tothestateandkinfromwhichtheycome.Theyare

‘undead’andthereforeathreat;achallenge;anentityinneedofrepatriation,of

reconciliation,ofreparation.Norarethemissingsilent.Theyare,rather,multi-

vocal.Evenbeforetheyarelocatedandunearthedtheyspeakfortheirkin;their

country;orwhoeverelseclaimsthem:theinternationalorganisationsthat

unearthandrepatriatetheirbodies;thegovernmentsthatfundsearches,

identifications,memorials;otherswhousethemasmetaphorstomaterialise

otherviolencesintheworld.ThedeadinthegravesthatlitterCambodiaarenot,

however,missing.Thoughidentitiesareabsentfromthephysicalremains,and

thoughsomepeoplestilllookfortheir(living)relatives;thesedeadarepresent–

physicallyandimaginatively–ineverydayencountersandpoliticalrealities.They

mayneverdiebecauseofthis.Theyarenotsilent,thoughtheirvoicesmaybe

muffled.AndlikethemissingofSpain,manyaremorealivethandeadthoughfor

differingreasons.

Theanthropologicalrecordshowsushowinmanysocialsystemsthedeadcan

onlybeproperlyre-integratedintothelivesofthelivingthroughstructuredrituals

ofdeathandmourning.VanGennep’s(1960[1908]:160)classicstudyonritesof

passageshowshowthosethatarenotproperlyintegratedbecometheunhappy

dead:troubledandtroublesomeuntiltheycanbeappropriatelyreintegrated.

AcrossmuchofAsiatheunhappydeadbecomemalevolentspirits,causing

misfortune,illnessanddeath(Bertrand2001;Bovensiepen2009;Chouléan1986;

Dernbach2005;Formoso1996).InareasofEasternEuropevampiresare

consideredtoresultfromsuchdead(duBoulay1982).InpartsofEuro-America

‘theyareapttobecomehauntingghoststrappedonthehumanplane’(Bennett

2014:243).GabrielleSchwab(2010:78)sumsitupinherexplorationoftrans-

generationaltrauma,statingthat:

Thedeadwhoweredeniedtheriteofburial,whodiedanunnaturaldeath,who

committedorwerethevictimofacrime,orwhosufferedanunbearablejustice

comebacktohaunttheliving.

Socialstability,therefore,restsuponappropriatetreatmentofthedead,managed

throughrituals,whichfunctionascatalystsofprocessesthatenablethere-

imaginingofsocialnetworksandre-establishmentofstabilityfollowingthe

rupturethatdeathcauses(Rosaldo1989).However,itisnotonlysocialstability,

butalsothecontinuationoflifethatthemanagementofdeathenables,as

illustratedinBlochandParry’svolumeDeathandtheRegenerationofLife(1982).

Deathisoftenintrinsicallylinkedwithfertility,asBlochandParry’svolumeshows,

butfuneralritualsusedtocontrolthedeadalsocontrolthesymbolisminherentin

thecreationoftheestablishedsocialorder.Deathrupturesthesocialfabricthat

lifeisbasedon,Hertz(1960)asserts(beingoneofthefirsttoarguethatdeathis

notonlybiological,butalsoasocialprocess),andBlochandParryarguethat

thesetearscanonlyberepairedwithsociallysanctionedandappropriaterituals

andmannersofbehaviour.Thesocialcontroloverdeathviamortuaryrituals

bringsitsarbitrarinessintocorrectorderandallowsfor‘rebirth’:notonlyof

peopleandplants,butalsoofsociety.Baddeaththreatensthisorder,notonly

becauseofthepotentialintrusionintothelivesofthelivingbythedead,butalso

becauseofthisthreattolife.

Butwhodealswithdeathswhentheyarenotindividualbutcollectiveandthe

resultofsocietalviolence?Whocanreintegratethemintosociallifeandhowis

thismanaged?Istheirintegrationdependentonunearthingandidentification?

Doestheirdeathwithoutceremonycausesocialunrestwithaneedforreprisal?

HeonikKwon,whohasworkedextensivelyonthelegacyofconflictinKorea

(KwonandChung2014)andVietnam(2006,2008a,2008b),focusesspecificallyon

howpeopleusethephysicalandspiritualremainsofbothto(re)constructlife

afterwards.Hisworkaskssuchquestionsaswhoownsthedeadandwhocan

claimthem?Howdospiritsandghostsallowpeopletonarratetheirsociallives

andaspirations,andthespecifichistoricalperiodsfromwhichtheyderive?Are

spiritualencountersaboutmoralityormemory?

InVietnam,Kwonargues(2006)thereisa‘bi-polarity’ofdeath:amoral

dichotomybetweendifferenttypesofdeathandthedeadthatdiffersbetween

thestate,individuals,andeventransnationalforcesthatareinterestedinthem,

andwhichisthespaceofcontestedvaluesystems.Thiscausesproblemsinthe

post-conflictworld,wheredifferentvoicestrytoclaimtheirauthorityand

ownershipofthedead,whotranscendtheusualboundariesofancestor,ghost

andherobybelongingtoseveralcategories;sometimescontemporaneously;

sometimesatdifferenttimes.Themeaningascribedtothesedead,andthe

modesofacknowledgingthemhaschangedovertime,andremainsflexibletoday.

ThisispartlybecausethedeathssufferedduringtheconflictsinVietnamrequired

arefashioningoftraditionalfamilyritualstobringthedeadintotheembraceof

thehomeandthefamily,andthustheircorrecttime.Understandinghowthese

dead,mostparticularlytheghosts,areencounteredandconceptualisedisintegral

tounderstandingthepoliticalsituationoftheliving,Kwon(2008)asserts,because

associallysalientbeings,theyareintegraltohowsociallifeisconstructedin

contemporaryVietnam.

InKoreameanwhile,thoseburiedinmassgravesresultingfromSouthKorean

stateviolenceagainstitsownpeople(inanattempttoerasethosedeemed

communistsympathizersorpotentialcollaboratorswithNorthKorea),highlight

howthedead,entwinedbothphysicallyandmetaphorically,unitefamiliesintheir

attemptstorestoretheirmorallegitimacythroughproperreburialasancestors,

andbydoingso,provideameansforthelivingtore-asserttheirownmoral

status,becausetheyarerelatedtothedeadthroughaconsiderationof

‘associativeguilt’(Kwon2015).Constructingcommunalgravesitesand

gravestonestocommemoratethem,Kwonargues(2015:87),isaneffort,

therefore,notonlytowardscareofthedead,butalsointhehopetofurthercivil

andhumanrightsinwidersociety.

Aremassgravesrecordsofaviolentandtraumatichistory(tobothindividualsand

thenation)thatcontinuetohavenegativeeffectsonthepopulationin

contemporarytimes?Discoursesonpainfulmemory,whichhaveheldrecent

fascinationformanyanthropologistsworkinginareasofconflict,violence,human

rightsabuses,ordisaster(Das,KleinmanandLock1997;Dasetal.2000;Dasetal.

2001),mightassumeso.Thisisbecause‘overthelast25years,traumahas

becomeestablishedasauniquewayofappropriatingthetracesofhistoryand

oneofthedominantmodesofrepresentingourrelationshipwiththepast’(Fassin

andRechtman2009:15).Theassumptionthateventssuchaswaranddisaster

arebothindividuallyandcollectivelytraumatic,andthatbothindividualsand

wholesocietiesexperiencingsucheventsareautomaticallyvictims,‘scarred’both

mentallyandphysically,iscentraltothesediscourses.Thesetraumasareargued

toconnectpeopleandsocietiestoparticularhistories,andprovideparticular

framesforthathistory;and‘victimsoftrauma’havebecome‘thevery

embodimentofourcommonhumanity’(Fassin&Rechtman2009:23):people

whorepresenttheuniversalexperienceofsuffering(LeCapra2001).12The

universalapplicabilityandunderstandingoftheseconceptsis,however,

contestable;recentliterature(forexampleFassin2008;Fassinandd'Halluin2007;

FassinandRechtman2009;Rechtman2000;Rechtman2006;Summerfield1999;

Summerfield2001)showshowtheseconceptsevolvedinparticularsocio-historic

circumstancesofthepastcentury,withinhistoriesofhierarchyandinequality.

Theassumptionsbehindtheirapplicationshouldbeexaminedcarefullybefore

beingappliedoutsidetheEuro-Americanzone,where,Summerfield(2001)

argues,theycanbecomeaformofWesterndomination.

However,thesediscoursesremainstucktomassgravesandtheirinvestigation.

‘Exhumations,’forensicanthropologistWilliamHaglund(2001)wrote,‘reconfirm

thedignityofthevictimsandthevalueofhumanrights.’‘Nottobringthedead

intothesanctuaryoftruth-memory-justiceistoannihilatethemasecondtime’

WilliamBooth(2001:691)agreed.Justicedoesnotnecessarilyequateto

excavation,althoughusuallythisisimplied.Someauthorssuggestjusticeisadded

bytheirexpositionoftheremainsandthedocumentationofexhumations.Dark

istheRoomWhereWeSleep(BourkeandTorres2007)forexample,a

12Contemporaneously,thetermPost-traumaticStressDisorderhasbecomevirtuallysynonymouswithsurvivalincasesofpublicviolenceanddisaster;Summerfield(2001:95)goessofarastoconsiderittobe‘totemic’:inmuchthesamewayasbodieswithinamassgraveareoftenusedasevidenceofhumanrightsatrocities,thediagnosisofPTSDisnowusedasanemblemofinvisible,ongoingdamagetothesocialfabric.ThisisillustratedbystudiessuchasBreslau(2000)onglobaliseddiscoursesofsufferinginJapanfollowingtheKobeearthquakeof1995,whereascarcityofPTSDdiagnoseswerearguedbypsychologicalprofessionalstoindicateapsychologicallyimmaturecultureratherthanadifferenceinculturalunderstandingsandapplicationsofpsychiatry,andDeJongetal.(2000)whosestudyofadultsinFreetown,SierraLeone,diagnosedanastonishing99%oftheirsampleof245randomlyselectedadultstohavePTSD.

collaborationbetweenanthropologyandphotography(thephotography

documentingtheprocessofexcavation,theanthropologycollectingoralhistories

fromrelativesandfriends)seeksjusticebymakingvisibleSpanishmassgraves

andthevoicestheycontain.TheGraves(Peress,StoverandGoldstone1998)

doesthesamefortheunearthingofremainsatVukovarandSrebrenica:theresult

ofconflict,andgeopoliticalactionandinactionintheBalkans.Photographsof

twistedcorpsesandshatteredpeopleinterspersedwithquotesthatshowthe

devastationspeak,apparently,inthenameofjustice:‘Forgettingisunthinkable’

Peressetal.write(1998:328)because‘itwouldbeadishonor[sic]tothedead

andtheirmemory.’

Butwhoclassifieswhathonourandmemoryare?Doesexhibitingtheir

photographsandotherevidenceofatrocities(suchasthehumanremainsthat

theyresultedin)achieveanythingbeyondvoyeurism?InrelationtoCambodia,

MichelleCaswell(2014),RachelHughes(2008),andSusanLinfield(2010)claim

thatthephotographicexhibitionsofthosetorturedandsentencedtoexecution

duringtheKhmerRougeregimeatTuolSlengmuseuminPhnomPenh,andthe

remainsdisplayedatChoeungEk,achievefarmore.Thosevisitingthem,Caswell

argues,becomewitnessestothehorrorandsuffering.Peopleattendingsuch

displays,Hughes(2008:327)asserts,areableto‘participateinglobal

humanitarianism’.By‘witnessing’Linfield(2010)writes,weprovidejusticetothe

dead,totheirfamilies,totheirnations.ButtheseclaimsareManicheanandfull

ofpowerandprivilege.Severalauthorscritiqueregimesthatusethedeadto

legitimatetheirrule,orasmodesofpropagandatomaterialiseparticular

narratives(Caplan2007;Guyer2009;O'Sullivan2001),butdosuchdepictionsof

thedeadintextnotdothesame?

ArecentpublicationworthyofconsiderationisFerrándizandRobben’s(2015)

editedvolumeNecropolitics:massgravesandexhumationsintheAgeofHuman

Rights.Thisbookexploresthepoliticalandsocialimplicationsofmassgrave

investigation,coveringexhumationsfromLatinAmerica,Asia,andEurope.InChile

andArgentina,Robben(2015)argues,exhumationsperform‘counter-visuality’–in

uncoveringthedisappearedtheynotonlyreturnidentitiestothemissing,identities

stolenbythestate,butindoingsoexposethevisualityoflifeanddeath

manipulatedbyeachauthoritariansovereignty’snecropoliticalandterritorial

power.Ferrándiz(2015:115)conceivesofa‘transnationaldignifyingroute’of

commemoration,createdthroughtheinteractionofdifferentpeopleatexcavations

inSpain:relatives,publicauthorities,andinternationalagenciesareinvolved,

enablingthecreationofsocialrelationsandnetworksofsupportthatrelatestothe

globalexpansionofhumanrightsdiscoursesandpractice.

Theeffectofviolentconflictlingersfordecades,SarahWagnerwrites,and‘binds

generationsindegreesofgrief’(2015:134).Communalburialscomplicatefamilial

obligations,whichmustbere-imaginedintheaftermathofwar.InKoreaKwon

(2015)argues,thesere-imaginedlinksperformcivilandhumanrights(seeabove).

Theyalsoenableresistancetohegemonicsilence(StefatosandKovras2015),anda

potentialavenueforreconciliation(Rojas-Perez2015).However,onceexhumed,

humanremainsresultingfromconflictoftenstillbelongtothestateandareusedin

assertionofpoliticalrule,aswellasstrugglestomanagememory.Lesley(2015)

exploresthisinrelationtoCambodiaandRwanda,arguingthatthedisplayof

remainsinbothlocations,andindividual’sincorporationofstatenarrativesrelated

tothisdisplaysattemptstobuildnationalnarratives,andthusstability,wheresocial

lifewasruptured.

Theseapproachestomassgravesandthemassdeadprovidemuchfoodfor

thought,however,noneseemedentirelyappropriateasameanstoapproachthose

inCambodia.TheKhmerpeopleIencountereddidnotpresentthemselvesas

victimsoftrauma.TheKhmerRougeperiodwasseenasaterriblehistory,butas

onebelongingtoaparticulartimeandcontext,exceptwhereitisusefullyharnessed

inthepresentoritsmemoryprovokedbysomeevent.Thegravesarenottraumatic

spaces,northeremainstheycontainentitiesofhorror(thoughtheyareof

violence).

Althoughthegravesweresubjecttoanextensivemappingprojectbythe

CambodianGenocideProjectwithDC-Cam(Etcheson2000;DC-Cam2005;CGP

2010)(themethodologyandfindingsofwhicharedeeplyflawed13),themapping

wasinordertocollateevidenceoftheextentofDemocraticKampuchea’sviolence,

anduntilrecentlythemassgraveshavereceivedrelativelyscantotherattention.

13Estimatesofnumberofgravepitsandnumberofvictimsreliedonwitnessreporting,dependingonmemoryandestimatedfigures,someover20yearsaftertheevent.ReportswerecorroboratedbyotherscompiledduringthePRK(largelyconsideredinaccurate–peopleweredoublecountedandintheirambitionofprovinggenocidalmassacres,over-reportingwascommon(FawthropandJarvis2004))orbyvisitstothesiteswhenresearcherslookedatthesiteandguestimatednumberofpitsandbodieswithinthem.Notallsiteswerevisited:somefiguresreliedonlyonwitnessstatements,whichweretakenasfact.Notesttrenchesweredugtoconfirmthepresenceofhumanremains.Eachresearchtriplastedonlyafewdaysduringwhichseveralsiteswerevisited,leavinglittletimeforindepthresearch.Researcherspresumeduniformitytothegravesthatevidencedoesnotsupport.Theprojectomittedmanygraves,includingthosecreatedbefore1975andafter1979,gravesfromhospitals,andgravesofcontemporarypoliticalvalue.Notalldistrictsweremapped.Somesitesappearonregionalreportsbutnotonthefinalreport.Thefinalreportduplicatesothers.Reportsbyresearchersaboutthefindingsdonotagreewithoneanotheronnumberofpitsordead(CGP2011;DC-Cam2012;Etcheson2000,2005).Aquickglanceatwitnessstatementsshowsthegeneralnatureoftheirestimates:‘hetestifiedthatoneeveningat7:00pmhewatchedas20thousandpeopleweretied,shackled,andcarriedaway…HesaidthevictimshadbeentoldthattheywerebeingcarriedtoThailandbutinfacttheywerealltakentobekilled.So,thesiteofkillingatChamkarKhnol,WatChamkarKhnolwaspresumedtocontainmorethan20,000victims(approximately25,000);’‘Thepitsfarfromthehumpcouldnotbecountedbecausetherearetoomanytocount.Itisestimatedthattherearefrom500to1,000pits.’Onegravewasreportedasbeing200mlong;anothersiteapparentlyexecutedmorethan500,000people(13%oftheKhmerpopulationatthetime).Despitetheseissues,somehowCraigEtchesondeterminedtheoutrageouslypreciseestimationof1,112,829victimsofexecutionand20,492massgravepits(Etcheson2005).Totryandclearupsomeoftheissueswiththedata,Irequestedaccesstotheoriginalreports,butwastoldtheycouldnotbefound,ormaybenolongerexisted,andtheonlyinformationremainingfromtheseextensivetripsaretheshortsummariesavailableonline.

AnexceptioninanthropologyisAnneYvonneGuillou,whohaspublishedseveral

articlesaboutboth(Guillou2012a,2012b,2013),andIwillreturntoherworkinthe

appropriatechapters.However,toapproachthegravesfromonlyan

anthropologicalperspectiveissomewhatlimiting,particularlyasthemajorityof

workcomesfromoutsidethediscipline.TuolSlengandChoeungEkhavereceiveda

greatdealofliteraryattention,thoughprimarilyfromtheirpositionsashistorical

archivesandtouristsites(Chandler2008c;Ledgerwood1997;Violi2012;Williams

2004;Bickford2009;Sion2011;Hughes2005).Thepositionofthesetwositesas

touristdestinations(chaptersix)aswellasmemorialsitesinactiveusebythestate,

makesthemattractivesitesforresearch,however,thisfocusedattentionhasthe

effectofrenderinginvisibleothermassgraveandkillingsites,particularlythosethat

providecontestationstothestate-sponsorednarrativesthesetwositesperform.

Tyneretal.(2012)addressthegapincoveragebyexaminingtwounmarkedsites:

SreLieumassgraveatKohSlaDam,andtheKampongChhnangAirfield.Thatpaper

isanextensionofotherworkbyJamesTyner(2012a;2012b),whoexaminesthe

politicaluseofspaceincontrollingimaginedandpresentednarrativesoftheKhmer

RougeinCambodia,arguingthatmemoryandknowledgeoftheregimeistightly

controlledbythecurrentgovernmentanditsinternationalsupporters,partly

throughselectivenationalmemorialisationofspecificmassgravesacrosstheentire

country.

ThelackofsocialconsiderationofthegravesisnotextendedtotheKhmerRouge

regimeitself.TheCambodianGenocideProject(2010),theworkofChandler(1999;

2008),Etcheson(2005),Hinton(1996;1998;2005;2011),Kiernan(2003;2006;

2007;2008),Locard(1993,2004),Vickery(1984),andothersbesides,seeknotonly

tomaptheeventsandoutcomesofthegenocide,butalsotoofferexplanationsof

thedynamicsandparticularcircumstancesthatenabledthedeathstooccur.These

worksprovidecomprehensivedebatestothecausesoftheregimeandlifeduringit,

however,Tegelberg(2009:496)arguesthatthiscausesasimplisticrenderingof

Khmersubjectsasvictimsorperpetratorsoftheperiod,ratherthanacknowledging

thecomplexityofthesituationandwithlittlefocusuntilrecentlyoncontemporary

Cambodia,lackingarenarrativesgivingvoicetopeople’severydaylives,whichhas

thedirecteffectofrenderingtheseinvisible(Guillou2013;Tegelberg2009).

Thisevolves,primarily,fromthescarcityofethnographicstudiesofCambodia.Prior

totheconflictfewanthropologistsworkedinCambodia,andeventoday,the

numberislimited14.OneexceptionisMayEbihara(1968),whosedoctoralthesis,

Svay:AKhmerVillageinCambodia,isheldasanexemplarofruralKhmer

ethnography.15Alsoresearchingtherebefore1975wasFrenchethnologistFrancois

Bizot,whoworkedontheruralpracticeofBuddhism16(1973,1976,1981)and

Porée-Maspero(1962)whostudiedritualpracticeandtraditionacrossthecountry.

AftertheexpulsionofforeignersfromCambodiabytheKhmerRougein1975,

anthropologistsdidnotreturntoCambodiauntilthe1990s.Atthattimeinterest

largelyfocusedontheregimeanditsaffects.AlexanderLabanHinton(2005)

workedwithKhmerRougeperpetrators,askingWhyDidTheyKill?andhas

continuedhisworkovertheyearsfocusingonviolenceandgenocidebytheregime

(Hinton1998,2002,2008,2011).EbiharareturnedtoCambodiawithherstudent

JudyLedgerwood,andexaminedtheimpactoftheregimeonthevillageshehad

14AsIundertookfieldworkinCambodiaonlytwootherstudentscamefromanthropology:TallynGray,whosethesisexplorestransitionaljustice(2014),andPaulChristensenwhoprovidesarareexceptioninKhmerethnography:hisresearchcentresonthesocialdynamicsofspiritmediumsandtheirspiritsacrosscontemporaryCambodiawithlittlefocusontheKhmerRouge.

15Ebiharaisoneofthefewscholarstohaveworkedlong-terminCambodiabeforeandaftertheKhmerRouge,andherlaterworkprovidesinterestingcomparativesbecauseofthat.

16In1971whilestudyingBuddhistpracticeinruralCambodia,BizotwasimprisonedbytheKhmer

Rouge.HewastheonlyknownWesternercapturedbytheregimetohavesurvived.FollowingtheKhmerRougeexpulsionofforeignersin1975heleftCambodia,andreturnedonlytotestifyatthetrialofDuchintheECCC.

firstconductedresearch(EbiharaandLedgerwood2002;Ebihara2002).

LedgerwoodcontinuedherinterestinCambodia,givingsomeattentiontothe

regime(LedgerwoodandUn2003;Ledgerwood1997),butalsoexploringwider

anthropologicaltopics,suchasrurallife,ritualandreligion(Ledgerwood1995,

1998,2008).PeggyLeVine(2010)examinedweddingsandbirthsduringDemocratic

Kampuchea,coiningtheterm‘ritualcide’todescribetheKhmerRouge’sattemptsto

destroytheunderlyingsocialandreligioussecurityofthepopulationbydestruction

ofrituals.JohnMarston’sinterestisinreligionandcommunity(Marston2011;

Marston2006),whileAlexandraKentexaminesreligion’splaceintherebuildingof

Cambodiaandthere-establishmentofthe‘moralorder’(Kent2003,2006,2011;

KentandChandler2008).EveZucker(2009,2011,2013)alsobasesherworkinthe

moraleconomy;examiningmoralitiesofremembranceinUplandCambodia.17

BycontinuallyfocusingontheKhmerRouge,thenarrativeofCambodianhistoryis

limitedtothatparticularperiod,obliteratingothereventsandperiods,and

threatening‘erasureofthemorenuanced,multi-facetedculturalnarrativesthat

characterizetheregion’svasthistory’(Tegelberg2009:499).TheKhmerRouge

wasnottheonlyviolentregimetoruleCambodia.AsEricDavis(2008:132)

succinctlynotes:‘warshaveplowedthroughCambodia’slasttwohundred

years….’Despitethis,relativelylittleattentionispaidtoothereras.18This

reificationofthegenocideastheonlyperiodofhistoryworthconsideringnotonly

Someattentionhasbeenpaidtoothertopics,butitisrelativelyrareintheanthropologicalsphere.AngChouléanfocusesonspiritsandthespiritworldinCambodiaratherthantheKhmerRouge(1986,1988,1990,2000).OvensenandTrankell(2010)lookedatdoctor-patientrelationships,andmorerecentlyatricefarming.Astimegoeson,othertopicsareemerging.

18Thisispartlyaneffectoftheregime:oncomingtopowerthenationalarchivewasappropriated

bypig-keepers,andthedocumentsandbooksitheldneglectedandmanyruined–usedforfiresandasotherresources.Followingitsdepositionmuchoftheremainingarchivewasmismanaged,sodestroyingmuchofthehistoricalrecord(Clymer1995).DavidChandler’s(2008)AHistoryofCambodia,however,providesacomprehensiveintroductiontoearliereras.

dominatescontemporaryimaginingsofCambodia,butalsoriskscolonizingfuture

definitionsofthecountry.

Thismaybeunavoidable;whileitdidnotnecessarilyinvadethemindsofmy

informantsconstantly,theKhmerRougeregimedidruptureCambodia,both

sociallyandphysically.Itwasacriticaleventafterwhichthecountryneedednot

onlyrebuilding,butalsore-imagining.ItiswithinthiscontextthatIapproachthe

regimeanditsconsequencesintheformofmassgravesthroughoutthisthesis,as

explainedbelow.

Theoreticalframework

‘Socialmemoryisshapedandreshapedbythetreatmentofcorpses’Katherine

Verderywrote(1996:233).Thetreatmentofdeadbodiesmakevisiblesocial

relations,politicalhierarchies,religioussystems,andwidercosmological

understandingsofwhatitmeanstobehumaninaparticularplaceataparticular

time.Becauseofthis,Verderyasserts,theirtreatmentmakevisible

transformationsintheworldviewofparticularplaces.Thoughherarguments

relatespecificallytothedead(theircorpsesandtheirspirits),inthisthesisI

extendthisargumenttoincludemassgravesasthespacesthatthedeadinhabit

orareimaginativelylinkedto:spaceswheretheyoncelay;spaceswherethey

werekilled;spaceswheretheyarenowdisplayed.Itisoftenthecasethatspaces

remainneutraluntiltheybecomepoliticallyuseful:itisatthistimethatpeoplere-

forgeaninterestandownershipofthespaceanditscontents.If,asVerdery

(2000)argues,bodiesareinherentlypolitical,thenthespacescontainingthem

becomepoliticalbyproxy.Thiscanbeseenthroughoutthisthesis,asparticular

attentionordismissalofmassgravesandtheirdeadchangedthroughtime,for

boththestateandlocalcommunities,inrelationtodifferingcontextsandneeds.

Sowhyaredeadbodiessopolitical?Acrosstheglobeandfarbackintimedead

bodieshavebeenusedinpolitics.Theiruseisbasedontwothings:their

physicalityandtheirsilence.Throughboththesecharacteristicstheybecome

powerfulpoliticalsymbols,opentomanipulationandharnessingforparticular

ends.Corpsesarematerialobjects,anditisthismaterialitythatiscentraltotheir

efficacy;‘adeadbodyismeaningfulnotinitselfbutthroughculturallyestablished

relationstodeathandthroughthewayaspecificdeadperson’simportanceis

(variously)construed’(Verdery1999:28).Theirvalueassymbolicentitiesrestson

‘theirambiguity,theirmultivocalityorpolysemy.Remainsareconcrete,yet

protean;theydonothaveasinglemeaningbutareopentomanydifferent

readings’(ibid).Itisthisambiguitythatenablestheirpoliticallives,whichismade

visiblethroughtheirchangingstatusasobjectsofattentioninvariousdifferent

times.WewillseeinthisthesishowinCambodiathetreatmentofthedeadfrom

theKhmerRouge,andthegravesinwhichtheylay,haschangedsincethedemise

oftheregimedependingontherealpolitikofthetime;thatgoesasmuchfor

ordinary,everydayinteractionswiththedeadasstateappropriationsandcareof

theremains.

Butitisnotjusttheirsilencethatinvitestheiruse;itisalsotheirhumanity.

Verderyarguesthattwotypesofdeadbodiesbecomepoliticalsymbols:corpses

ofthefamousandanonymousremains.ThedeadofthemassgravesinCambodia

belongtothesecondcategoryandtheirpowerliesintheirabilitytostandfor

‘entiresocialcategories’(ibid.20)whilstalsobelongingtocertainindividualsand

thereforeparticularnetworksofkinandbelonging.Wherefamouscorpses

remindpeopleoftheirpreviouspowerandposition,andthereforewhoandwhat

theystoodfor,anonymousremainsrepresentagroup,usuallywrongedinone

wayoranother.Themassdeadandtheirgravesprovidepowerfullocatorsof

socialidentitiesforapluralityofvoices;someofwhichmayagree,somewhich

maybecontested.Whenmassgravesaboundthebodiesthemselvesneednotbe

uncoveredandthespacesthemselvescometostandfortheseabuses.And

althoughtheyareusedforanumberofthings,theycomeinpeople’sminds,to

representone:‘becausetheyhaveasinglenameandasinglebody,theypresent

anillusionofhavingonlyonesignificance’(Verdery1999:29,italicsoriginal).That

significancechangesdependingoncontextandwhoismakinguseofthe

narration;itisoftenasignificancethatvariesbetweenthestateandtheeveryday

people,thoughsometimesthesecollide.

Verderyusespoliticstodescribeactionsbetweensocialactors,withacertainaim

inmind,butthisaim,shecontends,shouldhavea‘public’issue.Politics,she

explains,isnotonlyaboutstatebuildingandnationalism,butalsoaboutkinship,

thedeadandtheliving,andhowthesearemaintainedoralteredtosuitparticular

needs.ThisissimilartoJonathanSpencer’s(2007)conceptof‘thepolitical,’

whicharguesthatthereisanirreduciblypoliticaldimensiontoeverydaylife,

particularlyinthere-imaginationoflifeandcommunityafterconflict.Insuch

scenarios,politicsandcultureareviewedastwoanalyticalperspectives‘ona

singledynamicprocess’(ibid.:17)andtheunboundednatureofthepoliticalis

performativeandexpressiveaswellasinstrumental,andnotonlydestructivebut

alsoproductive(asanexampleSpencerexplainshowwhilstviolenceis

destructive,itopensthespaceforneworchangedstatesofsubjectivityand/or

solidarity(ibid.)).Dead-bodypolitics,Verderywrites,areaboutre-writinghistory

andbydoingthat,re-orderingthemeaningfuluniverse(ibid.:26).Itisherewhere

KatherineVerdery’sworkcollideswiththatofVeenaDastheoryofcriticalevents,

andprovidestheframeworkforthisthesis.

TheKhmerRougeregimeproducedacataclysmicruptureinCambodianlife.The

worldthatpeoplelivedinbefore,thoughfarfrompeaceful,hadelementsof

routinethatpeopleknewandtrusted.DemocraticKampucheaattemptedtorip

awaythepreviouslifeandstartanewone.Thecountrywasnolongerthatwhich

anyoneknew.ItsnamewaschangedtoDemocraticKampuchea.Theyearwasno

longer1975,butYearZero,asifrestartingthecalendarcouldrestartthenation.

Familiesweretornapart.Law,religionandeducationweredemolishedandthe

normalsocialorderwasreversed:rural,uneducatedpeoplebecametopofthe

hierarchy;thewealthyandeducatedfelltothebottom.Childrenruledover

adults;thepoorovertherich;theuneducatedoverthereligiousandpolitical

leaders.Thoughitsshortlifespanpreventeditscompletesuccess,thefractures

causedbytheKhmerRougeregimeweredevastating,andeveryelementofthe

countryneededrebuilding,asiffromscratch,followingitsfall:politicalstability,

moralorder,socialrelationships.

Criticalevents,Das(1997)contends,createaspaceinwhichworldsarereshaped

andreimagined.Actsofviolence,andtheirsubsequentimaginings,sheargues,

areoftenusedtoillustratethetensionbetweenthestateandthecommunityor

theindividual,wherethestaterepresentstheimpersonalanddehumanisingand

thecommunitythepersonalandhuman.19Thismaybethecase,however,they

arenotnecessarilyopposed,andeachisliabletoshapetheother,particularly

19‘Thetheoriesofcommunityintheliteratureofthesocialsciencesandpoliticalphilosophy’shewrites‘arepremisedupontheideathatthecommunityistherealmofface-to-facerelations.Itisthereforevalorizedasaresourceforchallengingtheimpersonal,dehumanizingstructuresofthemodernstate’(Das1997:17).

followingeventsofnationalimportancesuchasconflictordisaster.Aftersuch

eventsnewmodesofactioncomeintobeingthatredefinetraditionalcategories

andwaysofunderstandingtheworld.Theycreate‘transformationsinspaceby

whichpeople’sliveshavebeenpropelledintonewandunpredictedterrains’(ibid:

5).Theseeventsneednotbeofacataclysmicscale(althoughtheKhmerRouge

regimewasformany,thoughnotall),butthroughtheirdisruptionofexpected

norms,theygivenewagencytodifferentgroupsandpeople,andnewwaysof

conceptualizingpreviouslyexistingones.Bydoingsotheyalterunderstandingsof

thestateandfamily–unitingthemordividingtheminunexpectedways.They

confuseordisruptdefinitionsofpowerandlegitimacyandfromthis,new

formationsofcommunityandcultureemerge(ibid:10–12).

ThecriticaleventofthisthesisistheKhmerRougeregime,andmassgravesand

thedeadtheycontainarethelensthroughwhichIviewthewayitisusedin

contemporaryCambodiatoreconstituteandre-imaginetheworld.Soletusfirst

lookatwhatImeanbyamassgraveinthecaseofCambodia.

Whatisamassgrave?

Forthisthesis,whichdealswiththedeadasmuchaswiththeirspacesofdisposal,I

considerCambodianmassgravesitesfromDemocraticKampucheatobesitesin

whichmultiplegravesarecontainedallresultingfromthepoliciesandpracticesof

theKhmerRougeregime,bothexecutionanddeathbyattrition.Mostoftheseare

commingledgravepits,however,insomelocationsmultiplesingleburialclusters

areincluded.Foreaseofunderstanding,Iusethetermgravetodenoteanyplace

whereacorpsewasdisposedofduringthistime.Thetermkillingsitedenotesan

areawhereexecutionswereconducted–duringDemocraticKampucheathesewere

alwaysconcomitantwithgravesitesandusuallyveryclosetosecuritycentres20.

Mostcontainmultiplemassgravepitsandlargenumbersofdead.

ThisvariesfromotherdescriptionsinCambodia(andacrosstheworld).Definitions

ofmassgravesvarydependingontheauthor’sinterest:practitioners(suchas

Haglund2002;Mant1987;andSkinner1987)21tendtobasetheirdefinitiononthe

physicalconstitutionofspace-thenumbersofbodiescontainedinonepit,orthe

proximityofbodiestooneanotherforexample.Theoreticallymindedacademics

(forexampleSchmidt2002)focusonthesocio-historicaspectsoftheircreationsuch

asthecauseandmannerofdeathofthosewithin.TheWileyEncyclopediaof

ForensicScienceproposesthatamassgraveshouldcontainfourormorebodies

buriedatthesametime,becausethat‘isconsistentwiththedefinitionofmass

murder’(Connor2012)22.Thecommonthreadofthesedefinitionsisoneburialpit

containingmultiplecorpses,orpartialhumanremainsfrommultipleindividuals.

ThegravesfromDemocraticKampuchea,however,presentmultiplescenarios:

killingsiteswithpitscontainingseveralbodies;locationswherehundreds,ifnot

thousands,ofpeoplewereburiedunceremoniously,butinindividualpits;others

wherenoburialsoccurred,butbodieswerelefttorotorpiledinaheap,orthrown

20TheKhmerRougeranasystemofapproximately200securitycentresdistributedacrossthezonesofDemocraticKampuchea,themostfamousofwhichisS-21:thesuitethatincludedTuolSlengprisonanditskillingsiteChoeungEk.

21Skinner(1987)contendsthatamassgraveshouldcontainsixormoreindividuals;Mant(1987)

suggeststwobodiesareenoughprovidedtheytoucheachother,whilst(Haglund2002)choosesfour.Meanwhile,theUnitedNations,whoseguidelinesmanyorganisationsworkingwithmassgravesfollow,donotusetheterm‘massgrave’,butinsteaddifferentiatebetween‘individual’and‘commingled’burial,withcommingledburialsbeingconstitutedofthreeormoreindividualsburiedtogether.

22Thislastdefinitionpointstooneofthecharacteristicsoftheterm‘massgrave’inmost

circumstances:itimpliesanextrajudicialaspecttoitscreation.Whilstmanymassgravesmaybeofforensic(i.e.medico-legal)interest,thisdoesnotnecessarilymeancriminal:massgraveshavebeenusedthroughouthistoryforofficialburialsaswellasthosecreatedclandestinely.Thiscontinuestodate.FollowingtheAsianTsunamiof2004,manybodiesweretaggedandburiedinmassgravestopreventthousandsofrottingcorpseslyingonthesurfacewhilstidentificationeffortscontinued.Likewisefollowingthe2010earthquakeinHaitiadecisionwasmadetoburythevictimsinmassgravesbecausetheprioritywastodealwiththelivingandrebuildthecountryside(Klauser2012).

inaditchoraholeorawell.AlthoughtheCambodianGenocideProgramofYale

University(whichundertookanextensivemappingprojectofmassgravesacross

Cambodia)definedamassgraveasanyincludingmorethanonebody(Etcheson

2014),Ibelievethesituationneedsamoreinclusivedefinition,tofullyconveythe

extentanddevastationofthegravesinCambodia.

MuchoftheresearchpreviouslyconductedonthedeadoftheKhmerRouge

concernsitselfwiththeissueof‘violentdeaths:’deathscausedbyexecutionoras

theresultoftorture,ratherthandeathsoccurringfromdiseaseorstarvation.The

underlyingpremiseofthisisthatthesearethedeathsthatprovetheextentofthe

KhmerRouge’shorror.Certainlythethoughtofaregimeexecutingarounda

millionofitsownpopulationishorrifying,butsoistheideathattheywouldcause

thestarvationanddeathfromdiseaseofasmany,ifnotmorepeople.23Theloss

ofthesepeoplewasasmuchapartoftheoveralldevastationofCambodiaas

thoseexecuted,andIconsiderthesedeathstobeevidenceofviolenceaswellas

thosewhoweredeliberatelyexecuted.Thisdifferstopreviousresearch

conductedonthesubject.AsCraigEtcheson,whobeganthemappingprojectof

themassgravesconductedbytheCambodianGenocideProgramandDC-Cam,

informedme(2014,myhighlights):

thepurposeofthemassgravemappingprojectwastoidentifyvictimsof

violence.Thus,ifweidentifiedamassgravethatwasadjacenttoaknownKhmer

Rougehospitalormedicalfacility,thatwouldnotbeincludedinthemassgrave

list,asitwasassumedthatitcontainedvictimsoftheDK’s[sic]hopelessly

ScholarsagreethatthemajorityofthosewhoperishedduringtheKhmerRougediedfromdiseaseorstarvation:demographerMarekSliwinskiestimated60%ofthosewhodieddidsofromcausesotherthanexecutionwith49%fromdiseaseorstarvation(Sliwinski1995:82),whilstMiltonOsbournesuggestedexecutionscountforonly31%ofthosewhodied(Etcheson2000).

incompetenthealthcaresystem,ratherthanvictimsofstate-sponsoredviolence

perse.

Whilsttheremaybeaforensicpurposeindifferentiatingthemannerofdeath,

thisseparationofdeathcausedbystarvationordiseasefrom‘violent’deathsis

misleadinginanoverallcontextualisationofthebrutalityoftheregimeandI

considerthosewhodiedfromdiseaseandstarvationasrelevanttomyresearch

asthosewhowereexecutedordiedfromtorture.Violencedoesnotexclusively

denotephysicalattacks;thereisviolenceinthestarvationanddiseasethat

occurredasadirectresultofthepoliciesoftheKhmerRouge-policiesthat

expelledorexecutedthemedicalcorps;policiesthatforciblymovedpeoplefrom

theirhomesanddrovethemmarchingforthousandsofmiles;policiesthat

reducedthedailyamountoffoodperpersontoonecupofwateryricesoup24;

policiesthat,inshort,causedmassivedeath.HelenFein(1997:10)arguesthat

deathsfromdiseaseandstarvationare‘genocidebyattrition’which:

occurswhenagroupisstrippedofitshumanrights,political,civilandeconomic.

Thisleadstodeprivationofconditionsessentialformaintaininghealth,thereby

producingmassdeath.

Inthatcase,thosewhodiedofstarvationordiseasewereasmuchvictimsof

state-sponsoredviolence25asthosetorturedorexecuted.

24Oneinformantdescribeddeathfromstarvationveryvividlytome:‘duringPolPotpeoplebecameweakerandweaker.Itwaslikeanoillampthatwasrunningoutofoilandthelightbecamelessandlessbright.Thenitwasgone.’

25ThroughoutthisthesisIuseJohanGaltung’sclassificationsofviolence(1969;1990):structural,culturalanddirect,wherestructuralisaviolencebywhichsomestructurepreventscertainpeoplesfrommeetingtheirbasicneeds;culturalviolenceiswheredemanourslearnedinchildhoodandthroughoutourupbringingreinforcethesupposedneedforviolence;anddirectviolenceisa(physical/verbal/psychological)inflictionofviolenceonapersonorpersons.InGaltung’stheories,structuralandculturalviolenceleadtodirectviolence,anddirectviolence

Thesisoutline

Thisfinalsectionoutlinestheorganisationofthethesis.Theoveralltextissplit

intothreesections.Thefirst(theintroductionandchapterone)providesthe

contextforthestudyandtheresearchinwhichIengaged.Sectionstwoandthree

providetheethnographicencounterswithmysubject,dividedintotwomain

conceptualdistinctions:‘thedead’and‘thegraves.’Sectiontwo(chapterstwoto

four)engageswiththedead:exploringtheeverydayinteractionswiththosewho

diedduringtheregimeviaBuddhismandanimism.Thethirdsection(chapters

fivetoseven)analysesnationalandinternationalrelationshipstothedeadand

thegraves,whichareusedtopresentpoliticalsalientnarrativesoftheregime

thatdirectactiontoparticularends.Thefinalchapter,NowistheTimeforthe

Living,bringsallthedifferentelementstogether,drawingthethesistoits

conclusion.

Sectionone:settingthescene

Thisintroductionhasprovidedacontexttotheresearchaswellasitsaimsand

motivations.Itsituatesthethesistheoreticallyandprovidesaframeworkfrom

whichtoapproachtheethnographicmaterialencountered.

Buttheseencountersarenotself-contained,andtheirintricacieslieinthe

complexitiesofthepastfromwhichtheyhaveemerged.Throughthe

introductionofmymainfieldsites(ChoeungEkGenocidalCenter,closetoPhnom

Penh,andanislandIcallKohSopintheBassacRiver),chapteroneofferssome

reinforcestheothers.Thesetheoriessuggestthatviolencecanbeembeddedwithinthelocal,national,regionalandevenglobalsocialstructuresthatsocietiesandtheirpopulationsinhabit,meaningthatsystematicviolencecanbeboththebehaviouralresponsetoconflictanditscause.Iconsiderpolitical,economic,bureaucraticandinstitutionalviolencetobeformsofstructuralviolence,whichmayresultinactionsofdirectviolence.

historicalcontexttothemassgraves,introducinghowtheyweremade

(metaphoricallyandphysically);whotheyhouse(d);theirunearthinginthe1980s;

andsubsequenttreatment.Byintroducingthegravesatthesesitesitsituatesthe

ethnographicanddiscursiveaspectsofthethesis.Thischapteralsodiscussesthe

methodsused,andconsiderstheethicsinvolvedintacklingthecomplexsubject

ofmassgravesincontemporaryCambodia.

Sectiontwo:diggingupthedead

ChaptertwooutlinesthespecificitiesofBuddhismandanimisminCambodia,

examininghowthesewereaffected(ornot)bytheKhmerRougeregime,andthe

importanceofparticularaspectsoftheirpracticetorelationshipstothedead,

particularlyfuneraryritualsandannualceremoniessuchasNewYear,Cheng

Meng,andPchumBenh.Thischapterprovidesthefoundationforchaptersfour

andfive,exploringwhatitisaboutKhmerBuddhismandanimismthatenables

peopletodrawonthemtodaytounderstandandnarratetheKhmerRouge

periodandreintegratethedeadwithincontemporarysociety.

Thoughrelationstothedeadaremanagedinspecificreligiousandsocialcontexts,

chapterthreeexploreshowtheserelationshipscantransformovertime

dependingonthesocialandpoliticalstatusofthelivingandthecountry.Ghosts

andspiritsarenotimaginarybeingsinCambodia,butsocialbeingsthatinhabit

theworldalongsidetheliving,interactinginwaysthatshaperelationshipstothe

past.FollowingHeonikKwon’s(2008)thesisthatghostscanbecentralto

understandingexperiencesoftheliving,particularlythewaysociallivesofthe

deadmirrorpoliticallivesoftheliving,thischapterexploresthechangingstatusof

thedeadfromDemocraticKampuchea,illustratingtheirtransitionfrom

frightenedandfrighteningentitiesofhaunting,tobenevolentalliesinthe

reconstructionofpost-DKCambodia,topowerlessbeingswhohavesincediedor

lefttheareawheretheywerekilled.BycomparingrelationshipsatChoeungEk

andKohSopitwillshowthattheirsupportandinteractionsarelocallysituated;in

KohSoptheinteractionsarelocalandindividual;atChoeungEktheyarenational

andcollective.

Movingonfromrelationswiththedead,chapterfourexploreshowthemass

deathcausedbytheKhmerRougeregimeisnarratedusingtheBuddhistconcepts

ofreincarnationandkarma.Formanyofmyinformants,thislifeissimplyoneofa

cycleoflivesleading(eventually)tonirvana(Pali:nibbana).UsingLambek’s

(2013)conceptofthecontinuousanddiscontinuouspersonthatconnects

historicalperiodsaswellaspersons,IarguethattheBuddhistconceptsofkarma

andreincarnationaremeansbywhichmanyKhmerpeoplecometounderstand

andnarratethe‘tragedyofCambodianhistory’(Chandler1993),andinsodoing,

tonormaliseandintegratemassdeathintoanexpectedaspectoflifeand

cosmology.DeathsfromtheKhmerRougeperiodareoftenexplained,through

karma,asresultantofmisdeedsinapreviouslife,andthemajorityofthosewho

diedarealreadyconsideredtohavebeenreborn.Inthisway,theviolenceofthe

regimeisincorporatedintotoday’slife,andratherthanbeingremindersof

terribleviolence,thegravesitresultedincanbeintegratedintoeverydayliving

space.Theexplorationofkarmaandreincarnationinthiswayallowsforan

explorationbeyondmemory,tothesocialincorporationofthedeadinto

contemporaryCambodia.

Sectionthree:graveconcerns

Sectionthreemovesawayfromeverydayencounterswiththedeadtoexamine

extra-ordinaryrelationshipswiththem;specificallythroughthetheatreofpolitics

incontemporaryCambodiaandtheinternationalencounterswiththemandtheir

gravesencouragedbytourism.

Chapterfiveintroducesthepoliticalsphere,describinghowtherulingparty(the

CambodianPeople’sParty)cametopower,andtheirveryparticularrelationship

totheKhmerRougeregime.Thischapterlaysthefoundationsforchapterssix

andseven,exploringwhatitisaboutthegravesandtheirdeadthatenablethem

tobeusedpoliticallyandhowthisaffectsthecreationandmaintenanceof

collectivenarrativesoftheregimeanditsdemise.Itdoesthisbyexamininghow

thegraveshavebeenmemorialisedsince1979,andthevariousmachinationsthat

haveinfluencedwhichsitesreceiveattentionandwhicharerenderedinvisible.

Bydoingthis,itwillshowhowthegravesandtheirdeadhavebeenusedinthe

creationofthenew,post-KhmerRouge,Cambodianstate,andhowthishas

changedintheyearssinceliberation.

AnintegralpartofCambodia’snationalstrategyistheencouragementoftourism

asamodeofdevelopment.ChaptersixusesSchwenkel’s(2006)conceptof

recombinanthistory(wherethemeaningofhistoricalsitesarenegotiatedand

reconstitutedinglobalspheresofimaginationforeconomicprosperity)toshow

howthematerialityofdeathatChoeungEk(preservedmassgravepitsandthe

displayofhumanremains)isexploitedtoappealtothetouristappetiteforsitesof

violence,inordertoimproveeconomicprosperityandsocialdevelopment,aswell

astofuturepeaceandstabilitybyconnectingittoawiderglobalnetwork.By

comingtothesite,touristsareconsideredtoengageinreciprocalrelationships

withCambodia,supportingitwhilstbenefittingfromit.Consequentlywhilstthe

transformationsinherentinsuchcommodificationsalterandadjustcollective

narrationsofthepast,theydothisinanticipationofthefuture.

Chaptersevenbringsusbacktocriticaleventsbyexaminingthe2013general

elections.UsingDerrida’s(1994)conceptofhauntology(wherespectersof

particularpastsinhabitthepresentandshapethefuture)thischapterarguesthat

althoughcontemporarypoliticsisformedinoppositiontotheKhmerRouge

regime,withthemainpartiesclaimingtoexorciseitfromCambodia,itre-enacts

thesphereofpoliticalviolenceanddistrustbywhichtheyruled.Themain

politicalpartiesrevitalisetheterroroftheKhmerRougeintheircampaigningand

maintainitssymbolicpowerbydoingso.Theactivehusbandryofthesespirits,

madeviablethroughdirectandstructuralviolenceinCambodia(andatelection

timesthroughtheuseofparticularmassgravememorials),notonlyreminds

peopleoftheregimebutalsorevivesitsexistenceasaviablethreat,andinso

doing,consolidatesthepoliticalpowerandhegemonyoftherulingparty.

Theconcludingchapter,NowistheTimefortheLiving,bringstogetherthe

differentnarrativesofeachchapter.Itreturnstomyinitialthesis:thattheKhmer

RougeregimewasacriticaleventinCambodia’spastthathasleadtoare-

imaginingandredefinitionoftraditionalcategoriesandunderstandingsofsocial

life,whichmassgravesarticulateandmakevisibleonindividual,localandstate

levels.Itwillargue,however,thatwhilestateandindividualarticulationsmay

appeartobeinoppositiontoeachother,theyareintrinsicallylinked,and

encounterswiththesespacesthusmakevisibletheoverlappingpluralityof

connectionswithmassgraves.

Chapterone:Fieldsofdeath,sitesoflife-fieldsitesandmethods

Thoughthisfieldworkwasconductedacrossmanysites,twoprimarylocations

formedthebasisofthework.Thischapterintroducesthesefieldsites,putting

themintohistoricalcontextoftheKhmerRougeperiodandtheerassurrounding

it.IndoingsoitintroducesthemassgravesofCambodia-theircreation,the

bodieswithinthemand,briefly,someoftheirtreatmentsafterthedemiseofthe

regime.Researchmethodsthatwereparticulartoeachsitearealsodiscussed,as

wellasoverallmethodologicalconsiderations.

ChoeungEk

17kilometresfromtheurbansprawlofCambodia’scapitalcityPhnomPenh,

downdusty,pot-holedroads,pastnewlybuiltgarmentfactoriesandemptyfields

boundedbyfences,andnexttothestinkingmunicipaldump,liesChoeungEk

GenocidalCenter.Unlikeitsname,thesiteispeaceful.Thesoundofchildren

fromthenearbyschoolflowsthroughthetreesandflowersthatpuncturethe

landscape.Dogsandchickensroamaroundthesite,searchingforfoodand

attention.Andeveryday,hundredsofpeoplecomethroughthegatesto

encounteritshorrors.IcametoChoeungEkbecauseofitspast–akillingsiteof

morethan14,000people,butalsobecauseofitspresent–ahighlyvisitedtourist

destinationandnationalmemorial.ChoeungEkishometothemost

internationallyfamous‘killingfield’ofCambodiaanduntilMarch2015,whenTuol

Slengprisoninaugurateditsmemorial,theonlyofficialnationalmemorialtothe

KhmerRougeperiodinCambodia.DuringtheDemocraticKampucheaperiod,the

sitewasbothakillingandburialsite,mostlyofprisonersfromTuolSlengprisonin

centralPhnomPenh:aprisonusedprimarilyasatortureandretentioncentrefor

KhmerRougecadreandtheirfamilies(Chandler1999:139).

Butletusfirstreturntoitspast.BeforeDemocraticKampuchea,ChoeungEkwas

apeacefulplace.Sittingatthejunctionofthreevillages,thesitewasborderedby

ricefieldsandanorchardoflongantreesbelongingtoalocallandowner,whose

relativesstillliveinthearea.Asmalllaketotheeastfloodedintherainyseason,

mergingwiththelargerlakesbehindittoformamassiveareaofwetland,filling

thepaddies,andbringingfishandwaterplantssuchasmorningglory(trawkoon),

whichlocalpeopleharvestedtoeatandsell.

Thesettingwastranquil,andafengshuiexpertassessedthesiteandpronounced

itanideallocationforthedead:ifburiedtheretheywouldbehappyandhelp

theirfamilies:‘itwassaidtobeagoodplacewherethechildrenwoulddowell[in

theirfuturebusinesses]’YayChan,anelderlywomanwhosefamilyhaslivedinthe

villagebehindChoeungEkforgenerations,toldme.26Thesitewasperfect:

tranquilcountryside,withenoughspaceforconcretegravesthatcouldbe

elaboratelydecoratedduringtheannualChinesegrave-sweepingfestivalofCheng

Meng.OneofthevillageshadanumberofChinese-Khmerfamiliesand,even

beforeCambodiagainedindependencefromFrancein1953,thesitewasusedas

aChinesecemetery.WhentheKhmerRougetookover,rowsofChinese-Khmer

wereburiedthere.

26EvenbeforetheChinesecamethedeadinhabitedthearea:thesitehasbeenusedasaburialsitesincetheIronAge(Latinis2011).

TheremnantsofmanyChinesegravescanstillbeseenatthesite,juttingthrough

theedgesofthemassgravepits,thoughfewpeoplenoticethemastheywalk

aroundthesite,immersedintheaudiotourthatguidestheirsightandsenses,or

directedbytourguideswhopointoutonlyoneortwogravesthatcannotbe

obscuredonthepatharoundthesite.Thesite,andliteraturewrittenonChoeung

Ekclaimsit‘usedtobeaChinesegraveyard.’Inrealityitstillis:whilstmost

familiesmovedtheirdeadinthe1980s27,afewlocalfamilieslefttheirrelatives

wheretheylay.TheycontinuetopracticetheannualChengMengfestival(see

chaptertwo)andareloathtomovetheirgraves;theirrelativesarehappyhere;

thegravesaresafeandpeoplevisitthem.BongChann(whosefatherisburiedat

ChoeungEk)explainedthatthedeadshowtheirappreciationbyhelpingkeep

theirrelativesinworkandfreefromseriousillness:

Heiswithhisgroupofpeople.Ifeelluckythatweburiedhimdownthere.…It’sa

touristsite-it’sahappyplaceforhim;therearealotofvisitors.It’snottoo

quietforhim.He’sbeenhereforalongtime.He’sbeenhappyandhashelped

usbehappyandrich.

Thesitewasquiet,andlifeinthevillagesarounditwassteady.Aswasusualfor

Khmervillages,manyoftheinhabitantswererelated(Ebihara1968)and

marriagesbetweenthevillageswererelativelycommon.Whilstafewpeople

travelledtoworkinnearbyPhnomPenh,mostlyasconstructionworkers,most

nevertravelledfarfromhome.Dayswerespentworking;freetimevisiting

other’shomes.‘Mostlywewerefarmersandfishermen’TaTa,anelderlyman

27Storiesvariedastowhytheyweremoved.Afewpeopletoldmetherelativeshadmovedthemintheinitialyearsafterliberationbecausethesitewaschaoticandtheydidnotwantthemtobeinvolvedwiththemassdead,however,theChinese-KhmerfamiliesIinterviewedwhostillhavetheirrelativesgravesthereconsideredthemselvesluckythatthegravesoftheirrelativeswereontheoutskirtsofthesitebecausetheyhadnotbeentoldtomovethemasothershad.

fromthevillage,toldme.Duringthecivilconflictsofthelate1960sandearly

1970sthesiteanditssurroundingsremainedrelativelypeaceful.Wetlandand

Chinesegraveyardshadlittleinteresttoanyofthefightingpartiesatthetime.

Makingthekillingfield

EveninthefirstfewmonthsofDemocraticKampuchea,ChoeungEkandthe

villagesarounditremainedquiet.AlthoughputtoworkforÂngkar(‘the

organisation’astheKhmerRougecalledthemselves),atfirstpeopleremainedin

theirhomeswiththeirfamiliesbecause,beingaruralsite,itwasalready

contributingtoÂngkar’sagrarianideal.In1976,however,everythingchanged.

FromthebeginningoftheKhmerRougerevolutioninApril1975,highprofile

prisonersoftheregimewereimprisonedinavillainPhnomPenhbelongingtoan

uncleofPrinceSihanouk28.Other‘enemiesoftheparty’weredetainedandkilled

atTakhmaomentalhealthhospitalinKandalprovince,whichwasturnedintoa

prisonundertheleadershipofInLon(nommedeguerre,ComradeNath).In

October1975,undertheordersofSonSen,KaingGuekEav(ComradeDuch),

movedfromTakhmaoprisontobecomecommandantatTuolSlengPrison(partof

28NorodomSihanoukwasacontroversialpoliticalfigure.Kingfrom1941to1955,andagainfrom1993–2004,heledCambodia’sindependencefromFrancein1953.In1955heabdicatedandwaselectedPrimeMinister;whentheKingdiedin1960hepassedalawdeclaringhimselfHeadofState.In1970hewasoverthrowninacoupledbyGeneralLonNol.Between1970and1991,andafterhissecondabdicationin2004,SihanoukmostlylivedinexileinChinaandNorthKorea,apartfromabriefre-entrytoCambodiaduringDemocraticKampuchea.In1975SihanoukwasdeclaredHeadofStateforDemocraticKampuchea;heresignedin1976andwasputunderhousearrest.Fiveofhischildrenwereexecutedduringtheregime,andafterbeingdeportedin1979SihanoukdenouncedtheKhmerRougeattheUNSecurityCouncil.However,in1982,inoppositiontotheVietnamese-backedPRK,heenteredacoalitionwiththem,formingtheCambodianGovernmentDemocraticParty(theCGDP).TheCGDPretainedCambodia’sseatintheUNuntil1993.Followingelectionsin1993SihanoukwasonceagaindeclaredHeadofState,andwasKinguntilheabdicatedin2004.HediedinChinain2012andhisbodywasreturnedtoCambodiashortlyafterwards.

theS-21securityfacility29)incentralPhnomPenh.Fromthenon,allnew

prisonersoftheareabecametheresponsibilityofDuchatTuolSleng.30Nath

remainedatTakhmao.DuchtookoverfullcommandofS-21inMarch1976and

inJune1976alltheprisonersatTahkhmaowereexecuted,andburiedinthelands

aroundthehospital31.

TuolSlengwastobecomeDemocraticKampuchea’smostnotoriousprison,

thoughbynomeansitslargest.Itsdistinctionlayinthetypeofprisonersheld

there–initiallyhighprofileprisonersandthosedeemedparticularlydangerousto

therevolution(monks,doctors,intellectuals),thenasparanoiastartedtospread

throughtheregimeitbecamethemainprisonusedforKhmerRougecadreand

theirfamilies.FewpeoplesurvivedTuolSleng;onceapersonarrivedtheywere

alreadycondemned.‘Ifsomeonecametoprison,theyhadtobekilled,’Duchtold

mewhenIinterviewedhiminKandalprovincialprison,whereheisservingalife

sentenceforhisroleascommandantoftheprison.‘Itwasthepoliticalpathway

oftheKhmerRouge;wehadtodestroytheenemy.’DavidChandler(1999:6),a

historianwhohaswrittenextensivelyontheprison,explained:

Torturedorthreatenedwithtorture,fewprisonersmaintainedtheirinnocence

forlong.Consideredguiltyfromthemomenttheyarrived—thetraditional

Cambodianphraseforprisoner,neakthos,translatesliterallyas“guiltyperson”—

29S-21includedPreySarandTuolSlengprisonsinPhnomPenh,ChoeungEkkillingsite17kmaway,andTakhmaoprisonandkillingsite,inKandalprovince.

30Duchwasalreadyanexperiencedcommandant:between1970and1973heranM-13,asecurityofficeinKampongSpeuprovince,whereheperfectedhistortureandinterrogationtechniques.FrenchethnologistFrancoisBizotwascapturedandheldthere,alongwithhisKhmerresearchassistantswhowerelaterkilled.HisbookTheGate(2004)isacompellingaccountofthatexperienceandtheinitialstagesoftheKhmerRougeregime.

31Whenthehospitalwasreturnedtoitsformerfunctionin1977,Duchreturnedandunearthed,thenburnt,allthebodies.‘Asahospital,itshouldbeahospital’hetoldme.‘Itdidn'tneedthosebodies.’

thousandsofthesemenandwomenwereexpectedtoconfesstheirguiltin

writingbeforetheyweretakenofftobekilled.

ManywerekilledatTuolSlengitself,particularlyintheearlydays,however,as

purgesofKhmerRougecadreincreased,itquicklyfilled,andbytheendof1976a

separatekillinglocationbecamenecessary.‘Idon’tknowwhenwestartedkilling

atChoeungEk,butitwasearly’Duchsaid.‘[Comrade]Ho32tooktheprisoners

there.Heknewthesitefrombefore;Ithinkitwasakillingsiteofhis.’

InpreparationforthetransformationofChoeungEk,lifeinthevillages

surroundingitchanged.Inlate1975orsometimein1976(thefewpeople

remaininginthevillageswhorecalltheperiodcouldnotrememberexactlywhen)

peoplewereevacuatedfromthevillages,joiningthemillionsofpeoplealready

displacedbytheregime.InonevillageadormitorywasbuiltforChinese

economicexpertswhocametoCambodiatoadvisetheregime(Chandler1999),

closebyweresleepingquartersandkitchensfortheguardswhoworkedatthe

site.Toproduceakillingsite,zincwallswereerectedaroundthesiteand

electricityprovided‘toilluminatetheexecutionsandtoallowtheguardsfromthe

prisontoreadandsigntherostersthataccompaniedprisoners’(ibid.:139).

TheroleofChoeungEkwasaheavilyguardedsecret.Peoplefromthelocalco-

operativeknewthatitwasaKhmerRougefacility,butonlythoserelatedtothe

regimeknewwhatwentoninside.‘Atnightwesawtrucksdrivingdowntheroads

tothesite’afarmerfromanearbyvillagetoldme.‘Wethoughtitwasanarmy

trainingground.’

AlthoughDuchwascommandantofS-21,andthereforeinoverallcommandofbothTuolSlengandChoeungEk,KhimVat,aliasHo,washisdeputy,andanequallyfearsomedisciplinarian(Chandler1999:23).‘Howasresponsibleforthekilling’Duchtoldme.‘Iwasinchargeofinterrogations.’

Everytwotothreeweeks,trucksofprisonersfromTuolSlengarrivedatthesite,

drivenbyaspecialcorpsofcadre,manyofwhomalsoworkedastorturersand

executioners.Unloadedattheentrance,theprisonersstood,awaitingtheir

deaths.Theydidnotwaitlong.Duringtheday,guardsbasedatthesitedug

gravesinanticipationofthenextshipment;oncedarkhadfallen,andthetrucks

arrived,thekillingsbegan.Toconserveammunition,themethodswerebrutal:

serratedpalmleavesdrawnacrossthroats;shovelssmashedoverpeople’sheads,

collapsingthemintothegraves;childrenheldbytheirfeet,theirskullsswung

againsttrees.HimHuy,oneofthetruckdrivers,andaregularexecutioneratthe

site,hasdescribedthekillingsinvariousinterviewssincetheregime:

Theywereorderedtokneeldownattheedgeofthehole.Theirhandsweretied

behindthem.Theywerebeatenontheneckwithanironox-cartaxle,sometimes

withoneblow,sometimeswithtwo....Hoinspectedthekillings,andIrecorded

thenames.WetookthenamesbacktoSuosThi[Headofthedocumentation

sectionatTuolSleng].Therecouldnotbeanymissingnames(HimHuyquotedin

Chandler1999:140).

Musicblaredoutofspeakershungfromatree,disguisingthesoundsofkilling.33

Onceapitwasfilledwithbodiestheguardscovereditinsoilandmovedontothe

next.Thenumberkilledeachtripvariedfromafewdozentooverthreehundred

(ibid.).Escapewasimpossible.

No-oneknowsexactlyhowmanywerekilledatthesite.Scholars’bestestimates

rangebetween14and17,000people,althoughresearchersfortheExtraordinary

ChambersintheCourtsofCambodia(theECCC–otherwiseknownastheKhmer

Afterthefalloftheregimetheloudspeakerswereappropriatedbyalocalfamilytoprovidemusicforpartiesandfuturecelebrations.

RougeTrials)couldonlyfindproofbeyondreasonabledoubtfor12,273people34.

MostwerefromTuolSleng,butalocalvillager,whoprovidedfoodfortheKhmer

Rougecadre,toldmethatpeopleworkinginthecommuneclosesttothesite

werealsobroughtheretobekilled.Hisbrother,sister,acousinandtheirchildren

wereallexecutedatthesite:‘iftheywantedto“educate”people,theytookthem

toPhnomTaleong,andiftheydidn’tchange,theywouldcomehere[tobekilled]’

hetoldme.

Unceremoniousburialfollowedtheexecutions.Somebodieswerestripped

beforebeinginterredbutmostwereleftastheywere.Manygraveswerefilled

haphazardly,otherswerehighlyorganised;somestackedneatlyontopofeach

othertomakethemostefficientuseofthespace,othersdividedbytypeof

person:onegravecontainedonlycorpsesdressedintheuniformsoftheLonNol

military,allwithoutheads;anotherhadonlythebodiesofwomenandchildren.

ThechoiceofChoeungEkasakillingsiteisstillunexplained.Atotherlocations

executionswereusuallywithinafewhundredmetresoftheprisonitself.WhenI

interviewedhim,DuchclaimedthatHoselectedit.OmTa,oneofthecaretakers

atthesite,tookitschoiceasevidenceofthemillenarianambitionsoftheKhmer

Rouge,andtheirdisregardfortheoldCambodia:

34AlthoughmeticulousrecordswerekeptatTuolSleng,FrenchhistorianHenriLocardtoldmethatintheperiodimmediatelyafterDemocraticKampuchea,somerecordsweretamperedwithorremovedbyofficialsofthenewregime(Locard2013).Verifiableevidenceofthedetention,torture,andkillingof12,273peopleisknown,however,therewerealmostcertainlymore,bothfromTuolSlengandtheareassurroundingChoeungEk.

thePolPots35,theynevervaluedwhatwealreadyhad.Theynevercared…they

destroyedculture....theywantedtodestroyeverythingalreadyexisting

completely.That’showitwas.Theynevercaredaboutancestors’spiritsatall.

TaTathoughtthesecretliesinitshistory;‘therewerealreadymanybodieshere.

MaybetheycouldconfusethemwiththeChinese.’Certainlyitisnotuncommon

formassgravestobelocatedinestablishedcemeteries;wherebettertohide

bodiesthanamongstthedead?36

AfterDemocraticKampuchea

ChoeungEk’semploymentasakillingsite,thoughdevastating,wasbrief.On7th

January1979,heavilyarmouredVietnamesetroopssucceededinremovingthe

KhmerRougefrompower.Tiredoftheongoingwarbetweenthemselvesandthe

KhmerRouge,theyhadinvadedCambodia14daysearlier.TheKhmerRougefled

theirbases,leavingchaosanddeathbehindthem–inmanyareasthey

slaughteredprisonersbeforetheyleft,buttherapidityoftheadvancegavelittle

timeforcareandattention,andmanyofthesebodiesweresimplyabandoned

wheretheywerekilled,leavingapathofdeathanddestructiontogreetthe

Vietnamese.

ThePolPotsisthenamebywhichmanyKhmerpeoplerefertotheKhmerRouge.Thesubsumationoftheregimeintooneidentifiablefigure(PolPot)isdiscussedinchapterfive.

36Ioftenwondered,bothduringmyfieldworkandafterwards,howmuchthelocationalsorelatedtothefactthatthosekilledtherewereprimarilyKhmerRouge,severalofthemcadrepreviouslyknowntothetorturersatTuolSlengandtheexecutionersatChoeungEk(KeKhimKhourt(Duch’sjuniorhighschoolteacherandKhmerRougecadre)andVornVet(DeputyPrimeMinisterofDemocraticKampucheauntil1978)forexample).Perhaps,Ithought,buryingtheminanestablishedgraveyardwasasubconsciousmodeofreducingtheburdenofboththeirdeathsanddisposal.ChoeungEkisoneoftheonlykillingsitesacrossCambodiathatwashidden,wheresecuritywassotight,andwhereitwasmostlyKhmerRougewhodugthegraves:inmostothersexistingfeaturesofthelandscapewereused,bodieswereabandonedwheretheywerekilled.Whengravesweredug,itwasusuallybytheprisonersthemselves,orvillagersintheworkcamps.Thecadrerarelyundertookthisgrimtask.

Whilstsomevillagers,fearingtheVietnamesewouldkillthem,fledwiththe

KhmerRouge37,otherstookadvantageoftheinvasion,anddespiteheavyaerial

bombardment,startedthelongjourneyshome.38Peoplebeganreturningtothe

villagesaroundChoeungEkalmostimmediately.TaTawasoneofthefirstto

arrive-duringtheregimehehadbeenevacuatedonlyafewkilometresaway,so

hisjourneybackwasswift.Hesoondiscoveredthathishousehadbeen

demolishedandthematerialsusedtobuildfacilitiesfortheKhmerRougecadre

stationedatChoeungEk:fourorfivelongwoodenhalls,roofedwithzinc–a

kitchen,sleepingquartersandstorageroomshethought.Rabbits,bredforfood,

werekeptinrowsofcagesbeyondthehalls.39

Thehallsinthevillages,andshelterswithinthesiteitselfwereinitiallyusedas

shelterforthosereturningandothersontheirlongwalkshome,butoverthenext

fewmonths,TaTaexplained,peopletookthematerialstorebuildthelivesof

thosereturning:

Thosewhosehouseshadbeendestroyedsharedthematerialsinordertorebuild

theirownhousestolive….Myhousewashere.Thenthey[theKhmerRouge]

came,andImovedtotheSouth.WhenIreturned,myhousewasdestroyed.So

wesharedthehallsandlivedon.

‘TheytoldustheVietnamesewouldkillus,sowekeptrunning.Atthattime,wewerenotsurewhichweregoodorbad[oftheVietnameseandKhmerRouge],sowekeptfollowingthem[theKhmerRouge]’oneinformanttoldme.

38AnelderlycoupleIinterviewedinKandalprovincevividlydescribedthistome:‘Weranback

hereinashowerofbombsdroppedbytheVietnamese.Itwasasifriceseedswerebeingspread….Butweweregladtobeabletocomebacktoourvillageagain….Wewalkedalltheway.Wewalkedsofarthatourlegsandhandsbecamenumb.’39

Victimsoftherapidabandonment,therabbitstoohadsuccumbedtostarvation.‘Theyweredeadinthecages.Somany;somanyrabbits.Allwhite.Somanycages,’TaTatoldme.

ThegrislypurposeofChoeungEkhowever,remainedconcealed;thegraveswere

covered,andpeoplepaidlittleattentiontoanythingbeyondsurvival.Ghosts

hauntedthosewhostayedthere,andTaTasaidatnighttheywouldhearchildren

crying,orchainsbeingdragged.Thoughtheysupposeditmustmeanthedead

werenearby,thiswastobeexpectedfollowingDemocraticKampuchea.Itwas

onlywhenthefirstgraveswereunearthedandthesmellofdeathand

decompositionspreadtothevillagesthatlocalpeoplerealisedwhatthesitewas:

after[myreturntothevillage],quiteawhilelater,abouttwomonths,theplace

wasdug.ItwaspossiblyDecember-itwascoldandwindy,andthesmellwas

terrible.I’mnotsureifitwasNovemberorDecember,butIknowitwasthe

monthwhenthewindwasblowingfromtheNorth;thatwaswhenweknewthat

peoplehadbeenkilledthere.Notuntilthegravesweredug.Thesmellwasso

terriblethatwecouldhardlyeatourmeals.

Afterinvasion,DemocraticKampucheawasquicklyreplacedwiththePeople’s

RepublicofKampuchea(PRK),andacohortofKhmerdefectorstoVietnamwas

putintogovernment.Intheireffortstowardsstabilisationandtheassertionof

theirpower,theVietnamesebackedgovernmentquicklybegantoexploit

evidencethatcouldbeusedtolegitimateboththeirinvasionintoCambodiaand

theircontinuedrule,viewedbysomeasinvasiveoccupation,throughoutthe

1980s.40Acrossthecountrytherewasnoshortageofphysicalevidence;

DemocraticKampucheahadnothiddenthedamageithadwrought-the

40Massgravesareoftenusedinthiswaytoday.In2004,forexample,TonyBlairdeclaredthatover400,000bodieshadbeenfoundinmassgravesacrossIraq(USAID2004),usingthisasevidenceforthenecessityofthecoalition’sinvasionintoIraqin2003.Helaterhadtoretractthisstatement,whichwasacompletefabrication(Beaumont2004);evenbythetimeIworkedinIraqin2009onlyafewthousandbodieshadbeenfoundinahandfulofgraves.

populationwasemaciated,starving,andrifewithdisease;thedeadlitteredthe

landscape.

TuolSlengandChoeungEkbecameimportanttoolsinthislegitimation.Within

daysofbeinglocated,TuolSlengprisonwasturnedintoamuseumforforeign

journalistsandvisitingdignitariesunderthedirectionofMaiLam,acolonelofthe

VietnamesearmywhodesignedtheMuseumofAmericanWarCrimesinHoChi

MinhCity(Chandler1999,2008;Tyner,BrinidisAlvarezandColucci2012).

ChoeungEk,itssistersite,providedacompellingformofevidencewiththe

thousandsofdeaditcontained.Butthedeadwereburied,andneeded

unearthing.Thegovernmentsentateamtoexcavate,underthedirectionofMai

However,beforethegovernmentworkerscame,anothergrouparrived;‘those

relatedtotheregime’accordingtotwoformerdirectorsofthesite,bothofwhom

werepresentatthetime.Thisinitialgrouparrivedwithahand-drawnplanof

ChoeungEk,andproceededtounearthitemsthathadbeenhastilyhiddenin

someofthegravespriortotheretreatofthecadre:‘theyknewexactly[whatthey

werelookingfor].Whentheyfirstcametheysaidtheywantedtodigthe

children’sgravewheretheyhadburiedhammocks,raincoatsandotherthings’

oneformerdirectortoldme.‘Theymusthavehadbloodstainsontheirhands.’

Smellingthedeath,andseeingthisgroupdigandrecovervaluableitemsled

peoplefromthelocalvillagerstosearchthesiteformore.Followingthisinitial

excavation,inwhichequipment,butnotbodies,wasunearthed,governmentand

localpeoplealikedugthegraves:thegovernmenttoextractbodiesrelatedtothe

regime,andlocalvillagerslookingforgoldandjewels.BuSoth,whohasworked

atthesitesincetheearly1980s,toldmeaboutjoininginthelooting:

Whenitwasfirstunearthedvillagerspassedbythesiteandfoundgold.Itspread

fromonepersontoanother,andIheardaboutit,soIgatheredanothersixteen

peopleanddecidedtodigoneofthemassgravestoseeifwecouldfindanygold.

Wedugthatonethathad166bodies,allheadless.That’showIjoinedthe

digging…

Hisgrouphadnotuncoveredanyvaluables,sotheyhadgivenup.Butother

villagerscontinuedsearching,somefindinggoldandjewels,otherswatchesand

clothing.Beforeallthegraveshadbeenexcavated,however,thegovernment

bannedpeoplefromdigginganymoreandputguardsonthesite.Mostofthe

peoplearoundChoeungEkwerenotsureexactlyofthereason,althoughBuSoth

believeditwasduetothecholerathatwasspreading.41Itwasmorelikely,

howevertobeduetoa1982directiveorderinglocalgovernmentofficialsto

preventpeopledisturbinganymoreofthephysicalevidenceremainingfromthe

regimeinanattempttotryandstopthedeletionoftheregime’smaterial

presencebydismantlingthebuildingsandotherevidence(seechapterfive).

Afterbeingdugup,thebodiessatonthegravesidesformonths(orpossiblyyears

-no-onecanreallyremembertheexacttimescale)beforeawoodenp’teah

khmouch,(asmallhutthatliterallytranslatesashouseforthedead,orghost

house)wasbuiltforthem.Thoughconceivedintheearlyyears,thememorial

41Althoughthedeaddonotusuallyposea(physical)healthrisk,itispossiblethatifnotcholera,someotherdiseasewasspreadingaroundthearea.ChoeungEkisawetlandareathatfloodseveryyear.Rottingcorpsescouldwellhavespreaddiseaseandbacteriaintothewaterthatfedthericefieldsandriversinthesurroundingvillages.

stupa42thatcontainstheskeletalremainsofthoseunearthedanddominatesthe

sitetoday(seefigurethree)wasnotcompleteduntil1988;nineyearsafterthe

bodiesbegantobeexcavated.43ItsofficiallyinaugurationonMay20th1988(the

newlydesignatedannual‘DayofAnger’–seechapterfive)coincidedwith

ChoeungEk’sofficialopeningasamuseum(TheNationalCentreforthe

PreservationoftheAtrocitiesCommittedbytheKhmerRouge)however,from

1980onwards,governmentofficialshadbroughtinternationaljournalistsand

otherforeigndignitariestothesiteseveraltimesayear.

Figurethree:ChoeungEkstupaanddisplayedremains(source:theauthor)

Astupa(fromtheSanskritstüpa,meaningheap)isaBuddhiststructurefortheremainsofthedead.Mostarebuiltwithinpagodagroundsbutsomefamiliesbuildthemathome.Ideallyeachstupaholdstheremainsofonepersonbutsomepagodashavecommunalstupatointerthecremainsofpeoplewhosefamiliescannotaffordtheirown,orwhohavenoknownrelatives.

43ChoeungEkwasnottheonlyplacewithatimedelaybetweenbodiesbeingexcavatedandthen

rehoused.InPoTonleinKandalprovince,severalfamilieslivedforseveralyearsinoneoftheprisonbuildingsconstructedundertheKhmerRouge.Duringthattimethegraveswereexcavated,andthebodiespiledontotheroofofthishut,wheretheyremainedforseveralmonthsbeforealocalmanbuiltap’teahkhmouch.Atnightallthatseparatedthedeadfromthelivingwasathinwoodenroof.‘Thedeadwerenicethough,’oneofthevillagerscommented:‘theyneverhauntedus.’

AsthepoliticalsituationinCambodiastabilisedandvisitornumbersincreased,

ChoeungEkgrewinpopularityasatouristsite.EasilyaccessiblefromPhnom

Penh,withdramaticphysicalevidenceintheformofskeletalremainsand

numerousvisiblegravepits,thesiteiscompelling.Bythelate1990sitsawa

regularinfluxofforeignvisitors,andin2005thesitewasprivatized,anda30-year

leasegiventoaprivatecompany,JCRoyal&Co,withanaimtoincreasetourist

revenuefromthesite.44

ChoeungEktoday

TodayChoeungEkisprimarilyatouristsite,thoughitsmulti-functionality(as

nationalmemorialandeducationaltool)ishighlightedbythose,suchasits

directors,wishingtorefutecriticismfollowingitsprivatisation.Asmoreandmore

touristsvisit,ChoeungEkandtheareaarounditarechanging.In2012thesite

wasgrantedA1statusasatouristsiteandwasa2014Traveller’sChoiceaward

winnerfromTripadvisor;thedevelopmentssurroundingitreflectthecentralityof

thisroleinitsconstitution.Onceawildandraggedsite(‘itwasstarkandopen.I

rememberthewindcomingthroughthetrees.AndsometimesIwonder,should

webedoingthis;thismakingitintoapark?’aformermanageratthesite

commented),theconcreteandbrickdevelopmentsareencroaching,withnew

onesappearingalmostweekly.Theroadthatleadsuptothesiteisnowcovered

inrestaurants.Brickandconcretepathscovermuchofthelandinsidethegates.

Shopsflankthecarpark;concretewallsborderthegraves.

Seechaptersix.

Butaswellasatouristsite,itisalsoaworkplaceandhome.Duringmyfieldwork

45peopleworkedatChoeungEk:cleaners,guides,caretakers,management,

shopkeepers.Whilstthemanagementworksonlyfivedaysaweek,mostofthe

employeesworksixorsevendaysandChoeungEkhasbecomeanextensionof

theirhome.SreySreycooksherlunchanddinnerthere,andherchildrencometo

dotheirhomeworkatthesite.Vannaliveswithhiswifeanddaughteronthesite,

asdotwoothercaretakersandtheirfamilies.SreyPichworkspart-timeonthe

audioguidesbutvisitsonherdaysoff.Herbrother,sisterandfatherallworkat

thesitetoo.VisitorstoChoeungEkareintroducedtoitasaplaceofdeath;

destruction;deletion,andthisistheoverwhelmingimpressionmostleavewith.

ButIexperiencedasiteofvibrancyandlife:childrenrunaroundthegrounds

laughingandplaying;dogsandchickensroamthegrounds;treesandflowers

abound;smallpatchesofvegetablesaregrownbythefamilieslivingonsite;the

lakethatbordersitisusedforbathing,swimming,andwaterforcooking.ANeak

Ta(guardianspirit)inhabitsatreenexttothelakeandvillagerscometogivehim

offerings,askingforprotectionandluckforthemselvesandtheirfarms.He

usuallyobliges.

ResearchingatChoeungEk

GainingaccesstoresearchatChoeungEktooksometime.Iattemptedtolocate

JCRoyalandCo(thecompanythatleasesthesite),butcouldfindnocontact

details.Ispoketostaffbutno-oneseemedtoknowwhotheyworkedfor.WhenI

asked,theysimplysaid‘Ângkar’:‘theorganisation’45.Iaskedwhohademployed

Thisconfusedmeatfirst:duringDemocraticKampucheamanyordinarypeoplehadnotknownoftheKhmerRouge;forthefirsttwoyearsofrule,theCommunistPartyofCambodia(CPK)hadkepttheiridentitysecret,simplyreferringtothemselvesas‘Ângkar.’EvenafterPolPotannounceditsexistenceandhisleadershipin1977,thenewsdidnotfilterdowntomanypeople,

themandwasdirectedtoOmTy,thedirector.OmTytoldmetoaskCityHall:

‘theymayormaynotgiveyoupermission’hesaid.

Itwasaserendipitousencounterthatfinallybroughtmeaccess.AtanImpunity

WatchrunconferenceonmemorialisationinSeptember2012ImetMinaBui

Jones,thecountrydirectoroftheAustralianbasedNarrowcasters-thecompany

thatmadetheaudiotoursforChoeungEk.Afterrequestingherhelpin

identifyingwhototalkto,shetookmetothesiteandarrangedameetingwith

oneofthedirectors.Consideringmyapplication,andMina’ssupport,Iwas

grantedaccesstoconducttheresearchIwished,providedInotdisturbthestaff

toomuch.ThereisnodoubtinmymindthatwithoutMina’shelpgetting

permissionwouldhavebeenmoredifficultandtheaccessIwasgivenmore

limited.

WhilstworkingatthesiteIlivedinPhnomPenh,travellingtoandfrowithmy

researchassistantbytuktukormoto.Thesiteopensfrom08:00to17:00;visiting

inthiswaymirroredthemovementsofthestaff.Mostoftheresearchat

ChoeungEkwasconductedonsite,butIalsovisitedthevillagesbehindittosee

thefamiliesofpeopleworkingthereandtoconductinterviewswithpeopleliving

locallybutnotemployedthere.Thisenabledmetoexplorelocalrelationshipsto

ChoeungEkanditsuseasatouristsite,includingwithseveralfamiliesofChinese

descentwhoserelativeswereburiedtherebeforeDemocraticKampuchea,and

whoremainburiedtheretodate.

whocontinuedtorefertoitasÂngkarthroughoutitsruleandafterwards.TheliteratureimpliesthatÂngkarrefersonlytotheKhmerRouge,however,throughoutmyfieldworkpeopleusedthetermtorefertoanyfacelessauthority:thecompanytheyworkfor,orthecurrentgovernmentforexample.

Iworkedprimarilywiththestaff;keyinformantsatthesitewereBongLa,Srey

Srey,andOmTa.SreySreyhadworkedasacleaneratChoeungEkforseveral

yearswhenIarrived.SreySreyfeelsluckytohaveherjob:thesiteisconvenient–

onlyafewhundredmetresfromherhome-andthemanagementwelcoming,so

whilstshecannotbeathomeduringtheday,herchildrencometothesitetodo

theirhomeworkorplaywiththeotherchildrenwholivethere.Inherearly

thirties,sheisacheerful,friendlywoman,whoboostsherincomebycollecting

plasticbottlesleftbytourists:foreverysixshecollectsshereceivesfivecents

fromlocalrecyclers;withthehundredsoftouriststhatpassthroughthesite

everyday,shecaneasilyaccumulatebottles,andsheusesherextraincometopay

forherchildren’sschoolbooksandtreatswhentheyhaveworkedhard.We

wouldsitchattingduringtheday,andsometimesIwouldplaywithherchildrenin

theirbreaksfromschool.Herhusbandwouldpassusbyonoccasions,and

occasionallyhersisterjoinedforlunchinherbreaksfromworkcloseby.

BongLawasmyfirstfriendatChoeungEk.Inhisearlythirties,married,with

threechildren,BongLalivesinPhnomPenh,commutingdailybymotorbike.He

wasinterestedintheresearchIwasconducting,andondayswhenIdidnotvisit,

wouldmakeamentalnoteofanythinginterestingthathappenedtotellme.After

finishingschoolinthelate1990shetrainedtobeatourguideinPhnomPenh,

andlaterdecidedtobasehimselfatChoeungEk;hespeaksexcellentEnglish,and

goodmoneywastobemadefromtheincreasingnumberoftourists.Whenthe

audiotourguidesarrivedin2010,he,likemostoftheguides,transferredtothat.

Althoughheappreciatesthiswork,BongLamisseshistimeasatourguide:heis

interestedintheworldanditspeople,andisachatty,friendlymanwhoenjoyed

meetingnewandvariedpeople.

OmTa,anelderlymanwhoworksatthesite,livedthroughtheKhmerRouge.

BornandraisedclosetoChoeungEk,hewasevacuatedduringDemocratic

Kampuchea,todistantprovinces.Helostmanymembersofhisfamilyduringthe

regimeincluding,bothparents,hisauntandherfamily,onesisterandtwo

brothers.Followingthedeposaloftheregimein1979hereturnedtohishome

village,wherehehaslivedeversince.Firstcomingtothesitewithothervillagers

tolootitsgraves,hewassubsequentlyemployedasacaretaker,aroleheretains

today.OmTawasoneofthehardestworkingpeopleatChoeungEk,alwaysin

movementpayingattentiontoonethingoranother,stoppingtocollectdebris,or

movingaroundtoolsforthevariousconstructionworkerswhoalwaysseemedto

bechangingsomething.

Thoughtheseweremymaininformants,Ispenttimewithseveralothermembers

ofstaff.OmTy,thesite’sdirectoralwaysmadetimetochatwithmeandanswer

anyquestionsIhad.BongBroh,acaretaker,wouldtellmegossipaboutthetour

guidesfromPhnomPenhashecarriedouthiswork.Ispentmostofmyother

timewiththeguideswhorantheaudiotours.Theymannedastationarypointat

theentranceofthesiteandIwouldsit,sometimesforhours,andchatwith

peopleastheyworked.PriortotheintroductionofaudioguidesatChoeungEkin

2011,thesemenhadbeentourguides.Theywerepersonableandmostly

enjoyedinteractionswithdifferentpeople;severalcommentedthatwasthe

reasontheyhadbecomeguidesandthattheymissedthisaspectintheirnewjob

(whichinvolvedsimplyhandingoutandtakingbackaudio-players).I,therefore,

offeredtheopportunitytochatandinteractwithanoutsiderthattheynolonger

hadintheirday-to-dayemployment.

ThoughIworkedprimarilywiththestaff,Ialsospentsometimewithvisitorsto

thesite:whenthecoachesfromtheECCCarrivedmyresearchassistantandI

wouldjoinagrouparoundthesite,chattingwiththemaswewentandI

participatedinanyeventsheldatthesite,chattingwithotherparticipantsalso

attendees.Iinterviewedseveraltourists,althoughallbutoneoftheseinterviews

(withaloquaciousanti-abortioncampaignermoreinterestedinpersuadingmeof

hiscausethanengagingwithmyquestions)wereshort–around20to30

minutes.

ChoeungEkpresentedtheopportunitytoresearchtheonlystate-sponsoredmass

gravememorialinCambodia46,amemorialthatremainsanimportantsitefor

local,national,andinternationalencounterswiththeperiod.Thoughthepublic

presentationofmassgravesinCambodiaalmostexclusivelyfocusesonChoeung

Ek,encouragingatunnelledvisionthatthisstudyhopestohelpcounteract,itwas

animportantsitetoconsider,particularlyregardingthepoliticalforcesactingon

thegraves.However,inordertocounterbalancethistunnelvisioning,another

primaryfieldsitewasselected;anislandIcallKohSop.

46AlthoughTuolSlengalsofunctionsasastatememorial,themassgravestherearefewandIwouldthereforenotclassifyitasamassgravememorial.

KohSop

KohSopisoneofastringofislandsintheBassacriverthatwereusedasprisons

andkillingsitesduringDemocraticKampuchea;theperfectmaterialisationofthe

regime’s‘kuketchonhcheang’:prisonwithoutwalls.Smallandunlabelledon

manymaps,itisnowadaysarelativelyunknownsite,excepttothosewholivedin

theareaduringitsregime.

BeforeDemocraticKampucheaKohSopwashometofamiliesfromvarious

nations,wholivedpeacefullyside-by-side:thechildrenlearnedeachother’s

languagesandthefamiliessocialisedtogether.Thesoilwasfertileandprovided

theideallocationfororchardsoffruittrees:guava,orangesandlamot47were

grownalongsiderice-fieldsandfamilyvegetablegardens.Somefamilieshadbeen

thereforseveralgenerations,othersmoveddowninthe1950sand60sfrom

neighbouringislandsrunningoutofspace.Alongwiththoselivingontheisland,

peoplefromacrosstheriverhadfarmlandthere,travellingdailytotendtheir

fieldsandorchards.

Theislandwastoosmallforapagoda,butasmallchurchwasbuiltinthemiddle

ofthelandforthosewhopractisedChristianityandapreachervisitedregularly

fromthemainland.SeveralNeakTa(guardianspirits)inhabitedtheland–the

KhmerNeakTaremain,butthosebelongingtoothernationsleftwhentheydidin

the1970s.48TheKhmerfamiliesalsohadNeakTa,butweremostlyBuddhist;

47Asicklysweetkiwi-lookingfruitwithatexturesomewhatlikecrystallisedhoney.

48NeakTaaretheKhmerguardianspiritsofthelandandwater(seechaptertwo).Bong,amanofaround50yearsoldwhohadgrownupontheislanddidnotknowthenameoftheforeignspirits,buttoldmetheirreligion‘wasliketheChinesereligion,withaNeakTa.’

theytravelledacrosstherivertovisitthepagoda,formostonlyonritual

occasionssuchasPchumBenh(theannualfestivalforthedeadinOctober)and

KhmerNewYearinApril.Bong,whowasachildontheislandbeforetheregime,

remembereditbeingapleasantplacetolive.Theonlyschoolwasacrosstheriver

ontheWesternsideoftheisland,andbeforethecivilconflictintheearly1970s,

thechildrentookaboatbackandfortheachday,untilitbecametoodangerousto

travel.LikemanyacrossCambodia,theireducationwasinterrupted;manynever

wentback.Peopleearnedtheirlivingthroughfarmingandafterharvestand

beforethenextsetofplanting,additionalsmalljobs.Bong’sfather,forexample,

workedasapru-laan:ahustlerforthesharedtaxisthatranbackandforthfrom

PhnomPenh,whilehismothertookcareofotherpeople’scows.

EventhroughtheUSbombingsandthecivilconflictsofthe1960s,lifewasmostly

quiet.Bytheearly1970s,however,thisbegantochange.Evenbeforetheir

victoryin1975,theKhmerRougewoncontrolofsomeareasofCambodia.

BecauseitsurroundedPhnomPenh,Kandalprovincewasahotlycontestedarea

betweenthesoldiersofLonNolandtheKhmerRougeandrightfromthe

beginningoftheLonNolregime(1970–1975),theareawascoveredinconflict.

LonNolsoldierswerepositionedontheWesternsideoftheisland,whilstthe

KhmerRougesoldiershadabaseontheEasternside.In1973,theKhmerRouge

woncontroloftheEasternsideandtheisland(theWesternsideremained

conflicted).Takingitasabasetheyevacuatedtheinhabitantsdownriver.49

49Somemovedonlyoneortwokilometres,whilstothersmovedtowardstheVietnameseborder;therewasadegreeofflexibilityatthistimeandsomechoicelefttothefamiliesleaving.Somewalkedtotheirnewhomes;othersloadedox-cartswithgoodsandtookthemwiththem.Oncetheygottotheirnewhomes,lifewasnormalforatime:peoplefarmedandraisedanimalsandlivedintheirownhouses.Mostoftheforeignfamilieshadfledintheearly1970s,fearingthepogromsoftheLonNolarmy.

DuringDemocraticKampuchea

Followingtheevacuationsin1973,theislandwasusedexclusivelybytheKhmer

Rouge;initiallyasabarracks,andthenasaprisonandkillingsite.Byearly1975,

theKhmerRougehadwoncompletecontrolofthearea,andwiththefighting

ended,somelocalinhabitantsinthevillagesacrosstheriverreturnedtotheir

homesthere.Thosefromtheislandwerepermittedtothearea,buthadtolive

acrosstheriver.Theirlifewasnotsohard;‘Wewereoldpeople(brâcheachon

chas)’anelderlymanfromonevillagetoldme,‘sowecouldstaywherewe

were.’50

Fewpeopleaccessedtheislandduringtheregime,butSok,wholivesinanearby

village,wasimprisonedthereforashorttime,anddescribedthelifetomeone

afternoonwhilewesatintheshadeatthefrontofhishouse,wherehehaslived

sinceliberation.Althoughhehadbeenasoldierbeforetheregime,onceitcame

topowerhedisguisedhispastandwasputtoworkwiththeKhmerRougeyouth

group.Oneafternoonhewascapturedtryingtosneakawaytovisithismother.

Hewasheldforseveralhours,beforebeingbroughtbyboattotheisland.On

discoveringhewouldbesenttoKohSophewasterriblyafraid.‘Iknewitwas

hopeless’hetoldme,‘becauseIheardthatifyougottoKohSoptherewasno

wayback.’

50ManyofthepeopleIspoketointhesevillageshadarelativelybearableexperienceduringDemocraticKampuchea:thecommandersinthisareaallowedmostfamiliestostaytogether,andalthoughtheyweresubjecttothesameregulationsenforcedacrossthecountry(suchascommunaleating,noownershipofindividualproperty,andreducedrations)thepeopleherehadalwaysbeenfarmersandwereusedtohardworkandlonghours.Unlikethoseevacuatedfromthecities,therefore,theywerebetterabletocopewiththedemandsoftheregime,andfaredrelativelybetterinhealthandlossesthanelsewhere.

OnarrivalatKohSop,prisonersweresubjecttointerrogation,andmanywere

torturedtodrawuppersonalbiographiesthatcouldbeusedtojustifytheir

execution(forbeingtraitorsorenemiesoftheregime).Sokhadagood

education,asdidhisparents,butheliedtoprotecthimself:

Theyaskedournames,whereweusedtostudy,whatgrade[weachieved],our

parents’names…likethat.Andtheyaskedourparents’profession….IliedbutI

liedverywellandIsaidIwasatgradethree,gradethreenationalmodern51.And

theyaskedwhatIdid;IsaidIhelpedmyparentsfarmingandtheybelievedme.

Duringthedaytheprisoners,mostlyyoungmen,workedontheisland,diggingup

treerootstoclearlandforfarming.Followingtheirdailylabourtheyweretaken

towashinasmallinlandlake.Atnighttheywereshackledtogetherinalarge

woodenhall.AtSok’sheadwasawoodenbucketusedasaurinal;whenusedthe

urinesplashedhisface.Iftheydidanythingtodispleasetheguards(notcoming

quicklyenoughfrombathing,ornotworkinghardenoughduringthedayfor

example)theywereshotorbeatentodeath.Someweretakentothebamboo

grovesattheendoftheislandtobeexecuted,otherskilledwheretheywere.The

bodieswereleftscatteredacrosstheland:

[thebodieswereleft]likerubbish,wheretheydied;theywereleftwherethey

wereput.Sometimestheydugsomedirttocoverthem.Manyofthemwere

killedandtheyleftthebodieshereandthere.Theclothes,theblood,thehair

werestillfresh.Theykilledpeopleallovertheland.

Besidestheprisoners,theonlypeoplelivingonthesiteweretheKhmerRouge

soldiersrunningthesite:allyoungcadreoflateteensorearlytwenties.Its

51EquivalenttoUKyearthree;ageeightornineyearsold.

functionwaswellknown;peopleacrosstheriversometimessawtheprisoners

working(‘theyusedpeopleinsteadofcowstodotheploughing’anelderly

womanfromavillageacrosstherivertoldme),anditbecamewellknownthatif

youwenttoKohSopyoudidnotreturn.Thoseworkingdownriverreported

seeingbodiesfloatinginthewater:thoughtheywantedtoretrievethem,they

couldnotleavetheirworkstations,andthebodiesweresoonwashedalong.

After1979

NooneremembersexactlywhentheKhmerRougelefttheislandandtheareas

aroundit,butinallprobabilityitwasshortlybeforethefallofDemocratic

Kampucheaon7thJanuary1979;thesiteisenroutetoPhnomPenhfrom

Vietnam.Bong’sfatherwasthefirsttoreturntotheisland;whenhedidhemeta

terriblesight.Thelandwascoveredwithrottingcadaversandthetimewithout

farminghadletthewildnessencroachontheland.‘Itwasalljungle’hetoldme.

Thelandwascoveredinfreshlyduggravesandpilesofdead;corpseslitteredthe

shallowstreamsrunningthelengthoftheisland.Thehousesthathadstood

beforehadbeendismantled-likeChoeungEkthematerialswereusedto

constructKhmerRougebuildings:prisonhallsanddwellingsforthecadre.

Bongandhisfamilylivedacrosstheriverduringtheregimeandwereeagerto

comehome.Otherswereafraidtoreturn-KhmerandVietnamesemilitary

stationedthemselvesontheisland,andmanyfromtheEasternsidereported

seeinglightsflyingaroundatnight,asuresignofhauntingghosts.Asthemonths

passedafewfamiliesbegantoclearthelandandre-establishtheirfarming,but

manydidnotreturntoliveforquitesometime.Evenwhenpeoplereturnedto

theirhomes,somecouldnotreclaimtheiroldland;inthePRK,asystemofland

distributionwasinitiatedthatapportionedlandaccordingtothenumberof

peopleinyourfamily:‘ifyouhadfourpeople,yougotfourhectares;ifyouwere

twopeople,yougottwohectares’Bongexplained.

AsatChoeungEk,thedeadatKohSopprovedusefulinthenewgovernment’s

politicallegitimation.Underthesamedirectivethatguidedcollectionselsewhere,

thebodiesthatlayonthesurfaceweregatheredandpiledhighunderaquinine

treeinthecentreoftheisland.Atfirstthepitswerenotdisturbed,butlooters

sooncametodig.Peopleinmanylocationstoldmethatgroupsofpeople

travelledfromsitetositesearchingforvaluablesamongstthedead;Bongandhis

wifeSreyexplainedthisiswhathappenedatKohSop.Agroupofmen,travelling

fromBattambang(aprovinceontheothersideofthecountry),arrivedsoonafter

liberationandstayedforseveralmonths,campingontheislandwhilsttheydug:

[Srey]: Theycametofindthebodiestofindgold.Forexample:gold

teethorothergoldthatwasonthebody.

[Bong]: Sometimesthebodieshadgoldteeth,goldnecklaces…

[Srey]: Sometimes[thosekilled]hadsewngoldintotheirclothes…

[Bong]: Sometimestheyjustputgoldintheirclothes.

[Caroline]: Whichclothes?

[Srey]: Theyputthegoldintheirbras.

[Bong]: Theysewedapocketandputtheirgoldthere.

[Srey]: Andwhenthesepeoplewerekilledtheyhitthemandthebody

felldown,but[theKhmerRouge]didnotlookforanything.

[Bong]: Aftertheyfinishedfindinggoldheretheytravelledtoanother

place.

Amongstthegroupwasagoldsmith;heaskedBongandotherstoworkforhim,

butBongrefused.‘Iwastoodisgusted’hesaid.Othersfromthevillagehad

joinedinandwhenpeoplefoundgoldthegoldsmithboughtitfromthem.

Astheydugtheypiledthebodiesonthesurfaceinonebigheap,arranging‘leg

accordingtolegandheadaccordingtohead.’Thep’teahkhmouchinwhichthe

remainswerelaterhousedwasbuiltatalaterdate,andtheareawherethe

gravesweredugisnowcoveredinhouses.Notallthebodiesweredug.Some

remained,andwhenothersmovedtotheareatheycoveredthemwithsoiland

builtontop.Intheearlyyearsthegroundmovedwiththedead:risingand

crackingasthebodiesbloatedwithdecomposition;sinkingwhentherainscame

andcompressedtheland.Thegroundhasmostlysettlednow,butsometimes

afterheavyraindepressionsstillappear;thelandunderOmYay’shousestill

movesandherdogoccasionallytriestodigupthegraves.Intheearlyyearsafter

liberationbodieswouldoftensurfaceintheriversorponds,orinthegroundas

peopleploughedforfarming.Nowadaysitisrare,butstilloccasionallyhappens.

AfewmonthsbeforeIarrivedsomebonesweredugupinthefieldofTaChas,an

elderlymanwholivesintheancestralvillageoftheisland:heputtheminaplastic

bagandthrewthemintothep’teahkhmouch(figurefour),nowemptyexceptfor

afewbonesleftbehindfromwhentheremainsweremovedinthe1990s.

Figurefour:KohSopp’teahkhmouch(source:theauthor)

Sometimeinthelate1990s,ortheearly2000s,theremainswithinKohSop’s

p’teahkhmouchweremovedfromtheislandtocheddei(stupa)atlocalpagodas.

Thoughthreepagodastookremainsthemajoritywenttothewat(pagoda)

closesttothedistrictoffice.Theyremaintheretoday,lockedinasmall,

unassumingcheddei,onlyopenedatritualoccasionsandontherequestof

visitors.

KohSoptoday

Nowadaystheislandissplit,bothgeographicallyandsociallyintotwohalves:the

endoftheisland-hometofamilieswholivedonthesitebeforeDemocratic

Kampucheaorwhocomefromacrosstheriverandhavefarmedlandtherefor

morethanonegeneration,andtheheadoftheisland–threevillagesthatbegan

withNGOrehousingprojectsofthe1990s.

Theislandishometo93housesandafluctuatingnumberofinhabitants

(averagingaround300people).Theendoftheislandischaracterisedby

traditionalwoodenhouses,andafewconcreteones,spacedapartfromeach

otherwithfarmlandin-between.Theotherhalf,wheremostofthegraveslay,is

splitintothreevillages,eachmadeupofarowofhousescrammedtogether.The

housesaremostlyoneroomwoodenorpalm-leafstiltedhouses,withoneortwo

brickhousesforthosefamilieswhosechildrenworkinthecitiesandsendmoney

home.Severalsmallstreamsandvariouspondscoverthelandandintherainy

seasonofferwelcomefishingopportunitiesformanyinhabitants.

TherearenoroadsonKohSop,onlydirtpaths.Mostpeoplewalkwhereverthey

aregoing,althoughsomepeoplehavebicyclesandoneortwoofthewealthier

families,motorbikes.Asmallferryconnectstheislandtothemainlandonthe

Westernside;ontheEasternsidealandbridgeconnectstheislandinthedry

seasonandinthewetseasonpeopletravelbyboat.WhenIwastheremains

electricityhadnotarrivedontheisland;thosewithelectricitypoweredfrom

batterieschargednightlyattheNGO-runschoolfromthesolarpanelsonitsroof.

Wateralsorunsonlyattheschool:thoughmosthouseshavewellsduginthe

1980s,thewatercomingfromthemhashighlevelsofarsenic,somostpeopleuse

rainwatercollectedinlargeurnsbesidestheirhouses,orfilterriverwater.Toilets

arescare:adultsusethefieldsandtheriver;childrenseemtogowherever.

Thoselivingontheendoftheislandmostlyrunfarms,growingsa’om,mangoes,

guavaandcorn.Mostfamilieshavecows,usedforfarmingandbreeding;afew

havechickensandonehassheep.Attheheadoftheislandmanypeopledonot

work.AfewfamilieshaveplotsinanNGO-ledagriculturalproject,whichrunsin

thegroundsoftheformerprison.Oneortwotendcowsforpeopleacrossthe

river:thegrassisgoodontheislandandidealforraisingcalves.52Afewmen

workconstruction,travellingtothenearbytownsandcities,andsomeofthe

daughtersworkinthegarmentfactories,cominghomeattheweekends.Manyof

thefamiliesrelyonaid,withoutwhichtheycouldnotsurvive.Landinsecurityis

highatthisendoftheisland:thelocalNeakThom[importantperson-literally

translatingatbigperson]isslowlytakingthelandontheisland,metrebymetre,

throughappropriationanddebt-collectionhousingswaps.

Figurefive:farmatKohSop.Aftertheregimebodiescoveredtheland(source:theauthor)

CowsarehugelyvaluableinCambodiaandareusedprimarilyforworkandbreeding.Becauseoftheircost(whenIwasthereawell-bredcalfwouldsellforbetween$500and$1,000)manypeoplecannotaffordtobuytheirown.SeveralpeopleIknewthereforeengagedinasystemofcow-sharing;thepoorerpersontendsacowownedbysomeoneelse,andeachyearthecowgivesbirththecalfisgivenalternatelytotheownerandthepersontendingthecow.Inthiswaypoorerpeoplecanreceivetheirowncow,andthepeopleowningthecowshavesomeonetolookafterandraisethem,andalsoreceivemeritforhelpingothers.

ThereisaKhmerrunchurch,asmallprimaryschool,andacoupleofsmallshops

forbuyingtheessentials.Foreverythingelsepeopletravelacrosstheriver,where

asmall,bustlingmarketrunsdailyoutsidethelocalpagoda.Mostpeopleatthe

endoftheislandpracticeBuddhism;attheheadChristianity,thoughmanystill

attendpagoda,andgiveofferingstoNeakTa(localguardianspirits),ofwhich

thereareseveralontheislandandintheriveraroundit.

ResearchingatKohSop

IchoseKohSopforanumberofreasons.InmyfirstfewmonthsinCambodiaI

visitedseveralofislandslistedasmassgravesbyDC-Cam,butwhenIasked

peopleintheareaformoreinformationtheywoulddirectmetoKohSop,telling

meitwasthelargestandmostbrutalprisoninthearea.This,itsreturnto

everydaylandusedforhousingandfarming,anditssmallsizeandlowpopulation

madeitanidealplaceforresearch:withonly93housesIcouldeasilytalktomost

families,though,ofcourse,Ispentmostofmytimewithonlyafew.

AsmallNGOrunstheisland’sschool,andaftercontactingthem,theyoffered

supportandaroomattheschool,whichmyresearchassistantandIshared

throughoutourtimethere.Theschoolanditspatronsareviewedveryfavourably

ontheisland,andbeingassociatedwiththemgavemeaccessquicklytothe

villagesandtheirinhabitants.ItaughtEnglishthreemorningsaweekfrom07:00

to10:30,andduringtheschoolsummerbreakranartsessionsforthechildren.

Duetoperceivedsecurityissuesinthevillage,wewereundercurfewandhadto

returntotheschoolbydarkness,wherewewerelockedinwiththeschool

caretakerandthetwoschooldogs,however,duringthedayIspentmostofmy

timeinthevillage.Weateourdinnereverydayatthehouseofonefamily,which

offeredawonderfulopportunityforobservingthevillage,particularlyintheinitial

stages.Italsoprovidedmyfirstkeyinformantontheisland,asOmSrey,whose

houseitwas,wouldsitandchatwithus,fillingusinonallthegossip.The

repeatedwalktoandfromOmSrey’shousealsoprovidedanidealopportunityfor

gettingtoknowpeopleandwatchingthedynamicsoftheisland.AlthoughI

remainedalmostentirelyontheisland,Ioccasionallytravelledacrosstheriverto

interviewpeopleinthevillagessurroundingit.

OtherthanOmSrey,Ispentthemajorityofmytimewiththewomenandchildren

ontheisland,notnecessarilyoutofgenderbias,butbecausetheyweretheones

whowerehomeduringtheday.OmYay,MingYay,SreySabbay,andherhusband

Bu,befriendedmeassoonasImovedtoKohSop.SreySabbayinparticular

wouldspendtimewithmeandmyresearchassistant,Phasy,andwouldgiveus

eelsshehadcaughtorfruitfromhergarden.WhenIwantedtolearnhowtofish,

itwasshewhotookthetimetoteachthisbumblingforeignertowadethelakes

totraptheeelsandcrabsthathidamongsttherootsofthefloatingplants.When

myresearchassistantandIwerelatereturningtoourroom,sheandherhusband

walkedushometomakesurewearrivedsafely.Thesewomenwouldshoutand

invitemeinasIwalkedpasttheirhouses,andifIwassittingchattinginone

person’shouse,otherswouldoftenjoinus.Mosthadlivedontheislandfor

years.SreySabbayandherhusbandBuweresomeofthefirsttoarrive,moving

therein1981whenBugotajobguardinggovernmentlandontheisland.OmYay

andOmSreyarrivedshortlyafterwards,andMingYayarrivedlastofthegroup,

cominginthelate80s.

Aswellasthesewomen,childrenwereoftenmyresearchallies.Somemight

considerthatonissuessuchasthesechildrenshouldnotbeinvolved,butthe

childrenatmyresearchsiteswerelivingtheirownversionsofthishistory,andI

foundtheirinputsometimesinteresting,oftenuseful.Theyoftentookpartinthe

interviews,encouragingtheadultstotalkopenlyaboutvariousissues.Onseveral

occasionswhenanadultwasholdingback,achildwouldpitchin:‘youshouldtell

hereverything,’or‘tellheraboutsuchandsuch.’Theadultsinvariablydid.The

fewmenIworkedwithoccurredprimarilyattheweekends.Theheadmasterof

thelocalschoolwasanimportantinformant,andIspenttimewithhimbothat

schoolandathishome.WithboththeheadmasterandthewomenIworkedwith

Icouldjoinintheebbandflowofeverydaylifeandparticipatingineveryday

activitiessuchasteaching,fishing,harvesting,preparingfoodforsaleatmarketor

ceremonies,andothercommunalactivities,encouragedtrustandenabledmeto

buildrelationshipswithkeyinformants.

Theyalsoofferedrichopportunitiesfordatacollectionasitwasduringthese

activitiesthatpeoplegossiped;Ireceivedmuchinformationonrelationshipsand

theworkingsofthevillageduringsuchencounters(asexplainedbyGluckman

(1963:308),gossipis‘theverybloodtissueof[community]life’).IfeltIhad

achievedalevelofacceptancewhenIwasacceptedinthesecircles,andafter

sometimeInoticedmypresencebeingtakenforgranted53wheninformants

stoppedalteringtheirinteractionsinmypresence;Iwasinordinatelypleased,for

example,whenoneofmyinformantsfeltcomfortableenoughinmypresenceto

53LikeOakley(2012:81),Iconsideritafallacythatanthropologistscanbecomeinvisible,althoughaftertimeandeffortourpresenceandparticipationcanbeacceptedandthentakenforgranted,offeringacertainamountofinconspicuousness.

shoutinsultsatanotherwalkingby.Throughlivingandworkingwithmy

informantsonadailybasis,participatingintheirdailyactivitiesIhadaccesstoan

‘intimacyofdetail’(LindisfarneinOkley2012:87)andthisenabledmetoexplore

howthegravesareconstituted‘intheongoingindeterminacyandfluxof…life’

(Csordas1990:40).

Thoughthesedailyencountersenabledmetomodifymypositionasacomplete

outsider,therelationshipsIdevelopedinKohSopweresometimesfractious.The

foreignerswhohadvisitedtheislandbeforemewereinvolvedwithcharitable

projects,andthisassociationremainedinthemindsofmanyofthevillagers,

particularlythoseattheheadoftheislandwhoregularlyreceivedsuchaid.Itwas

almostimpossibleformetogooutwithoutsomeoneaskingformoney,ortopay

forthings,rangingfromthemodestpurchasingofmedicine,totheextravagant

fundingofagranddaughter’suniversityeducation.Iagreedtosomeofthese

requests,suchasbuyingmedicineforfamiliesIknowareverypoor,butmostI

refused.Thisaffectedsomerelationships:althoughsomepeoplejustshrugged

offmyrefusal,othersrefusedtotalktome,someforafewdays,acoupleformy

entirefieldwork.Theseconstantapplicationsmademefeeluncomfortableand

resentful:Ifeltexploitedbythosewhoaskedforthingsrepeatedly.I

misinterpretedsomerelationships,consideringfriendshipsbeingbuilt,whilst

somepeopleviewedmeinamuchmorepracticalway.Myfeelingswerearesult

ofignorance;areflectionofmyownconstructionsof,andaspirationsfor,

relationshipsinthefield,buttheyalsoreflectedthedifferentsocio-economic

statusofKohSopcomparedtomostofmyotherfieldsites–thecommunitythere

werethepoorestIworkedamongst,manylivingonlessthan$1perday.OnceI

acceptedtheserequestsaspartandparceloflifeontheisland,relationships,

becamemucheasier.

Othersitesandparticularmethods

Thoughthosesitesweremyprimaryfield-sites,Ivisitedsixteenothermass

gravesitesacrossseveraldifferentprovinces54.Ichosemulti-sitedresearchfor

tworeasons:firstlyitprovidedameanstoexplorelinks,commonalitiesand

disjuncturesbetweendifferentsites,enablinga‘cross-fertilisationofsites’which

providedinspirationtomyethnographicperspective(Gallo2009:90;Cook,

LaidlawandMair2009:58).SecondlyIaimedtoprovideacounterbalancetothe

publicpresentationofmassgravesinCambodia,whichalmostexclusivelyfocus

ononesite:ChoeungEk,encouragingatunnelledvisionofthegravesthatthis

studyhopestohelpcounteract.AsCook,LaidlawandMair(2012:68)state‘a

validethnographicfieldneednotcorrespondtoaspatialentityofanykind,and

neednotbeaholisticentity“outthere”tobediscovered’;thefieldofthisstudy

wasconstructedthroughoutthefieldwork,dataanalysisandwriting,demarcated

bymyattemptstoexplorerelationshipsandusesofmassgravesinCambodia,

ratherthanatonespecificsite.55

54Thesesitesare:Banan,WatSamrong,WatSampeauandWatEkPhnominBattambangprovince;ChongPrasat,KhsachSa,ORusseiandKampongChhnangAirportinKampongChhnangprovince;WatKampongTralach,PhnomKampongTrachandasiteIcallPhnomGrahominKampotprovince;KohTmeiandPoTonleinKandalprovince;TuolSlenginPhnomPenh,andTonleBatiandKraingTaChaninTakeoprovince.

55Howeverthisresearchprojectisnotperipatetic.Thatisnottosaythateachsitesisexaminedasifadiscrete,boundedentity(althoughIrecogniseCandea’s(2007)argumentthatallanthropologicalresearchrequiressomeelementofbounding,butthattheseboundsarearbitraryandselectedbytheresearcher,andapplyequallytotheoreticalconsiderationsasmuchastogeographicalspaces),norisittosuggestthattheplacesandpeoplewithwhomthisresearchinteractsarecomplete,consistent,orthattheyrepresentanythingotherthanthemselvesandtheirownexperiencesandunderstandingsofmassgraves.Ratherthatwhilegatheringdatafromarangeoflocations,Isituatedmyselfinspecificlocales.WhilstChoeungEkwasselectedforits

ThesitesforthisstudywereidentifiedfromDC-Cam’s56listofmassgravesites

(appendixone)andadvicefromlocalpeopleonaccessibility,bothphysicaland

otherwise.InKampot,forexample,IwasadvisednottoresearchinAngkorChey,

anareawithalargenumberofex-KhmerRougecadre,whommylocalassistant

consideredhostiletosuchresearch.ThoughIcouldhavefoundmodesofworking

there,Ifollowedtheadviceofmyassistant,andwasabletoidentifyanothersite,

thatIcallPhnomGrahom,whichwasanideallocationforworkingwithex-cadre.

Myvisitstothesesiteswerepartlytoassesspotentialfieldsites,however,I

conductedpreliminaryresearchatall:collectingstoriesofthegraves,their

construction,people’smemoriesoftheregime,andlocaltreatmentsofthegraves

intheyearssincetheendoftheregime.Ireturnedoverthecourseofmy

fieldworktosomesites,andIspentvaryingamountsoftimesateach,thelongest

beingthreeweeksatPhnomGrahominKampotprovince.AsaKhmerRouge

settlementitprovidedanideallocationforexploringtheviewsofex-Khmer

Rougeonthegravesandthedead.

Whileethnographicresearchtraditionallybringstomindlong-term

embeddednessinonelocation,thisprojectprovidesamulti-sitedethnographyin

bothliteralandconceptualterms.Aswellasthephysicallocalities,inexamining

therelationshipbetweeninternalandexternaldiscourses57onmassgraves,the

positionasanationalmemorial,thesecondandsubsidiarysitescouldhavebeensubstitutedwithmanyothersfromacrossCambodia.56

DC-Cam(DocumentationCenterofCambodia)isaresearchorganisationbasedinPhnomPenhthatcollectsandpublishesdataandresearchontheKhmerRougeregime.TheyweresetupasthefieldbranchofYaleUniversity’sCambodianGenocideProgramin1995,butbecameindependentin1997.

57IusediscourseintheFoucauldiansensetoreferto‘systemsofthoughtscomposedofideas,

attitudes,coursesofaction,beliefsandpracticesthatsystematicallyconstructthesubjectsandtheworldsofwhichtheyspeak,’(Lessa2006:3);thediscursiverulesinwhichknowledgeisproducedandreproduced(Hook2001:523).

discoursesthemselves,whichareboth‘ultimatelymobileandmultiplysituated’

(Marcus1995:102),becameanobjectofstudy.Discoursesonmassgravesare

inevitablyglobalinthattheirimaginedmeaningsexistthroughouttheworld,

particularlyinlightofseveralfactors:filmssuchasTheKillingFields(Joffe1984),

ChoeungEk’spresenceasamajortouristsite,andtheongoingUN-backedtrialsof

theKhmerRougeleaders–theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia

(ECCC)–whichareinternationaltrialsofextremeimportanceincontemporary

internationalcriminaljusticesystems,beingthefirsthybridcourtsbroughtagainst

perpetratorsofcrimesagainsthumanity(Gray2014).58Thisthesistherefore

examinesthemulti-sitednessofbothmyresearchandthemeaningsattributedto

themasobjectsofstudy.

Myposition

AsaforeignfemaleIhadakindofliminalgenderthatenabledmetoaccessboth

menandwomen,andasaforeignerIenjoyedaleveloffreedomnotavailableto

mostKhmer.Inaddition,asanoutsidersomepeoplelikedtogossipwithme,and

fillmeinondetailsofsocialdynamics,orteachmeaboutKhmerhistoryand

culture,placingthemselvesinthepositionofculturalexperts.Thiswas

particularlyusefulformeintheinitialstages,allowingmetoseehowthese

informantswantedCambodiaandtheKhmerRougeperiodtobepresentedtoan

external,foreignaudience.Forsome,italsoofferedachancetohavetheirstory

heard;thiswasparticularlysalientinruralsites.

58Inaddition,mypresenceasanexternalresearcherinevitablytransformedthisresearchintoamulti-sitedproject,asIbecameaninterlocutorinthesociallyconstitutedlivedspaceofthemassgraves.

Themostdifficultaspectofthis,however,wastheknowledge,powerandaccess

toauthoritiesthatmanypeoplepresumedIhad.SometimesIcouldassistpeople;

helpingthemunderstandtheirprescriptionsandmedicationlabelsforexample,

orsignpostingthemtoauthoritiesandNGOswhomightbeabletohelpthem.

However,thereweremanysubjectsinwhichIwasimpotent,andwasleftfeeling

notonlyhelpless,butalsolikealetdowntothosewhohadaskedforhelp.One

youngman,forexample,askedmetopersuadethepolicetoopenan

investigationintothedeathofhisfatherwhohadbeenkilledinacarcrasha

coupleofyearsbeforeandthepolicehadrefusedtoinvestigate.Nomatterwhat

Itoldhim,hewasconvincedIcouldgetthecaseopenedandafairinvestigation

conducted.

Visualmethods

Inadditiontoparticipant-observation,attheoutsetofthisresearchIintendedto

usevisualmethodsasaprimarymodeofdatacollection,andinparticularhad

plannedtomakeacollaborativefilmbasedonparticipatorymethods.However,

onceinthefielditquicklybecameapparentthatmakingacollaborativeor

participatoryfilmwasnotappropriateineitherofmymainsites–atChoeungEk

peopleweretoobusywiththeirworkandhadlittlefreetimetobeinvolved(most

workedsixorsevendaysaweek),andatKohSop,thereexistedmanyrivalries

betweentheinhabitants.Toselectafewpeopletoworkwith(evenifthey

selectedthemselves)wouldhaveaffectedmyrelationshipswithotherpeople,a

riskIwasnotwillingtotake.

Visualmethodsdid,however,continuetofeatureinmyfieldwork.Iusedthemas

aresearchtool,astoolsofenquiry,andassocialenablersasgifts.IusedGPS

mappingtochartmyruralfieldsiteandwheregraveslieincomparisontopeople’s

houses,schoolsandplacesofworkasaninitialmeansofunderstandingthe

landscapeofthesites.Makingthismapprovedtobeagreatfacilitatorinthe

village–thoughafewpeoplewere,atfirstseemedsuspiciousofmymotivesfor

mapping,sometookituponthemselvestobemyguide,offeringadviceand

directions:thisofferedaninterestinginsightintothesightsthepeopleonthe

islanddeemednecessarytorecord,andthosetheyomitted.Ialsomapped

ChoeungEk.Themappingherehadthreefunctions:toseehowthetourist

interestsfittedaroundthegraves,toseehowthealreadyexcavatedgraveslayin

relationtotheunexcavatedones,andtoassesswhereallthemassgraveswere

situatedinrelationtotheChinesegraveswhichhadbeeninthecemeterybefore

itbecameakillingandburialsitefortheKhmerRouge.

Ifilmedsomeofeverydaylifeinthevillageatmyruralsiteasanaidememoir,59

butphotographywasmymostimportantvisualtool.Icarriedsometypeof

cameraeverywhere,andphotographybecamean‘ethnographicpassport’

(Marion2010),bothinthefieldandbeyondit,providingameansofentranceto

someinformants,facilitatingsocialrapportinthefield,andextendingbeyondthe

fieldworkintomyanalysisandresearchpresentation.Itwasparticularlyusefulas

asocialenablerinKohSop.ManyCambodianshaveacollectionofofficial

portraitsofthemselvesandtheirfamily,whichareeitherdisplayedaroundthe

home,orkeptsafelystored.Ideally,thesephotographsarestudioportraitstaken

byaprofessionalphotographer,however,thisisexpensive,andmanyofthe

59Ialsoattemptedtoorganisesomeparticipatoryvideoworkshops,however,despiteseveralefforts,noadultswereinterestedinparticipatinginthese,althoughIspentafunandfascinatingdaywithagroupofsmallchildrenusingparticipatorymethodstomakeafilmcalled‘TherevengeofNdat’inwhichamurderedwomanrisesfromthedeadtotakerevengeonherkillersbyslaughteringthem.

peopleIworkedwithcouldnotaffordit.Ithereforeorganisedafternoonsoffree

portraitshootingattheschool.Ialsophotographedvoraciouslythroughoutmy

fieldwork,andwherepossibleprintedcopiestodistribute.Thisfacilitatedmy

fieldwork,easingmyinitialcontactandsocialrapportbycreatingsocialrelations

withmyinformants.Italsogavemearolewithinthevillagebeyondresearcher

andteacherofferinganotheravenueofentrancetothesite.

Photoelicitationwasausefulresearchmethodforparticulartopics,especiallythe

displayofhumanremainsacrossthecountry.Apowerfulresearchtool,photo

elicitationhasthepotentialtoprovokevisceral,involuntarymemoriesand

embodiedexperiences(Harper2002).Thisisusefulinthisproject,mirroring,asit

does,theBuddhistmethodofunderstanding-contemplationandmeditationby

closeandrepeatedobservation,withoutdirectinterference(notwithstandingthe

effectoftheresearcher)(Klima2008).Thepublicpresentationofthedeadfrom

theKhmerRougeisdesignedtobevisuallyperformative:theirremainsarepiled

invastnumbersatsitesusedduringpoliticalcampaigningandotherceremonial

occasions(seechaptersfivetoseven).Iphotographedmemorialstupasatthe

sitesIvisitedacrossCambodia,andincertaininterviewsusedthesedisplaysto

explorethisvisualnatureofthepresentationoftheKhmerRougedead.These

providedrichinsightintoperceptionsofthebody,thedead,andtheuseofthe

deadoftheKhmerRougeforpoliticalandpersonalends.

Iusephotographsthroughoutthistexttoprovidevisualrepresentationof

elementsdiscussedandtoillustrateaspectsthatmaybeunknowntothereader.

Interviews

InadditiontothesetechniquesIconductedopen-ended,interviewswith52

individualsthroughoutmyfieldwork.SomewerewithkeyinformantswhoI

interviewedtorecordpreciselyspecificrecollections;otherswereoneoff

interviewswithpeoplepreviouslyunknowntome.Exceptinafew,sensitive

cases,allformalinterviewswererecorded,andtheinterviewstranscribedand

translatedintoEnglishforlateranalysis.Wherepeoplewereuncomfortablewith

beingrecorded,extensivenoteswerewrittenduringtheinterview,whichwere

typedupimmediatelyafterwards.60Iinterviewedpeopleatleasttwicewhere

possible:lettingthemtaketheleadinthefirstinterviewandtellmethestorythey

wantedmetohear,thengoingbackwithfollowupquestionsandspecific

enquirieslater.Withsomeofficialsonlysinglemeetingswerepossible,andfor

theseIconductedmorestructuredinterviews,withsetthemes.Iwascarefulto

firstapproachvillagechiefsorotherofficialsforpermissiontoresearchbefore

proceedingtoworkwithotherpeople.InidentifyingintervieweesIprimarilyused

thesnowballmethod,usingthesocialnetworksofinformantsalreadycontacted

toaccessotherswhocouldpotentiallycontributetothisresearch(Macketal.

2005:5).Inmanyinstancesitwastheinformantsthemselveswhoidentified

others.Sometimestheywouldcallthepersondirectorgoandcollectthemand

bringthemtometointerview.OccasionallyIknewthiswashappening;on

occasionanewpersonwouldsimplyarriveandbepresentedtometointerview.

60Mostpeoplewerehappytoberecorded;however,someex-KhmerRougewerealittlenervous.Giventhis,adecisionwasmadebeforeresearchinginPhnomGrahomnottorecordinterviewsthere,buttotranscribeinstead.

Interviewswerealmostneverone-to-oneorinprivatespaces.Usuallyconducted

outside,intheshadyareasunderpeople’shouses,orinsomecommunalspace

wherewecouldsitandescapethesun,IspentmytimeinCambodiasurrounded

bypeopleandcoveredinchildren,dogs,catsandmosquitoes.Aswetalked,

otherpeoplewouldjoinus,sometimesjustwatching,butmoreoftenthannot

interjectingandparticipatingintheinterview.Sometimesthiswashelpful:people

wereabletosupporteachother,ordebateparticularquestionsamongst

themselves,providingthought-provokinginsights.However,itoftenaddeda

performativeelementtothesituation.

AsIexperiencedincreasingencounterswithBuddhismandanimism,Isoughtout

peopletoexplaintheirunderstandingoftheconceptstomealongwithother

preceptsandpracticesthatareinfluentialinthelivesofthepeopleIlivedand

workedamongst,attemptingtoobtainthemeaningsofthesecontainedwithin

theDhamma-theuniversalteachingsofBuddha61,andthedifferencebetween

thisofficialdoctrineandthatbeingnarratedtomebylayinformants.Isoughtout

andinterviewedmonksofvaryinglevels:novicesandordainedmonksinboth

ruralandurbanpagodasandformermonkswhohadlefttheSangha(the

Buddhistmonasticcommunityofmonksandnuns).Ispentawonderfully

informativeafternoonwithaVenerableProfessoratthePreahSihanoukRaja

BuddhistUniversity,andalthoughTepVong62,thePatriarchofCambodian

LaiddownforTheravadaBuddhismintheTipitaka–thePaliCanon.

62TepVong,officiallytitledSamdechPreahAggaMahāSangharājādhipatiTepVong-ForemostGreatSupremePatriarchLeaderTepVong,isonetheJanuary7thmonks–thesevenmonksreinstatedundertheVietnameserulein1980asleadersofthere-established(althoughstilltightlycontrolled)BuddhistSanghafollowingitsdestructionundertheKhmerRouge.TepVongisasomewhatcontroversialfigure.HeremainstightlyentwinedwiththepoliticsofCambodia’srulingparty,andhas,inthepast,condonedtheuseofviolencebytheCambodiangovernment,arguingthatitisallowedunderBuddhism(Harris2001).

Buddhismwasalwaystoobusytomeetwithme,hissecretary,amonkofmany

yearsexperience,gavemetwointerviews.

InadditiontothemembersoftheSangha,Ispentmuchtimewithlay-experts:I

interviewedapoetandadvisorwithintheMinistryofCultandReligion,several

âchar(layBuddhistpriests)andacoupleoflecturersfromtheBuddhistuniversity.

IalsointerviewedseveralMuslimKhmerattheTuoltompongMosque;I

attemptedtointerviewImamsinPhnomPenh,butallappointmentswere

cancelledatthelastminutesoadūcha(teacherofIslam)spokewithmeinstead.

ToaccessotherreligionsIwasluckyinmyresearchassistants:mythreeprimary

assistants(whoeachworkedwithmeforseveralmonths)wereChristian,Muslim

andBuddhist.ThereisnotoneleaderfortheChristianfollowersinCambodia,but

IinterviewedaKhmerpriestfrommyruralsiteandSompoah,myfirstresearch

assistantwasChristian,soIalsoaccessedherknowledge.

Afterconflictmuchismadeofthe‘victims’63,andanoftensimplistic

dichotomizationofsufferingpresentedofinnocentvictimsandevilperpetrators.

Totryandavoidthis,aswellasresearchingwithpeoplewhoclassifythemselves

as‘victims’Iwasconscioustoworkwithformercadre.Thisprovedtobeeasier

thanIexpected:alevelofimpunityexistswithinCambodiathatnotonlyenables

ex-KhmerRougecadretolivefreelyinthecommunity,butalsomeansthat

severalofficialsinthecountryareex-KhmerRouge,andthatpeoplecanspeak,

63Ifindtheterm‘victim’highlyproblematic,beingsovalueloadedandinfluentialinpeople’sreactions.Themoraldichotomyimpliedbythetermsperpetratorsandvictimssuggestsadistinctionnotonlybetweenpeople,butbetweenbadandgood;guiltandinnocence;deciteandhonesty;distrustandreliability.Havingworkedinmassgraveinvestigations,IamhighlyconsciousofthefactthataftersucharegimeastheKhmerRouge,peoplequicklyre-labelthemselves,andeveryonebecomesavictimandadoptstherhetoricofsufferingthataccompaniesit.WhilstalevelofimpunityexistsinCambodiathatallowspeopletoacknowledgetheirmembershipintheregimewithlittleconsequence,mostofthepeopleIencounteredwerehighlyawareofthepoliticalnatureofpresentations.

thoughusuallyinguardedterms,abouttheirtimeasacadre(seechapterfive).I

knewbeforehandthatsomeofthepeopleIinteractedwithwereex-Khmer

Rouge;othersIfoundoutaboutlater.Somewouldtellmeimmediately,using

euphemismstodescribetheiraffiliation,rangingfromtheopaque‘Ifoughtinthe

forest,’tothetransparent‘IwasasoldierofKhieuSamphan’(Presidentduring

DemocraticKampuchea,andoneofthethreeKhmerRougeleaderstriedatthe

ExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia–theECCC).Withothersit

becameclearasinterviewsorinteractionswenton:somementionofaslogan

theywouldsing,oradiscussionoftheirworkduringtheregimewouldmakeit

cleartheyhadbeencadre.Althoughusuallyuncalculated,Ihadthedistinct

impressionthatsometimesthisuseofeuphemismsordisclosuresduring

conversationwasdonetotestme:bothmyknowledge(didIknowwhatthe

euphemismmeant?)andmyreaction(wouldIjudgetheinterviewee?).Itriednot

tojudge;thedistanceintimesincetheseeventsmadethatsomewhateasier.64

Thoughheappearsinfrequentlyinthisthesis,Iwasgrantedaccesstoconductan

interviewwithComradeDuch(KaingGuekEav):formercommandantofTuol

Slengprison,atKandalprovincialprison,whereheisservingalifesentencefor

crimesagainsthumanity,torture,andmassmurder.

Languageandtheuseofresearchassistants

Theroleofresearchassistantsisoftenobscuredinanthropologicaltexts,

obfuscatedundertermssuchasculturalmediator,keyinformant,orenablers

(MiddletonandCons2014).Borchgrevink(2004)arguesthatamythexistswithin

anthropologythat‘true’anthropologicalresearchcanonlybeobtainedbythose

64Inaddition,manyoftheex-cadreIcametoknowwereverykindandopentome:thevillageIwasmadethemostwelcomeinandatwhichIfeltthemostsecureandtheleastexploitedwasaKhmerRougere-settlementvillage.

withfluency,andwhilstmanyanthropologistsuseresearchassistants,their

obscuringistheresultofafearofcriticism.Gupta(2014:394)statesthat:

‘successfulethnographicworkdependsuponawiderangeofcollaborations,’a

centraloneofwhichisoftentheresearchassistant.Consideredcollaborations

withmyresearchassistantsenabledtheresearchIconducted.

ThelanguageofCambodiaisKhmer,alanguagederivedfromamixtureof

SanskritandPali.PriortoleavingforthefieldItookKhmerlessonsatSOAS,and

onarrivalIenrolledinanintensivecourseattheRoyalUniversityofPhnomPenh.

ForthreemonthsIwenteverymorningtotheUniversity.IalsotookKhmer

conversationallessonsonceaweekwithagroupofothernewex-pats.We

learnedthebasics,andIwouldpracticeinmydailylife.Makingadealwitha

motodrivertotakemedailytotheuniversityprovidedagreatopportunity:Bu

Motowaspatientandallowedmetopracticeonourdailycommute.Afterthis

initialphase,IcontinuedwithlessonsthroughoutmytimeinCambodia.OnceI

movedtothefieldmyresearchassistantstaughtmeaspectsofthelanguage,and

IwouldhaveformallessonswheneverIwasbackinthecapital.Manyinterviews

weretranscribedtogether,andIlearnedalotthroughthis,andofcourse,through

thedailyresearch.

ThroughoutmytimeinCambodiaIhadtwoprimaryresearchassistants,

Sompoah,agraduateofUniversityinThailand,whoIworkedwithfromJanuary–

June2013,andPhasy,agraduateoftheAsianWomen’sUniversityinBangladesh,

whoIworkedwithfromJuly–December2013.Ialsoworkedfrequentlywith

Bunnwath,whowasworkingonanundergraduatedegreeinsocialsciencesandis

himselfsomewhatofanexpertinspiritsandthedeadhavingpreviouslyworked

alongsidemycolleaguePaulChristensenresearchingspiritmediumsacrossthe

country.Inaddition,whenworkingatdifferentlocations,Iendeavouredtowork

withsomeonelocalorwithpriorconnectionstothesite,becausetheir

establishedlinksandnetworksoftrustweregreatfacilitatorsingainingaccessto

informantsandprovidinglocallyparticularknowledge.Thiswasespeciallytrue

whenworkinginPhnomGrahom,atwhichattemptingresearchwithoutalocal

gate-keeperwouldhavebeenimpossible,duetothenatureofthevillage-a

KhmerRougere-settlementvillage-andthetimingoftheresearch-justbefore

thegeneralelections,whenthehorrorsoftheKhmerRougeperiodwerehighly

visibleduetoelectioncampaigning(seechapterseven)andthreatswerebeing

madetoprosecuteallformerKhmerRougeofficers.

Iworkedcloselywithmyresearchassistants,whoweretrainedbyme,andwith

whomIhadagoodleveloftrust65.Encounterswereusuallythree-way,between

myinformants,myresearchassistant,andme.AsMiddletonandCons(2014)

note,researchassistantsaremorethan‘mereciphers’ofknowledge;theyprovide

anextrasetofeyesandearsinthefield:mylocalassistantsprovidedlocal

knowledgeandinsight,andallwereagreatresourceformetocheck

assumptions,testdata,andtocorrectandteachmeonmodesofinteraction.66In

KohSop,havingaresearchassistantwithmeatalltimesalsoprovidedanelement

ofsecurityinalocationwhereviolenceagainstwomen,includingrape,was

65Madeexplicitinamyriadofways,butmosttellingly,when,onarrivalinKohSop,Phasy,whohadbeenchattingwiththeschool’sHeadmaster,toldmethathehadtoldhernottotellmeanythingnegativethatsheover-heard:Ishouldonlybetoldthepositivestories.Phasyneveradheredtothisrequest,andnor,afterawhile,didtheHeadmaster.

66Onapurelypersonalnote,Phasy,myassistantinKohSop,alsoprovidedcompanionshipandsecurityinthesomewhatunstablelocationwewerestayingin.Shewasalsoafirst-classcockroachhunter,whichhelpednoendwhenonemanagedtocrawlunderourmosquitonettonibbleonmytoesinthenight:asIpanickedandtriedtosqueezemyselfintoacornerPhasycalmlypickeduptheroachesandtookthemoutside,whereshesquashedthem.InreturnIprotectedherfromtheoverrambunctiouspuppiesanddogsinthevillageofwhichshewascautious.

consideredathreat.Thedatacollectedforthisthesis,therefore,andthe‘field’

withinwhichIworked,emergedthroughthethree-waydynamicofmyassistants,

myinformants,andmyownencountersateachsite.Myresearchassistantsare

‘partandparcelofthesocialontologyofthefield’(ibid:282),whichwas

‘constitutedbythenetworkofconnectionsandlinkagesforgedindoingfieldwork’

(Gupta2014:399).

Anoteonwriting

Mydataanalysiswasacontinual,ongoingprocessthroughoutandpostfieldwork

because‘fieldworkiscontinuouslyanalyticincharacter,asfieldnotesarealways

productsofpriorinterpretiveandconceptualdecisions,and,hence,areripewith

meaningsandanalyticimplications’(Emerson,FretzandShaw2011:198).While

transcribinginterviewsandgoingovernotesinthefieldInoticedemerging

themes,whichhelpeddirectsubsequentresearch.Onreturningfromthefield,

andpriortowriting,Iundertookfurtheranalysisofmydata.Ire-assessedall

recordedmaterial,and,organiseditintoprimarythemes.Sometopicswere

madeapparentbykeyevents,someappearedintheminutiaeofeveryday

encounterswithinmyfieldnotes,andotherscamefromanalysisofmytranscribed

interviews.IusedNvivo67toorganisethetranscribedmaterialanddosomebasic

coding,whichwasausefulinitialorganiser,however,itcannotexplore

connectionsanddisjuncturesbetweendata,andtendstogeneraliseindividuals

andspecificencounterswhichmaybeethnographicallyvital(Emerson,Fretzand

Shaw2011:216);Iuseditprimarilytorevisitandreacquaintmyselfwiththedata,

someofwhichhadbeencollectedmorethaneighteenmonthspreviously.

67Qualitativedataanalysissoftware.

Thisdissertationisanethnographicthesis,andassuchitisacraftedstory

developedtomyownends,whereeventsaremademeaningfulthroughmy

interpretation(Geertz1973a;Emerson,FretzandShaw2011:199).Itdeveloped

outoffieldwork,whichwasasmuchembodiedasitwasinformedbynarrative,

however,beingtextual,thethesisultimatelyreliesonnarrativestructuresto

communicateitsfindings.Thispresentsatensioninthattheexperiential

elementsofstudycanlittlebepresentedthroughtherhetoricaldevicesavailable

inwriting(Atkinson1992)andmustbewrestledintosomeintelligiblestory

communicablethroughtext.Thewritingofthisthesis,therefore,isasmuchofa

methodasthefieldworkwas.

What’sinaname?

Recentworkinthesocialscienceshasquestionedthepracticeofmaking

informantsanonymous,arguingittobeaformofneo-colonialistpractice,ade-

humanisingconventionthatreducespeopletodata(AbsolonandWillett2005;

TuhiwaiSmith2012).PartoftheviolenceoftheKhmerRougeregimewasto

renderallpeopleanonymous,classifyingthemintoclasseswithnoindividual

recognition(Gray2014:66).However,Cambodiaisacountrystillrifewith

violence,notleastpoliticalviolenceagainstdissentersandmanyofmyinformants

wereafraidtotalkaboutissuestheydeemedpolitical.Therefore,whilstI

recognisetheabovearguments,Iconsidertheneedforprotectiontobe

imperativeandhavethereforefollowedtheanthropologicalconventionofonly

namingthoserequestingtobenamed.Allothershavebeenrenamedwitheither

genericnamesinplaceoftheirown(suchasLōkOm-atermofrespectusedto

addressoldermen,orBongSreymeaningoldersisterforexample),orcommon

Khmernames(suchasSoth,Samnang,orChanforexample).Othershavebeen

namedbytheirrole(Monk,Âcharandsoon).Asafurtherattempttodisguise

identities,somepeoplehavebeenmergedtocreatecompositecharacters,whilst

othershavebeensplittoproducemultiplepersons.IhavenotrenamedChoeung

Ek,however,theothersitesvisitedhavebeenretitled,andtheirlocations

obscuredasfaraspossiblewithoutcompletelyremovingintegralfeatures.

SectionTwo:DigginguptheDead

Chaptertwo:Spiritualremains-caringforthedead

IfIthinkaboutthosewhodiedintheforest,theyareintheheat,scratchingabout

everywhere.IwalkedtomanyprovinceswhereIwasevictedtofromJanuaryfirsttill

Junefirst.Isawthedeadeverywhere.Thesedeadwecollected;itisluckyforthem.

-TaTa,onthehousingofremainsinstatesponsoredstupa

********

Thedeadarevitalbeingsthatinteractwiththelivingandhelpregulatesociety

andmaintainmoralorderinpost-conflictCambodia.Hundredsofthousandsof

deadlieinthemassgravescausedbytheKhmerRouge;aswesawinprevious

chapters,themajorityoftheseremainwheretheywereburied,andthespacesof

theirdeathhavebeenre-appropriatedintoeverydaylife.Livingwiththedeadis

acceptedaspartofeverydaylifeacrossmuchofCambodia;overtimetheyhave

changedinstatusfrombeingdangerousentitiesoffeartoharmlessbeings.

Thenextthreechaptersconcernthesedead,examiningtheirtreatmentandhow

relationshipswiththemhavechanged,andexploringhowthemassdeadkilled

duringtheregimehavebeenre-integratedintosocietythroughinformalusesof

thereligiousandritualsystemsofanimismandBuddhism.Bydescribingthe

everydayinteractionsbetweenthosekilledandtheliving,thesethreechapters

willshowhow,inoppositiontothegovernment’scommodificationofthedeadas

instrumentsinstatepoliticsandthebuildingofa‘new’Cambodia,localpeople

havereintegratedthedeadintothesocialsystem,andbydoingso,havefound

theirownwaysofrememberingandre-connectingwiththem,waysthatprovide

comfort,stabilityandsecurity,andwaysthatenablethemtoresistthestate

appropriationofthedeadasnamelessentities.

TheintertwinedsystemsofBuddhismandanimismareintegralinthisre-

integrationofthedead.Thischapterexaminesthese,discussingthefeatures

withineachthatenablepeopletousethemtodaytounderstand,narrate,and

dealwiththeKhmerRougeperiodanditsongoinglegacy.Itexplainsthewaysin

whichthosekilledundertheKhmerRougeregimeare(orwere)caredfor,

examiningtheirritualtreatment,anddescribinghowthishasnowbeen

integratedintotheKhmerannualcycle.Bydoingsoitlaysthegroundworkforthe

nexttwochapterswhichexaminespecificwaysinwhichthedeadandtheliving

relatedtoeachother,andhowtheyhavebeenreincorporatedintosociallife

today,firstbylookingatthechangingrelationshipsbetweenghosts(khmouch)of

thosekilledandtheliving(chapterthree),andthenexaminingthespecific

conceptsofreincarnationandkarma(chapterfour).

Inordertodothis,thischapterwillfirstprovideabriefoverviewoftheplaceof

BuddhismandanimisminCambodia,andhowthesewereaffected(ornot)by

DemocraticKampuchea.Itwillnextdescribefuneralritesandotherrituals

relatedtothedeadthatattendtothosekilledundertheregime,before

consideringthedifferencebetweenthosekilledundertheregime,andthose

killednow.Itwillshowhowtheresponsibilityofcaringforskeletalremainsofthe

dead(whichnolongerrepresenttheindividual)hasbeendelegatedtothestate,

whilstpeoplecarefortheirrelativesspirituallythroughtheannualcycleofrituals.

BuddhismandanimismincontemporaryCambodia

SincetheThirteenthCenturythestatereligionofCambodiahasbeenTheravada

Buddhism.WhilstIammindfuloftheseductiveappealofdepictionsofitasbeing

allencompassing(eitherbeforeorafterDemocraticKampuchea),Buddhismis

significanttomanyKhmerpeople’slives,aswellastocommunitylifeingeneral.

95%ofthepopulationself-identifyasBuddhist(NIS2012),andexceptinatiny

minorityoflocations,theBuddhistpagodaisacentralelementofmostvillages

andiswheremostcommunalandcommunityeventsoccur,suchasvoting,village

meetings,ritualandfamily-basedceremonies.TheKhmerannualcalendar

revolvesaroundtheBuddhistritualcycle,andmanyofthepracticesofBuddhism

infusetheeverydaylifeoftheKhmerpopulation,eventhosefollowingother

religions.Myresearchassistant,aChveaMuslim68,recountedvisitingthepagoda

everyyearasachildatNewYearandsometimesotherritualdays.Shetoldme

thatitiscommon(inhervillageatleast),forMuslimfuneralceremoniestobe

heldonthefirst,seventhand100thday,apracticeinheritedfromBuddhism.In

KohSop,severalpeoplehadconvertedtoChristianityintheyearssince

DemocraticKampuchea:moststill,however,visitthepagodaonritualoccasions;

‘wedon’tburnincense,soit’sok’,oneofmyinformantstoldme.Anothersaid

‘theBiblesaidthatifwebelieveinGod,weareallowedtocelebrateany

ceremoniesaslongaswedonotburntheincense.’

68ManypeopleautomaticallyassumeallMuslimKhmerareCham–anethnicminorityfromSoutheastAsia,whomakeuparound1.6%oftheKhmerpopulation(NIS2008),wheninfacttheyareamixtureofChamandChveaMuslims.

Buddhismisintertwinedwithanimism;thetwoareinterdependentandcannotbe

disconnectedAsAlexandraKent(2003:12),whohasworkedextensivelyonthe

subject,explains:‘themonkssharethecosmologyoflocalpeople:an

understandingofthepathogenicimplicationsofneglectingancestorsorbreaking

codesofconduct,thepowersofthevariouskindsofspirits…’69TheNeakTa,the

guardianspiritswhoformitscore,areascentraltosocialandcommunitylifefor

manycommunitiesasthepagodasare;indeed,manypagodashaveaNeakTa

thatlooksoverthem(O'Lemmon2014).In1988AngChouléannotedthat

Buddhismwassuperimposedontoapre-existinganimistbackground,populated

byanassortmentofspiritbeings(Chouléan1988)andinexaminingtherevivalof

BuddhismafterDemocraticKampuchea,AlexandraKentexplainsthat‘thetwo

systemsoperatesymbioticallyinthepopularmilieu’(Kent2003:13).Myown

fieldworkfoundthisstilltobethecase,perhapsevenmoresonowadays.Witha

widespreaddistrustofgovernmentandstateinstitutions,therehasbeena

resurgenceofritualsfortheguardianspiritsthatweredifficulttoconductwhilst

thecountrywasstillinconflictinthe1980sand1990s(Zucker2006;O'Lemmon

2014),andnewspiritmediums(Kruboramey)andceremoniesforthemhave

beenestablished(Christensen2014).Formanyofmyinformants,attending

pagodaandengaginginBuddhistpracticeswasimportantonparticularritual

occasions(suchasNewYearandPchumBenh)70,however,moreimportantin

theireverydayliveswasmaintainingpositiverelationshipswiththelocalNeakTa;

ascustodiansofthelandandwateritistheywhoinfluencethewell-beingand

stabilityofeverydaylife.

Thetwosystemsaresointertwinedthattermsusedtoaddresstheeldersineachareidentical–LōkTaforexample,isaformofaddressusedtorefertoVenerablemonks;itisalsothetermusedtonamemanyofthetutelaryspirits(alsoknownasNeakTa).

70Theseceremonieswillbediscussedlaterinthischapter.

DuringtheKhmerRougeregime,an(almostsuccessful)attemptwasmadeto

eradicateBuddhism.Viewedasaforeigncorruption,whoseleaderswerehighly

influentialintheircommunities,andvocalintheirpoliticalaffiliations,itposeda

threattotheneworder(Harris2001)andtheKhmerRougemadeeveryeffortto

dismantleit.Monksweredisrobed,exiled,orkilled,andpagodasappropriatedas

holdingandkillingsites.Ritualswereforbidden,Buddhisticonsdestroyed71and

peoplefoundpracticingBuddhism,oranysemblanceofit,wereexecutedfor

disobeyingÂngkar.

Perhapsbecauseitisnotentrenchedininstitutions,butsituatedinthelandscape

itself,animismsufferednosuchpersecution.72Althoughritualswereforbidden

(andasaconsequenceafewNeakTagrewhungryanddied),animismwas

tolerated.SomeKhmerRougecadrecontinuedtoseekadvicefromspirit

mediums73andprotectionfromtheNeakTa.Sometimesthistooktheformof

humansacrifices:inhermemoir,SithaNaorecallsalocalKrubeingcalledonfor

adviceaboutbuildingadam–withnoconstructionexperts,thedamkept

collapsing,andmanypeoplediedduringitsconstruction.TheKrudetermined

HeadswerechoppedoffstatuesoftheBuddha,andotherssmashedinreligioussitesacrossthecountry.Theremnantsremaininmanylocationsandhavebecomeobjectsofworshiponceagainused;theheadlessremainseerieremindersoftheattempttodestroyoldCambodia.

72AlthoughnowadaysitisheavilyimplicatedinpoliticalaffairswiththeKingandimportantpoliticiansconsultingKru(spiritmediums)toconsulttheNeakTaonaffairsofstateaswellaspersonalmatters.

73SpiritmediumshavemanynamesinCambodia.Theover-archingtermforallmediumsisKruboramey;Krutranslatestomaster/teacher,andborameyreferstothespiritualpowerpāramī(boramey)thattheyaccess.AKrucanbeateacher,amedium,aswellasthespiritthatpossessesaparticularmedium.ThetypeofmediummyinformantsusuallyspokeaboutwereKrujoalrūb–joalrūbtranslatesas‘entersthebody;’thesemediumsarepossessedbyspecificNeakTawhopassknowledgefromthespiritworldontotheirmediums.Becauseofthat,KrujoalrūbareusuallyalsoKruNeakTa.Theyshouldnot,however,beconfusedwithKruKhmer(traditionalhealers)orKruTiey(astrologers/fortunetellers)neitherofwhichusuallyaccessthespirits.PaulChristensen,whoworksonKhmermediumsalsocameacrossothertypesofKru,includingKrukhmouch,KruarakandKrubeysat,allofwhichaccessthespiritsbutarenotpossessedbythem(Christensen2015),however,myinformantsneverspokeofthese.

thattheNeakTa(acrocodilespirit)owningtheriverrequiredthesacrificeof

threepregnantwomen:threewereselectedandthrowntotheirdeathsamongst

thecrocodiles(Nao2013:84-86).Inherethnographyofthere-orderingofmoral

lifeincontemporaryCambodia,EveZucker(2013)reportspeoplebeingburiedin

thefoundationsofadaminKampongSpeuforsimilarreasons.CadreI

interviewedtalkedaboutaskingthelocalNeakTaforprotectionandreceiving

medicinesandamuletsfromthelocalKru–severalexplainedthisiswhytheyhad

survivedinthejungleforsolong.ManyoftheNeakTasurvivedbecauseofthis

patronage,butalsobecausethereisnowaytodestroythem:theyown(andare

partof)theland,mountains,riversandoceans,andrepresentnoexternal

authority.

Aspreviouslymentioned,theanthropologicalrecordshowsusthatthedeadare

usuallyre-integratedintothelivesofthelivingthroughstructuredritualsofdeath

andmourning.ThebanningofritualsandotherBuddhistpracticescouldbe

assumedtohavecausedmuchdistresstothosesurvivingtheKhmerRouge,

particularlybecauseofthehugenumbersofdeadleftaroundthecountry.Inhis

classicstudyontheritesofpassage,vanGennep(1960[1908]:160)statesthat

thosedeadwhohavenothaveappropriateritualsconductedforthemare

miserable:

Likechildrenwhohavenotbeenbaptised,named,orinitiated,personsforwhom

funeralritesarenotperformedarecondemnedtoapitiableexistence,sincethey

areneverabletoentertheworldofthedeadortobeincorporatedintothe

societyestablishedthere.Thesearethemostdangerousdead.Theywouldlike

tobereincorporatedintotheworldoftheliving,andsincetheycannotbe,they

actlikehostilestrangerstowardsit.Theylackthemeansofsubsistencewhich

theotherdeadfindintheirownworldandconsequentlymustobtainthematthe

expenseoftheliving.

Ritualsarecatalystsofprocessesthatenablethere-imaginingofsocialnetworks

andre-establishmentofstabilityfollowingtherupturethatdeathcauses(Rosaldo

1989).Theyareusedtoensurecontinuityinsocialsystemsthroughmanaging

processesthatremakekinship,reconfigurehierarchiesandestablishneworder.

Periodsofwar,orothersocialcatastrophessuchasdisastercausedeathsoutside

thesesocialsystems,producing‘unhappydead’;beingsstuckin‘perpetual

liminality’(vanGennep1960[1908])whoareforcedtoexistincontinualsuffering

becausetheycannotmoveontotheircorrectplaneofexistence.Itisonlywith

properritualcarethattheirsufferingcanbealleviated.InVietnam,followingthe

massacresatMyLaiandHaMy,forexample,manylivingpeoplesufferedpain

andshamebecausetheyhadbeenunabletocarefortheirdeadrelatives

properly:thosekilledwereinitiallyburiedinmassgravesinfarmland,and

followingtheendofthewar,werehastilyreburiedintheforestsandsanddunes,

becausetheancestralfamilyburialgroundsweredestroyedduringtheconflict

(Kwon2006:47-50).ForothersurvivorsoftheVietnamWar,theburialof

relativesinwar-heromonumentscausedon-goinganguishtotheliving,because,

beinginstatesponsoredtombsofmartyrs;theywereunabletofulfilltheir

obligationstothedeadbyfeedingthem(Kwon2008b).InEastTimor,theforcible

relocationofpeoplefollowingthemilitaryinvasionbyIndonesiain1975meant

thatpeoplewereunabletoattendproperlytothespiritswhoresideinthe

landscape.Inadditiontheyearsofcivilconflictensuingthereafterresultedin

hugenumbersofdeadwhocouldnotbeproperlyburied.Thisledtoalandscape

ofdanger–filledwithaspiritualpotencyknownaslulik.Afterbeingableto

returntotheirhomelandsinthe1990s,peoplewereeagertore-establishpositive

relationshipswiththelandspiritstoprovideprotectionfromthosespirits

saturatingthelandscapeandincreasingthedangeroflulik(Bovensiepen2009).

Thegrievousdead

Thisisbecausethosewhodieinsuchviolentcircumstancesusuallybecome

grievousdead.Thegrievousdeadarethecauseofmuchsocialunrest.Their

liminalstatuscausesthemtointerjectintothelivesoftheliving,sometimesin

extremelydisruptiveways:bringingbadfortune,illness,evendeath.InAfterthe

Massacre(2006),Kwondescribesthespiritsofpeoplewhohavesuffereda

‘grievousdeath’inVietnam,asbeing‘stuck’:asghostsnotspirits;betweenthe

insidedominionofthehouseortombandtheoutsidedomainofthestreetorthe

world;betweenthisworldandthenext.Thisisparticularlythecaseforthose

buriedenmasse,thephysicalconfusionofwhichtrapsthedead.Theunhappy

ghostsaresourcesofstressforthelocalpeople–survivorssufferguiltandshame

intheempathyandshametheyfeelattheirimproperburialandunhappystateof

thedead.Onepersoncommented(Kwon2006:121):

That’snotaproperlife;that’snotalifeatall….Onceinawhile,particularlythe

firstlunarmonth,theshamecamebackandinducedterriblepaininme.’

Inordertofreethesedeadfromtheirsuffering,peopleacrossVietnamstartedto

reburythem;atHaMyandMyLai,movingthemfromhastilydugmassgravesto

communalburials74,andinotherlocationsacrossVietnamfromthemassive

74Wherethose‘grievousdead’aretheresultofamassacre(asoccurredinHaMyandMyLai)reburialisoftentoacommunalmemorialsite,however,unlikeincaseswhereacollectivememorialsiteservestoprovidecollectiveidentity(particularlyofvictimhood)thatmaybe

heroescemeteriestoindividualfamilytombs.Thesemovementsfreedthedead

becausetheyprovidedaproperburial,andenabledthelivingtogivepropercare

andattentiontothedeadinawaythatwasnotpossibleineithermassgravesor

thestatewarmemorials.InThailand,annualritualsbyChineseimmigrant

populationsdedicatedtorelieving‘restlessghosts’–thosespiritsofthe

‘unfortunatedead’(Formoso1996:218)-arecommonplace,andboththe

immigrantChineseandlocalThaipopulationstakepart.75Ifnotlaidtorest,the

unfortunatedead‘becomerestlessghostswhohauntthehumanworldand

threatenthesocialorderaswellasindividual’(ibid:220).Thisparallelsthecase

inTimorLeste,wheremanyofthespiritsofthosewhokilledinconflictswith

Indonesiaremainrestlessintheland,particularlywheretheywerenotproperly

buried(Bovensiepen2009:336).Insomecasesthedeadarelonely,inothers

hungry,inothersvindictiveandangry,andseekingrevenge.

InCambodiatheunhappydead(khmouchdtaihong–literallymeaningcorpsesof

violence)arethosewhohavediedunexpectedly,usuallyintragiccircumstances

forwhichneitherthey,northeirlovedones,wereprepared:acarcrashora

murderforexample.Theseareliabletobecomeeithermalevolentspiritsof

mischiefandmayhem(preay),whodisruptthesocialorderandcauseproblemsto

bothindividualsandgroups,orghosts(khmouch)whoaretrappedwaitingfor

theirrebirth(Chouléan1988).Thesespirits,accordingtoAngChouléan,canbe

calmed,butarerarelycompletelyplacated,andannualceremoniesarerequired

welcomedbyrelatives,friends,andotherinterestedparites(PotočariinBosnia-Herzegovinaforexample),inVietnamthecommunalsiteservedapurelystatefunctionthatstoodincontestationtoeverydaypeople’sneedsanddesires.

75AlthoughFormosoarguesthatsomeThaipeopletakepartinordertoweighdowntheimmigrantChinesepopulationwiththemalevolentghostsoftheirunfortunatedead.!

tomanagethem,preventingtheminterferinginpeople’slives,causingillness,

misfortuneandevendeathinextremecases.

OnewouldexpectthedeadfromtheKhmerRougetofallintothiscategory.

Thoseexecutedortorturedsufferedsuddenandviolentdeaths.Althoughthe

deathsofthosedyingofdiseaseand/orstarvationwereoftenslowand

torturous,theytoodied‘khmouchchikkei’(likedogs-literallytranslatedas‘dead

dogs)-withoutceremony.Indeed,someresearchershaveassertedthatthe

spiritsofthosewhodiedduringtheregimefallintosuchcategories,andare

thereforefrighteningandthreateningentitiestolivingKhmer.RachelHughes

(2005:276),whoundertookresearchatChoeungEk,declaredthat:

Incasesofviolentoraccidentaldeathitiswidelybelievedthatthespiritofthe

deceasedremainsintheplaceofdeathasaspiritorghost,insteadofmovingon

totherealmofre-birth.Ghostsmayharmthelivingbycausinggreatsickness

andmisfortune.Inlightofthisbelief,manyCambodiansconsiderChoeungEka

highlydangerousplaceandrefusetovisittheMemorial.

ThisassertionpresumesthatthedeadofthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRouge

regimeareviewedinthesameway,andhavethesamepowers,asthosewhodie

now,andarethereforesubjecttothesameemotions,actions,andrituals,

becausethesedeadhaveremainedstaticintheirdispositionandidentity.

However,thisisnotthecase;whilstthedeadwereinitiallyfrightenedand

threateningtotheliving,therelationshipshavechangedovertimeandtheyhave

longsincebeenpowerless,orhavemovedontotheirnextlives(seechapters

threeandfour).TounderstandrelationshipswiththeKhmerRougedead,we

mustfirstexaminethedifferencebetweenthemandthosewhohaverecently

died,becauseitisinthesedistinctionswheretheiremploymentasentitiesof

politicalpowerandsocialactionbecomespossible.Thisisbestintroducedwitha

shortstoryfrommyfieldwork.

WhenIhadbeeninthecountryaboutsixmonths,Soth,afriend’scolleague,went

missingfromPhnomPenh.Heavilyindebt,peopleatfirstpresumedhehadrun

awayorevenkilledhimself,toavoidtheloansharkstowhomheowedalarge

amountofmoney.Whenhisbodywasdiscoveredacoupleofdayslaterit

becameclearthathehadbeenmurdered.Hisfamily,havinglittlemoneytopay

foraninvestigation76andthereforenolegalrequirementtokeepthebody,had

himcrematedonthedayhewasfound.WhenIaskedwhythecremationhad

takenplacesoquickly,myfriendtoldmethattheywereafraidofthe

consequencesofallowinghisspirittowanderbecausehewaskhmouchdtaihong,

andthereforeliabletobecomeadangerousspiritthatcouldharmthefamily.

UsuallysevendaysofritualsfollowthedeathofapersoninCambodia.

Sometimesthisperiodmaybeextended(particularlyinthecaseofprestigious

andpowerfulpeople),butthroughoutit,thecorpseisverycarefullycaredforand

particularritualsconductedtofreethespiritfromthecorpseandenableitto

moveontoitsnextlife,whichoccursontheseventhdaywhenthecorpseis

76ThepoliceforceinCambodiaishighlycorrupt.Unlessthereisahighlevelofinternationalinterest,investigationsoftenonlyoccurifthefamilyorotherinterestedpartiescanpay.Themoremoneygiven,thebetterqualityinvestigationisconducted(oratleastthemorefindingsoccur).Oneofmyinformantstoldmethatthelowestamountofmoneyacceptedis$50,butusuallythepoliceexpectmore.Inacountrywheretheminimumwagewas$76pcmwhenIwasthere,thisiscompletelyunaffordable,andmanycrimes,evenextremelyviolentcrimesgouninvestigated.Forexample,threeyearsbeforeIarrivedinmyvillage,aseven-year-oldgirlwasraped.Sheknewtheteenagerswhorapedher,buthermothercouldnotaffordtopaythepolicetocomeandinvestigate.Sheborrowed$100andattemptedtosuethefamilywhosesonwasinvolved,however,theyrefusedtogotothecourt.Onapproachingthevillageanddistrictchiefstheytoldhertherewasnothingtheycoulddo.Threeyearsonsheisstillpayingoffthedebt,andherdaughterhastoliveontheislandwiththeboyswhorapedher.Unfortunatelythisisnotanuncommontypeofstory.

appropriatelydisposedof–usuallyviacremation(Davis2009).Intheseven-day

periodbetweendeathanddisposal,thespiritposesathreatbecauseitdoesnot

realiseitisdead,andthereforemaytrytoreturntoitshomeandfamily.The

strictritualspreventthisthreatbeingplayedout.Ifsomeonediessuddenlyina

violentmanner,however,theirspiritisnotonlyconfused,butthereisthe

additionalriskthatthespiritmaybecomeapreayorotherkindofmalevolent

spiritthatstaysclosetotheliving.Inthiscase,itispreferabletocremateorbury

thepersonassoonaspossible,andconducttheritualsafterthecremation,so

thatthespiritcanmovequicklyawayfromthefamilyandhousehold.WhenSoth

wasfoundtohavebeenmurdered,thefamilywasafraidhisspiritwouldposea

threattothem;theythereforehadhimcrematedassoonastheycould,whilststill

performingtheritualsthatwouldnormallybeundertakenoverthesevendaysin

ordertoprovideproperritualcare.

ThedeadfromtheKhmerRouge,however,areadifferentstory.Althoughmost

diedviolently-khmouchdtaihong–andwithoutproperceremony-khmouch

chikkei-theyaresolongdeadthattheylongagobecamepowerless:theyaresap

(literallytasteless)-powerless,andunabletohaunt.Arecentlydeceasedspirit

onlyremainsdangeroustothefamilyandhouseholdinthesevendaysfollowing

itsdeath,intheperiodwhenitdoesnotrealiseitisdeadandthereforetriesto

comehome.77Aswewillseeinchapterthree,mostofthosewhodiedunderthe

KhmerRougedidnotbecomemalevolentspirits,andalthoughsomewere

disruptiveintheyearsimmediatelyaftertheregime,theyweresoonreintegrated

intoreciprocalrelationshipswiththeliving,andhavelongsincebecome

77Arecenttrend,particularlyinNorthernCambodia,istheconstructionofscarecrowstofrightenawaybadspirits.Thesescarecrowsareprimarilyforbadspiritswhoexistinthelandscape,however,theycanalsobeusedasanextrapreventativemeasureinthesevendaysafterdeathtoprotectahouseorvillage.

powerlessordiedandbeenreborn.TheincredulityofmyinformantswheneverI

askedaboutthedangersoftheKhmerRougedeadwasobvious;oneexplained:

‘I’mscaredofthepeoplewhodienow.Bones(ch-ang)havebeendeadforalong

time.I’mnotscaredofthem.Butkhmouch78justdied.Theothersarebones-

whyshouldwebescaredofthem?’ThisispartlybecausethedeadoftheKhmer

Rougewerenotconsideredinthesamewayascontemporarydead,butmorelike

NeakTaintheirinhabitationofthelandscapeandreciprocalrelationswiththe

living,andpartlybecauseoftheflexiblenatureofKhmerBuddhism,which

enabledritualstoresurgeandreformtodealwiththerupturesoftheKhmer

Rougeregimeafteritsdemise.

TheravadaBuddhismallowsfuneralritestobeconductedwithoutthecorporeal

presenceofthecorpse,andtherearefouracceptablemodesofdisposalofthe

dead:abandonmentintheforest,abandonmentinwater,cremation,andburial

(Davis2009:80).79Whilstcremationandburialarepreferredincontemporary

Cambodia(cremationbyKhmerSot:pureKhmer,burialbyKhmer-Chen:Khmer-

Chinese),theotherformsremainvalidwherenecessary.Thedeadofthemass

graves,manyofwhomarewithinforestsand/orwater(manybodieswere

dumpedinwells,ponds,orirrigationcanals),arenotnecessarilytrappedin

inappropriateburials.Therewas,therefore,notthesameurgencytolocatethe

deadasinVietnamorEastTimorfollowingtheirconflicts,andnoneedtorebury

thedead.

Seechapterthreefordiscussionsonkhmouch.

79ReadersseekingamoredetaileddescriptionandanalysisoffuneralritesincontemporaryCambodiashouldrefertoErikDavis’s(2009)thesis,TreasuresoftheBuddha:ImaginingDeathandLifeinContemporaryCambodia.

CareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRouge

Duringtheregimeformalritualsforthedeadwereimpossible.Evenimmediately

aftertheregimeduringthePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea(PRK)although

attentionwaspaidtore-establishingpagodas,Buddhismwasstillstrictly

controlled.Thenumbersofmonkswerelimited80andfewformalceremonies

occurred.Thesevenmonksreordainedintheperiodimmediatelyafterthe

regime’sdemisetoleadKhmerBuddhismwerethosewithallegiancestoVietnam,

andalthoughsomemonksreturnedtoCambodia,novitiateswerebanneduntil

thelate1980s.Althoughthedeadcausedsomedisturbanceinpost-DK

Cambodia,nostate-ledritualswereconducted,andwhileafewinformal,local

ceremonieswereorganised,inthemajorityoflocationsnoneoccurred.Astime

movedon,thedeadbecamecalmer,andtheirrelationshipswiththeliving

changed.NowadayscareforthephysicalremainsofthosekilledundertheKhmer

Rougehasbeendevolvedtothestate,andspiritualcarehasbeensubsumedinto

theBuddhistannualritualcalendar.

Careforthephysicalremains

Aswesawinchaptersoneandtwo,intheyearsimmediatelyfollowingthe

regime,manyoftheskeletalremainsscatteredacrossthesurfaceofthefieldsand

forestswerecollected,andsomemassgravesexcavated.Onceamassed,the

skeletalremains(khmouchcha’ang;literallythebonesofthedead)werehoused

inwoodenp’teahkhmouch–housesforthedeadbuiltundertheordersofthe

Forexample,nomalesundertheageoffiftycouldapplytobeordained,andqualificationsfromoutsideCambodiawerenotacceptedasproofofBuddhistlearning,thuslimitingthenumberofpeoplewhocouldbecomemonks.IanHarrisarguesthattheserestrictionswereinordertomaximiseproductionforcesinpost-DKCambodia(Harris2008:194).

PRK.Thesecabin-likestructuresheldtheremainsformanyyears,andwhilst

manyhavenowbeenabandonedanddismantled,insomesites(suchasKohSop),

theyremainasevidenceofthepresenceofkillingfieldsatthesite.

AfterVietnamwithdrewfromCambodiain1989,thep’teahkhmouchwere

neglectedandabandoned;stateofficialsnolongermaintainedthem,andthey

heldlittleresonanceforpeopleinthelocalcommunities.AnneYvonneGuillou,

theonlyanthropologisttodoworkfocusingspecificallyonthedeadoftheKhmer

Rouge,statesthat‘thesememorialswereseenasstate-sponsored

commemorationdevicesandassuch[people]didnotfeelconcernedbythem’

(Guillou2012a:12).IntheareasIvisited,peoplesaiditwasnottheirbusinessto

lookafterthembecausethedeadwithinthem‘arenotourdead’(thisview

relatesnowadaystothecremationoftheremains,asdiscussedbelow).Thehuts

wereneglected,andfloods,animals,andtime,destroyedthebonesmany

contained.Followingacoupin1997,inwhichHunSen(thecurrentPrime

Minister)tookcontrolofCambodia,thepoliticalimportanceoftheremainswas

reinstated(seechaptersfive–seven),andthoseremainingweremovedfromthe

remoterurallocationstonewlybuiltconcretestupahousedwithpagoda

complexesinmoreeasilyaccessibleareas,oftengeographicallycloseorpolitically

affiliatedtoadistrictoffice.81

Oneoftheconcernsofthedeadisthetreatmentoftheirremains,andthisoften

relatestothelonelinesstheyfeelwhentheyarenotembracedwithinthefamily

orpagodacomplex.Althoughstate-ledformalritualswerenotconducted,and

81Theremainswereoftencollatedfromp’teahkhmouchinseveraldifferentareas,althoughoccasionallysomanyremainsexistedthatseveralpagodascouldcollectremains.InKohSop,theremainsweresplitbetweenthreepagodas,althoughthepagodawheredistricteventsareheldreceivedthemajorityofthebones.

evenlocal,informaloneswererare,collectingthedeadandstoringthemtogether

enabledthemtobecaredfor,andtoberemovedfromthelonelinessand

sufferingthatthoseleftinthewildendured.

IntheliteratureonCambodiamuchismadeofthedistinctionbetweentheforest

[prei]andthetown[srok]assymbolsoftwodifferentperceptionsofmoralorder

(Davis2008;Lim2013;Zucker2013).BeforeIleftforthefieldIwashighly

dubiousthatthisdichotomywassoapparent:itseemedtoostructured,tooneat,

toodichotomous.EvenafterIhadbeeninthecountryforsometime,itseemed

anexaggeration.However,whenpeoplestartedtotalktomeaboutthedead

fromtheKhmerRouge,theydidindeedusetheselocationstosymbolisecontrol

andorderforthem.‘AftertheKhmerRouge,’Yaytoldme,‘lotsofthem[the

dead]werelostintheforest.’

Whilesrokrepresentsdomestic,controlled,andcivil,theforestrepresents

wildness,destructionanddisorder.Itis‘allthatischaotic,barbarian,untamed

andlawless’(Zucker2013:114).Theforestisusedtodescribethingsoutside

propercontrolandsocialorder-theKhmerRouge,forexample,wholivedand

fought‘intheforest.’82Inadditiontheforestistheplaceforthedead,particularly

thosewhohadunhappydeaths,ordidnotreceiveappropriatecare.Theforestis

frighteningforthelivingbecauseofitswildness,andbecauseofthisareasofland

thathadbeenkillingfields,andthereforeheldmanyghostswerecalledPrei

khmouch(forestofthedead,orforestofghosts)bysomeofmyinformants.

82ThiswasaeuphemismmanycadreusedwhenIfirstknewthemtoindicatetheirmembershipwiththeparty.

Forthedead,therefore,whowerelostintheforest,lifewasfrightening,and

lonely,myinformantstoldme.Beingcollectedandcontainedwithinp’teah

khmouchprovidedawayofbringingthedeadinfromthewildandbackintothe

embraceofthestate.Thisrelateseventotheirdisplayinstupaintouristsites.

Yayyaytoldmethatbeingsomewherewithsomanypeoplealleviatestheir

loneliness,andbringsthembackintosociallife:

[beingondisplay]doesn’tbotherthem.Thereshouldbepeoplearoundtocalm

themdownratherthan leavingthemintheforest…. ithelpsa littlebittohave

peoplearound,haveelectricity,andbecrowded.Itislikereducing10%oftheir

loneliness.

Althoughmostofmyinformantsacknowledgedthepoliticalmotivationsbehind

themovementoftheremainsinthe1990s,theyconsideredthenewlybuiltstupa

tobeappropriateplacesforthedead.Whentheywereinwoodenp’teah

khmouchcowsandotheranimalsscavengedthebonesandweatherdegraded

them.OmTa,acaretakerwhoworksatChoeungEkfeltthattheconcretestupais

amuchbetterplaceforthedead:

It’sbetterthanbeforewhenweonlyhadawoodenbuilding.Nowwehavea

properplacewithshelvestostorethemon,andwecleantheskeletonsfromtime

totime.Beforeweonlyhadawoodenbuildinglikeanoldschoolbuildingand

theywerepiledupontopofeachother.Someofthemfelldown,andthedogs

wouldchewandcarrythebonesaround.Nowwehaveabetterplacetostore

them,whichreallyshowsrespecttothedead.

Inadditiontobeingpreferabletothefrangiblewoodenstructures,theconcrete

stupaalsoreplicatethecheddeithatmostremainsarekeptinfollowing

cremation.Cheddeiarestupabuiltspecificallytohousethecremainsofthedead.

Mostlybuiltbyfamilymembers,theyareusuallyconstructedwithinpagoda

complexes(becauseitisthemonkswhobestcontrolthedead(Davis2009)),

however,somepeoplehavethembuiltathome.Whilstinanidealscenariothe

remainsofeachindividualhastheirowncheddei,thisisonlyarealityfor

wealthierKhmer.Formany,thecostofthefuneralitselfiscrippling,andthe

buildingofacheddei(whichcancostseveralthousanddollars)beyondtheir

means.Becauseofthis,manypagodashaveacommunalstupa83fortheremains

ofthepoor.InseveralpagodasIvisitedthiscommunalstupaalsohousesthe

remainsofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougethuscaringforallofthosewhose

familiescannot(seefiguresix).

Figuresix:KhmerRougeremainsandurnsofthepoorattwodifferentpagoda(source:theauthor)

83Communalstupaareoftenpaidforbywealthypeopleasameansofgainingmerittoaccumulatekarma.

AsamonkIspentseveralhoursinterviewingonBuddhistpracticesandteachings

explainedtome,evenwhenusedastouristattractions,suchasatChoeungEk,

stupaprovideappropriatestorageforthedead:

Youcansaythatbonesaredisplayed[inthesestupa].However,bonesarekept

inurnssothatfamilycanlookaftertheirparentsorrelative’sbone.Somebones

areputintheurnandkeptinthepagodaandsomebonesareputintheurnand

keptinastupainfrontofpeople’shomes.ThesebonesarekeptatChoeungEk

becausetheydonothaveanyrelatives,sotheyputthemallatoneplacesothat

otherpeoplewhocouldnotfindtheirrelativeswillcelebratebangskolandpass

themerittothosedeadpeople.

HisstatementhighlightsanotherimportantaspectofthecareoftheKhmerRouge

dead;thattheyarekeptincommunalstupabecausethey‘donothaverelatives.’

Bythishedoesnotmeanthatliterallynokinremains(althoughthisisthecasefor

some),butthatitisimpossibletodistinguishonesetofremainsfromanotherand

thatitcannotbeascertainedforcertainwhoserelativeseachsetofremainsis.It

isthereforepreferablethattheyremaininonelocationwhereanyonewhowants

tovisitcanaccessthem,thanbedistributedincorrectly.

Thisalsorelatestocremationoftheremains.Althoughcremationisthemost

commonmodeofcorpsedisposalinCambodia,itisnottheonlymeans,anditis

deemedunnecessary(andevendetrimental)fortheremainsoftheKhmerRouge

dead.Firstly,thedeadwhosebonestheyarehavealreadybeenreincarnatedinto

theirnextlife(seechapterfour).Assuchalthoughmaterialremnantsofthe

person,skeletalremainsarenolongerconnectedtothem;‘thosewhodiedcanbe

comparedtoapieceofwood,whichisworthless,’SreySreytoldme.Theiruseby

thegovernmentasmaterialsymbolsoftheregimeisthereforeacceptable,even

tothosewhoconsidertheirrelativestobeamongstthosedisplayed(seechapter

six).Secondly,cremationisarituallycontrolledactarrangedbyrelativesofthose

whohavedied.Oneofitspurposesistoreducethebodytoastateinwhichitcan

becollectedandstoredbytheliving(eitherathomeoratapagoda);‘wecremate

ourparentssothatwecanpickupsomebonesandkeepthem,’themonk

explained.84Thisisbothamarkerofrespecttothedead,butalsoholdssome

purpose:oncecrematedtheremainsareconsideredtoholdsomeaspectof

powerthatenablesprotectiontobegiventolivingkin(providedthedeadare

respectedwithofferingsonritualoccasions).Asthemonktoldme,thebonesleft

bytheKhmerRouge‘havenorelatives’;theyaremuddled,andwhilethisdoes

notcausedistresstoeitherthelivingorthedead,itdoesmeanthatcremationis

asimpossibleasitisunnecessary;‘Wedon’tknowthem.Wedon’tknowwhose

uncles,aunties,orrelativestheseare,’OmYaysaidwhenIaskedaboutit.YayDa,

whowaswithusaswewereconversing,elaborated:

Whenweseetheboneswedon’tknowwhichbonesaremyrelativesandwhich

onesarenot….Theydidn’tburnthebonesbecausenormallywhenwecremate

thebonestherehastobeafamilymembertorepresenteachfamilyandtakethe

ashtoputinanurnforrespect.However,inthiscasewedon’tknowwhich

bonesbelongtowhom.

Tocrematetheremains,therefore,wouldnotonlybeunnecessary(becausethe

deadhavebeenreincarnatedandtheirbonesarelikewood),butalsoimpossible

becausenobodyknowswhichremainsbelongtowhom.Thisrelatestotheearlier

FollowingKingFatherSihanouk’scremationinFebruary2013,thecurrentKing(NorodomSihamoni)andhismothersiftedthroughthecremainstoremovepiecesofbone:thiswasbroadcastacrossallTVstations,asthefuneralwastheonlythingbeingshownonKhmertelevisionthatevening.

pointmadethatthedeadare‘notourdead.’Notonlydotheyholdnoritual

responsibilityforthem,butneithercantheyassumethisresponsibility;itisseen

asastateissue,andthereforeconsideredbetterthatthegovernmenttakescare

oftheminthecommunalstupas,whereatleasttwiceannually(atPchumBenh

andNewYear)theyreceivevisitorsandofferingsandhavemeritpassedtothem.

Annualritualcare

OfparticularimportanceinthecareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougeare

PchumBenh-theannualfestivalforthedead,KhmerNewYear,andforChinese-

Khmer,thegrave-sweepingfestivalofChengMeng.Whilstcorporealremains

soonbecamepowerlessandrelativelyunimportanttomostpeople,thespiritsof

thosewhodiedneededcarefulcareandconsideration.Themostimportant

aspectinthecareofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougeisthepassingofmerit

fromthelivingtothedead.Thisenablesthedeadtoaccumulatekarma,which

willhelptheirnextreincarnation.PchumBenh,NewYearandChengMengall

enablemerittobesenttothedeadcollectively,andbecausetheyadequately

careforthedead,thereisnoneedforindividualfunerals,specialistceremonies,

orotherspecificactionsrelatedtothosekilledundertheregime.

PchumBenh,afifteendayritualheldannuallyinSeptemberorOctober(according

tothelunarcalendar),enablespeopletomakeofferingstosevengenerationof

deadkintolessentheir(thedead’s)suffering.JamesCliffordHoltarguesthat

PchumBenhisthemostimportantandpopularritualincontemporaryCambodia;

itis,hewrites,‘amajorcelebrationofthefamilyonanationalscale,and

somethingofacelebrationofthenationonafamilyscale’(Holt2012:12).Itis

becauseoftheturbulentdecadesofconflictandunrest,heargues,thatthisritual

hasbecomesoimportant.85PchumBenhisacollectiveritualdirectedtoany

whosedeathwas‘undesirable’(i.e.whodidnothaveapeacefuldeatheither

physicallyormorally);assuch,itincludesallowancesforthosewhodiedduring

DemocraticKampuchea.

Figureseven:depictionofPchumBenhatWatKampongTralach(source:theauthor)

Duringthefifteendays,preta(hungryghosts–thosewhohavediedinviolentand

unpredictedmanners),whohavebeentrappedintanarout–theKhmer

underworld-arefreed,andreturntoearthtofeed.86Peoplevisitsevenpagodas

85AmorecynicalpersonmightarguethatincontemporaryCambodia,where65%ofthepopulationneverexperiencedtheregime,orthedecadesofconflictsurroundingit,itspopularityderivesasmuchfromtheextendingnationalholidaythataccompaniesitasfromitsreligious,familial,ornationalmeanings.Certainlyamongstmanyofmyinformants,theholidaywastakenasanopportunitytorestandseefamilyandfriends,withmanynotevengoingtothepagodaonce,letaloneoneverydayofthefestival,asrituallymandated.

86Bunnwathtoldmetherearethreetypesofpreta:oneswhocaneatwhateverisoffered;ones

whocaneat,butonlyaftermonkshaverecitedthedhamma(Buddhistteachings)forthem;andoneswhosekarmaissobad,thatevenwhenfamilygiveofferingsandfood,theycannoteat.

totransfermerittosevengenerationsofrelatives87;whichhelpsthem

accumulatekarmaandthusspeeduptheirreincarnation,andmakethenextlife

easier.88Meritispassedbytheperformanceofspecificchantsbythemonks;

duringPchumBenhthishappensearlyeachmorning.Inmostpagodasalonger

ceremonyisperformedonthefinaldayofthefestival;formanyofmyinformants

thiswastheonlydaytheyattendedpagoda.

ThePchumBenhceremonyreplicatesbangskol–genericritualsforthedeadthat

canbeconductedonanyoccasion(‘theprayersarethesame,itisjustthatoneis

calledBangskolceremony,onceiscalledPchumBenhceremony’amonktoldme).

Offeringsaregiventothemonks,whothenrecitespecificprayersthatpassmerit

tothedead.Aswithfuneralrituals,thepresenceofcorporealremainsisnot

necessary,however,thosewhosenamesarecalledandthereforeknowtocome

toreceiveitmoreeasilyreceivemerit.Thismakesnothavingcorporealremains

acceptablefortheliving;theyknowthataslongasthenameofyourdead

relativesiscalled,theywillreceivethemerityousendthem.

Unlikethephysicalremains,whichno-onehasresponsibilityfor,everyoneis

responsibleforthespiritsbecausetheyinterjectinthelivesofallliving,notonly

theirrelatives.ManyofthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRougelostalltheir

family.IncontemporaryCambodia,therefore,peopleareacutelyawarethat

somedeadmayhaveno-onetopassthemmerit.Inaddition,themassive

displacementsandrupturesoftraditionallivingpatterns,wherevillagesmoreor

lessequatedtofamilies(Ebihara1968),meansthatmanypeopledonotknowfor

87HoltsuggeststhatthesevengenerationsderivesfrommedievalChina,whereittooksevengenerationstobereincarnatedbackintothefamily(Holt2012:18).

88Reincarnationasoneofthemodesinwhichthedeadhavebeenre-incorporatedintoKhmersocietyisdiscussedinchapterfour.

certainwhichoftheirrelativesdied.AnimportantaspectofPchumBenh

therefore,istosendmerittoalltheanonymousdead.BuSoth,whoworksat

ChoeungEkmakessuretopassmeriteveryyeartothosewhodiedatthesite:

Ihavesomemoney,soIgiveofferingstothemonksandIsharethatwiththe

dead,the8985peoplewhodiedhere-bothmenandwomen,maytheycometo

receivethemeritIdo(tveabon).

Thisisnotasaltruisticasitmayappear;asmentionedabove,PchumBenhiswhen

themalevolentpretacometoroamtheearth;givingthemofferingsandpassing

themmeritisnotonlyanactofcompassion,butalsoanactofprotectionforthe

living.

PchumBenhisnottheonlyceremonytoattendtotheKhmerRougedead.Before

KhmerNewYearinApril,mostKhmertveabon(dogooddeeds/makemerit-

literally‘doingceremonies’)byattendingapagodatobangskol.Forthemajority

ofmyinformants,theseceremonieswerebestperformedattheirlocalpagodas;

becausemeritcouldreachthedeadwherevertheyare,thereisnoneedtovisit

theirdeathsite,oreventhepagodaclosesttoit,eveniftheyknowwhereitis.

SomepagodasopenthestupathatcontaintheKhmerRougedeadduringthese

ceremonies,butmostofmyinformantstoldmetheydidnotgotoseethedead;

theydidnotneedtobecausetheyhadalreadyattendedtotheirspiritsbydoing

bangskol.

Chinese-KhmeralsogiveofferingsduringChengMeng89.ChengMengisthe

annualgrave-sweepingceremonyoccurringusuallyatthebeginningofApril.

89AlsospeltQingMingorChingMing.

Duringthefestival,peoplevisittheirrelatives’gravesandcleananddecorate

them,beforegivingofferingsoffood.Animportantpartoftheceremonyis

passingitemsofcomforttothedead–clothes,money,cars:thisisusuallydone

byburningeffigiesoftheseitems,withabeliefthatoncerituallyburnedthese

itemswillreachthedeadintheafterlifeandhelpthembecomfortable.Ifthey

arelookedafterinthisway,theyaremorelikelytohelpandsupporttheirliving

relatives,forexamplebykeepingthemhealthy,orhelpingthembecome

successfulinbusiness.ChengMengalsoprovidesanopportunityforpeopleto

careforthosetheylostduringDemocraticKampuchea–insomeareassmall

ceremoniesareheldatthepagodascontainingremainsoftheKhmerRougedead;

theirstupasarecleanedanddecoratedwithbrightlycolouredpaper(seefigure

eight),offeringsmade,effigiesburned,andfeastsheld.90Unlikethetreatment

duringBangskol,whichprovideshelpsthedeadwiththeirnextlife,ChengMeng

providescomforttothelivinginthislife–passingtheseitemstothedead

providesthemcomfort,encouragingthemtohelptheliving;providingwealthand

goodhealth.

90SeveralyearsagotheâcharatthepagodawheremanyoftheremainsfromKohSoparekept,installedakilnforburningsucheffigiesinthestupacontainingthedead,becausemanyofthelocalChinese-KhmercommunitybelievethatmostofthepeoplekilledonKohSopwereChinese.

Figureeight:PoTonlestupawithremnantsofChengMengdecorations(souce:theauthor)

AllofthesefactorsenablethosekilledundertheKhmerRougetobeembraced

withinthesystemwhetherornottraditionalceremoniesandritualswere

practicedduringtheregime.Thisisonlypossiblebecauseoftheflexibilityand

resilienceofKhmerBuddhismandanimism,whichenabledthemtopersist

despiteeffortstodestroythem,andtoresurfaceaftertheregime,withprovision

madetodealwiththerupturesandchaoscausedbytheregime.

Ritualresilience

SomescholarshavesuggestedthattheKhmerRougedestroyedtheCambodian

ritualsystem(LeVine2010;Ovensen,TrankellandOjendal1996).Inherexploration

ofbirthandweddingsitesofDemocraticKampuchea,LeVine(2010:14)declared

thattheKhmerRougeperformedRitualcide,andbydoingso‘generatedacosmic

betrayal.’However,theattemptsatritualcidewereunsuccessful.Mostreligious

andspiritualsystemsareadaptable,andpeopleareusuallypragmaticaboutthese

systems,adaptingthemtosuitindividualneedsandlifestyles(Kawano2004).

Ignoringthisadaptabilityisamajorflawinmuchoftheanthropologicalliteratureon

post-DKCambodia,whicheitherinsistsonvirtuallyidenticalritualspreandpost

DemocraticKampuchea,arguingthatCambodianssimply‘layerover’thepastinthe

present(forexample:EbiharaandLedgerwood2002;Ebihara2002),orgoestothe

oppositeextremeofpositingacompletedestructionoftraditionalrituals(for

exampleLeVine2010;Ovensen,TrankellandOjendal1996).Inthisscenario

alterationsmadeareimpliedtobesimplecompromisesordestructions.Thisisa

particularlydevastatingviewofCambodianBuddhism,andonenotreflectedin

practice.

Whilstdestructionofreligionwastheintention,andsocialcontroloverthe

populationmeantritualscouldnotoccur(LeVine2010;Ngor2003),evenduringthe

regimesomepeoplefoundwaysofadaptingcustomstotheircircumstances,for

examplebyutteringtheirownblessingstothedead,hidingfoodtogiveofferings

forthosedeparted,sneakingawayatnighttoburypeople,andburyingpeople

underparticularlyspiritualaspectsofthelandscape,suchastamarindtrees(which

areafavouredhousingoftheNeakTa).91Formany,simplybeingabletoburytheir

relativesthemselveswasseenasfortunate,asLōkChan,wholostmostmembersof

hisfamily,toldme:

91LeVine(2010)providesagoodoverviewandanalysisoftheseadaptationsinherbookLoveandDreadinCambodia:Weddings,BirthsandRitualHarmundertheKhmerRouge.

InthePolPotera,wedidn’ttalkaboutceremoniesoranythingelse;ifwegotto

bury[thedead]ourselvesitwasluckyenough…Wegottobury[mybrother]

withourownhands.Iwastheonewhodugthesoil.

Inaddition,manyoftheconceptsofBuddhismexistedthroughouttheregime,and

modesof‘thinking,feeling,speaking,moving,’thatwerelearnedaschildrenand

‘embodiedashabitus’(Ledgerwood2008:148)continuedtobeimportantdespite

(orperhapsbecauseof)attemptstodestroythem.Reincarnationandkarmaare

twoofthese,andwillbediscussedinchapterfour.

Thepre-existingBuddhist/animistframeworkofpre-DemocraticKampuchea

remained,inmodifiedform,throughouttheregime,andresurgedfollowingits

fall.Mostdead,thereforewereencompassedwithinthesocialstructureshortly

afteritsdemise.Thatisnottosaythatpeopledidnotgrieve,northatthemass

deaththatoccurredduringtheregimewasnotemotionallydevastating.Itwas.A

fewofmyinformantstriedtolocatetheirdeadrelatives,butwithsomanydead

scatteredacrossthecountryitwasalmostimpossible.Mostneverattemptedto

lookbecauseofthisandinsteadcaredforthemthroughBuddhistannual

ceremonies,evenintheveryearlyyears.Thustheissueofreburialorcremation

andtheinabilitytoconduct‘proper’funeralritesdidnothavethedevastating

effectithasinotherlocations,suchasVietnam.ThefluidityofKhmerBuddhism

offersresiliencetodevastation:

Khmerculture,then,maynotbecharacterisedsomuchbyweaknessand

fragmentationbutbyasurprisinglyresilientsocialfluidity–afluiditythathas

longbeenheldtogetherbytheunifyingandstructuringforceofKhmer

Buddhism.Despiteallthetraumaandupheavalsofwarandthelackoftight

corporatesocialstructures,manyCambodianstodayseemstilltonurturea

strongsenseoftheircommonheritageanddestiny(Kent2003:10)

AfterthedemiseofDemocraticKampuchea,Cambodiahasseenaresurgenceand

regenerationofBuddhistandanimistpractices,bothamonglocalpeopleand

throughgovernmentinitiatives.Oneofthefirstthingspeopleattendedtoafter

theregimewastheNeakTa.Theircarewassalient,andmoreimportantthanany

otheraspectofspiritualcare,includingthecareforthethousandsofdeadwho

initiallyhauntedtheland.MingYaywhoreturnedtoherhomelandundertheveil

ofVietnamesebombingin1979toldmethatalthoughtheyinvitedmonkstopray

forthedead,theyfirstcelebratedaceremonyfortheNeakTa,becauseitisthe

NeakTathatensureshealthandwellbeingintheirlocality:

Wesworethatwheneverwecouldreturntothevillage,wewoulddoaceremony

tothespiritsofthehostwhoprotectstheland[theNeakTa]

Althoughformalritualstooksometimetobere-established,overtheyears

almostalloftheritualsthathadbeenbannedwerere-instated(Zucker2006;

LeVine2010;Ledgerwood2008;Davis2009;RithyMen2002),andBuddhismin

particularisbeingre-imaginedandre-inventedinrelationtocontemporaryissues

andpoliticalneeds(Kent2003;Ledgerwood2008;Zucker2006,2013).Its

regenerationoffersacontinuancebetweenthepast–theerabeforetheconflicts

(particularlytheKhmerRouge,whowereknownasNeakKmeanSasanea–the

peopleofnoreligion)-andnow.AsMingYaytoldme,‘thisisourreligion.Then

[duringKhmerRouge]theyhadnoreligion’92.Reinstatingtheseritualsbrought

92WhenIfirstarrivedinCambodiamanypeoplepresumedIwasChristian.Inanswertoquestionsaboutreligion,IwouldtellpeopleIhadnoreligion.AfterafewweeksmyresearchassistanttookmeasideandadvisedthatperhapsIshouldnottellpeoplethis;manyCambodiansassociate

securityandstabilitytomanypeople.Guillou(2012:17)wrotethatthere-

establishmentofPchumBenhinthe1990shelpedcomfortthelivingbecauseit

providedanopportunityforcollectivecareforthedeadbothknownand

unknown:

Imyselfwitnessedahugereliefamongthepopulationinthedaysfollowingthe

firstfestival,asiftheatmospherewassuddenlylighterandquieter.

Conclusion

Ithasbecomeacommontropeamongstwesternobserversthatdisplayingthe

remainsofthedeadandnotcrematingthemishighlydisrespectfultoKhmer

Buddhists(Hughes2005;Jarvis2013;Becker2013:107).93Thesestatements

objecttotheuseofskeletalremainstoreifypoliticalnarrativesoftheregimeand

itsliberation(seechaptersfive–seven),andtothelackofappropriateritualthey

assumetohavebeenconductedforthedead.Thischapterhasshown,however,

thatthisisnotthecase.Careforthephysicalremainsofthosekilledduringthe

regimeisappropriatelydevolvedtothepagodasinwhichtheyremain,andcare

forthespiritsisencompassedintheannualritualcycles.Themostimportant

aspectofthisisthepassingofmerittothedead.InCambodia,nomatterwhere

youare,themeritwillreachthosedeadpeople.InBuddhism,withbonesor

withoutbones,nearorfar,themeritcanalwaysbepassedtoyourrelatives.

havingnoreligionwiththeKhmerRouge,shetoldme,andshedidnotthinkitwasdoingmeanyfavoursinbuildingrelationships.

93IthasalsobecomeasiteofpoliticalcontestationbetweenthelateKingFatherNorodomSihanouk,andPrimeMinisterHunSen,aswillbediscussedinchapterfive.

TheKhmerRougedeadincontemporaryCambodiaareencompassedwithinthe

annualritualcycle,andindividualceremoniessolelyforthedeadoftheKhmer

Rougewaslargelyunnecessaryeitherthenornow.Thereareamultitudeof

ways,bothpublicandprivate,bywhichthedeadarereintegratedintosociallife,

manyofwhichrelyonconnectionsandcontinuanceaswaysofdealingwith

disruption.Thisisparticularlysalientinsuchcontextsaswar,conflict,famine,and

othercausesofmassdeath.Theyprovidecontinuanceandassurancethatthese

periods(andtheirimpacts)arebothtemporaryand,likethecycleofdeathand

rebirthwithinwhichmostKhmerlive,inescapable.Thenextchapterwillshow

howrelationshipswiththedeadchangedovertimetoenablethemtobe

incorporatedintotheseacceptableaspectsofsociallife,whilechapterfivewill

explorethewaysinwhichkarmaandreincarnationprovideameansof

reincorporatingthedeadintothelivesoftheliving,andcontinuingafunctioning

socialsystemdespitethemassrupturesoftheKhmerRougeregime.

Chapterthree:Helpfuldead,frighteningghosts-relationships

betweenthelivingandthedead

ThoseyoungKhmershouldthankthespirits.Theyarereceivingbenefits

fromtheirdeath.

-SreySrey,onthebenevolenceofthosekilledbytheKhmerRouge

********

ThedeadroamedCambodiaintheyearsimmediatelyafterthefallofDemocratic

Kampuchea,hauntingpeopleintheirattemptstoalleviatetheirlonelinessandre-

connectwiththeliving.AtChoeungEk,theywreakedhavoc.Theystopped

peopleshelteringatthesiteandkeptothersawakewiththeircrying.Achildwas

killedwhenaghostspookedtheoxpullingthecarthewasin,causingittotopple

andrunoverhim.Butintheearly1980s,theghostsstoppedhauntingandthe

areabecamesafeforthepeopleinandaroundit.Thedeadbegantohelpthe

countrytoregainpeace,andovertimemostwerereborn.

InKohSopasimilarscenarioensued.Immediatelyafterliberationpeopleacross

theriversawlightsmovingacrossthespaceandthendisappearing–asuresignof

ghosts.Thosemovingtothesitewerehaunted.Theghoststriedtotrickthem;

disguisingthemselvesasshadowsorpeopletheyknew,onlytodisappearwhen

theyturnedaround.Thedeadpermeatedtheearth:fruitgrownontheislandwas

fullofblood;fishandcrabs,gorgingonthecorpses,fulloffat.Astimemovedon,

however,andmorepeoplemovedtotheisland,theghostsstoppedhaunting.

Peoplebegantoconnectwiththedead,whohelpedthelivingrestarttheirlives.

Overtimethedeadlosttheirpower,andnowadays,theghostsfromthosekilled

undertheKhmerRougehaveallbutdisappeared.

GhostsandspiritsarenotimaginarybeingsinCambodia.Theyaresocialentities,

inhabitingtheworldalongsidelivingpeopleandinteractinginwaysthatshape

socialactionandrelationshipstothepast.Liketheliving,thedeadaresubjectto

changeandtransitiondependingonthesocialcircumstancestheyencounter.

ThischapterexaminesinteractionsbetweenthelivingandthedeadofDemocratic

Kampuchea.FollowingHeonikKwon’s(2006,2008)thesisthatghostscanbe

centraltounderstandingthesocialidentityandexperiencesoftheliving,

particularlythewaythatthesociallivesofthedeadmirrorthepoliticallivesofthe

living,thischapterexploresthechangingstatusofthedeadfromDemocratic

Kampuchea,examiningtheirchangefromfrightenedandfrighteningentitiesof

haunting,tobenevolentalliesinthereconstructionofpost-DKCambodia,to

powerlessbeingswhohavesincediedorlefttheirspace.

Todothis,itwillfirstexaminethetheoreticalframeworkofthechapter,before

introducingmorefullythedeadandtheirvariousincarnationsaswellasthe

relevantliteraturefromCambodia.Twoethnographicexamplesofthis

transformationwillbepresented:thefirstfromKohSop,thesecondfrom

ChoeungEk.Thesetwoencounterswillillustratehow,whilethedeadunderwent

similarpatternsoftransformationindemeanourandstatus,theirsupportand

interactionsarelocallysituated;atKohSoptheyarelocalandindividual;at

ChoeungEknationalandcollective.

Whilstthischapterfocuseslargelyonghosts,thereisanelementofslippagein

everydaylanguagerelatedtothedeadinCambodia,andtherefore,Iwillusethe

‘thedead’todescribethespiritualincarnationsofthosekilledduringDemocratic

Kampucheaingeneral,usingonlytheirspecificformonlywhenitwasmade

explicitbymyinformants.

Theoreticalbackground

Theconceptsofghostsandhauntingarecommontropesinthepost-conflict

literature.AsHeonikKwonpointsoutinGhostsofWarinVietnam(2008),both

provideusefulhistoricalmetaphor,particularlyforeventscontemporaneously

deemedasnegative.Assuchtheyareusedasrhetoricaldevicestoexplorehow

contemporaryhistoryisinfluencedbythepast(theghostofthecoldwarthat

hauntstheWestforexample).However,asKwonpointsout,thepositionof

ghostsasvalidandvitalsocialbeingshasbeenlargelyignored,and,becauseof

theirassumedpositionbetweentherealmsofthelivingandthedeadwith

(accordingtoearlysocialtheoristssuchasDurkheim)noclearlydefinedsocial

functions,theyhavesatoutsidemuchsocialtheory(Kwon2008b:23).Kwon

questionsthisexclusionbyusingSimmel’smodelofthestrangertoshowhow

ghostsinVietnamareanintegralelementintheconstructionofsocialidentity;by

theirveryexclusion,theyareaspectsofwhatformsidentitiesandrelationships

withotherbeings,particularlythewidelyregardedancestralentities:

Thesocietyofancestors,aswithothermoresecularsocieties,hasforeign

relationsaswellasdomesticpolitics.Wemaynotignoretheseexternalrelations

inpaintingasocialorder…thenegativecultofghostsismutuallyconstitutiveof

thepositivecultofancestorsandwecannotimaginethesymbolicrealmof

ancestorswithoutplacingtheminawiderrelationalstructurewiththoseof

ghosts’(ibid.).

InthischapterIfollowKwon’sexample,examiningthedeadasvitalbeingswho

livealongsidetheliving,andwhoaffectsociallifebeyondbeingsimplyremnants

ofmemoryorimprintsofthepast.InCambodia,asinVietnam,thedeadare

sociallyactivebeings,whointeractwiththelivingonaregularbasis.Assuchthey

mustbeexaminednotasmetaphororallegory,butassociallysalientbeings.I

particularlydrawonKwon’sassertionthatthesociallivesofghostsreflectthe

politicallivesoftheliving(Kwon2006:178).Idonotmeantodiminishthemto

simplyallegoryormetaphor,butinsharingsocialworlds,thedeadexperiencethe

samedisjuncturesandchaosthatthelivingdoandthereforetheirexperiences

andstatusparallelthoseoftheliving.Becauseofthis,theirexperiencescanhelp

makevisiblethestatusoftheliving,becauseitsocloselyresemblestheirown.

OtherthanKwon’swork,whereghostsandotherspiritsresultingfromviolence

appearintheanthropologicalliteraturetheyareoftendistinguishedfromother,

more‘positive’spiritualmanifestations(suchasancestorsandguardianspirits),

insteadappearingassignsofsufferingand/orsocialmarginalizationmade

materialthroughspiritinteractions:possessions,hauntings,andother,usually

malevolent,encounters.Thisisparticularlythecaseinplaceswherehistorical

violencehascausedanexcessofspiritualbeings.SasankaPerera(2001),for

example,arguesthatduringtheintensificationofpoliticalviolencefollowingthe

JanataVimuktiPeramuna-leadviolentinsurrectionandstateledcounter

insurgencyinSriLanka(1988to1991),possessionbywanderingspiritsbecamea

modeofdealingwiththeterrorcausedbyenforceddisappearances,torturesand

killings.Possessions,andotherspiritinteractionsenabledpeopletogivesymbolic

meaningtotheeventsandsoprovidedameansofcopingwithfearaswellas

rememberingthepast.ThesustainedpoliticalviolenceinSriLankahaderoded

trustinsecularsystemsofcopingandhealingandnewmodestherefore

developedfromwithinalreadyexisting,easilyaccessibleaspectsofthesocial

sphere(i.e.ghostsandspirits),thatenabledpeopletodealwiththepastwithout

guiltorfurthersuffering.94

JudithBovensiepen(2009),meanwhile,explainshowthelandscapeofTimorLeste

becamemoredangerousforpeoplereturningtotheirhomesafterthemilitary

invasionsandforcedresettlementsofthe1970sand1980s,becauseanexcessof

spiritsofthosekilledbutnotproperlyburiedsaturatedthelandscape.This

saturationcausedariseinthenumberoflandspiritsandanincreaseoflulik-a

spiritualpotencythatinhabitstheland-makingitdangerousforthosereturning

tothearea.Inordertoregainsaferelationshipswiththeland,thosereturning

hadtore-establishreciprocalrelationshipswiththespiritualrealm,however,its

potencyremainedhighthroughoutherfieldwork;aphysicalandmetaphysical

reminderofthedisjuncturesinsociallifebroughtaboutbytheconflicts.

MostoftheliteratureonthedeadinCambodiaexaminestheritualsthat

encompassthem,ratherthanthedeadthemselves(forexampleDavis2009;

Ledgerwood2008;O'Lemmon2014;Zucker2006).Afewexceptionsexist.The

mostauthoritativevoiceonKhmerspiritsisCambodiananthropologistAng

94UnlikePerera’sfindingsinSriLanka,justiceandrevengearenotcentralcharacteristicsofencounterswiththedeadfromtheKhmerRouge,althoughstoriesinfolklorefollowthistheme,andrecentevents,suchasmassfaintingoffactoryworkers,indicateaformofresistanceplayedoutthroughpossession(Wallace2014).Onesimilaritybetweenthetwocountries,however,isinthedeclineoftrustinsecularjusticesystemsfollowingongoingpoliticalviolence,whichcouldbeindicatedinCambodiabytheriseinpeoplevisitingspiritmediumstoaskforguidancefromtheNeakTapost-DemocraticKampuchea(O'Lemmon2014).

Chouléan,whosedoctoralthesisLesètressupernaturaldanslareligionpopulaire

khmère(1986)outlinedthedifferentspiritstobefoundacrossthecountry.This

workfocusedprimarilyonclassifyingspirits;individualspiritsaremissingfromthe

analysis,astheyarefromhissubsequentwork,which,althoughoftenconcerning

spirits,focuseslargelyonmyth,ritualandtheover-archingrelationshipsbetween

animismandBuddhisminCambodia(Chouléan1986,1988,1990,2004).Didier

Bertrandspentseveralyearscollectingdataontheboramey–thespiritsthat

possessspiritmediumsacrossCambodia,butlikeChouléan,heconcentratedon

classifyingtypesofborameyratherthanpresentingindividualencounterswith

specificdead(Bertrand2001).Inhisthesisondeathritualsincontemporary

Cambodia,ErikDavis(2009)paidattentiontopreta(hungryghosts),humans

rebornintotanarout–theKhmerunderworld,usuallybecauseofsinsconducted

throughouttheirlives.Pretanotonlyrepresentaliteralincarnation,butisalso

usedincontemporaryCambodiaasamodeofderidingthesocialcontradictions

anddisruptiontofamilyandvillagelifethatmigrantworkcauses.95

OneilluminatingworkregardinginteractionswiththedeadisConsolingGhosts:

StoriesofMedicineandMourningofSoutheastAsiansinExilebyJeanLangford

(2013).BasedonconversationwithKhmerandLaosemigrantstotheUS,

Langfordusestheirstoriesofghosts,haunting,andcareforthedead,toexamine

biopoliticsintheWestandquestionassumptionsandethicswithinmedicinein

theUS,particularlyexaminingtheconflictsthatariseininteractionswithstate

agencies.Whilsttherearesomeissueswiththisbook(forexampleshe

95Theotherplaceghostsandspiritsoccurisinthepsychologicalliterature,inarticlesexaminingtheongoingsufferingofKhmersurvivorsandrefugeesoftheKhmerRouge,primarilyinFranceandtheUS(Becker2000,Rechtman2000,2006).Thesepapers,however,tendtodismissthespirits(whooftenvisittheirrelativesindreams),classifyingthemaspsychologicalimprintsofongoingsufferingratherthanviablebeingswithwhomthelivingneedtointeract.

intentionallyblurstheboundariesbetweenCambodiaandLaos,suggesting

SoutheastAsiatobeahomogenousterritorywhereexperience,relationshipsand

interactionsaresynonymousineachlocation),Ilikethisbookbecauseofits

engagementwithrecenteventsinthenarrators’lives,beyondthewarsand

conflicts,anditsunderstandingofthevitalrolethedeadplayinthese

interactions.Itthereforeenablesthereadertocomprehendthatwarandconflict

arenottheonlyeventsaffectingpeoplefromthesecountries,preventing

stagnationoftheseeventsinpeople’slifestories.

SomeoftheonlyworkthatfocusesspecificallyonthedeadfromtheKhmer

RougeisthatofFrenchanthropologistAnneYvonneGuillou(2012;2013),who

engageswithAlainForest’s(2000),authoritativebookonNeakTa(thelocal

guardianspirits),byexamininghowthedeadinherfieldsiteinPursatprovinceare

takingoncharacteristicsofNeakTabyprovidingprotectionandmoralorderingto

theliving.Throughthecirculationofpāramī,(akindofcirculatingspiritualpower)

thedeadoftheKhmerRougeimbuesomekindofpowertothemassgravesthat

theyinhabit,andlikeNeakTaare‘touchy’and‘illtempered’anddemand

respectfulbehaviorofthosewhopassthroughtheirspace(Guillou2012b:221).96

Guillou’sarticleisilluminating,particularlyinitsanalysisofthebiopoliticsofthe

UN-backedKhmerRougetrial(whichsheconvincinglyargues,bearslittle

resonancetomostKhmerpeople,andisinsteadentirelynationallyand

internationallyfocused),however,whileIagreewithGuillou’sassertionthatsome

ofthecharacteristicsofthedeadfromDemocraticKampucheaseemedNeakTa

likeintheirabilitiestomakepeoplesick,andpeopleusedthemodesoftalking

96ThisishappeningmostcontroversiallytothespiritofPolPot,whoistransformingintoapowerfulguardianspiritinthevillageofChoam,inAnlongVengprovince,wherehiscremainsareburied.

aboutthekhmouchtobesimilartothewaytheywouldabouttheNeakTa(i.e.

testyandgrumpy),Ithinkthereisaconflationherebetweenlanguageand

characteristicsthatmyresearchdoesnotsupport.AtthesitesIvisitedthe

khmouchfromtheKhmerRougedidatfirstmakepeoplesick,anddisturbedmany

throughtheirhaunting.However,myinformantstoldmethiswasbecausethey

themselveswerefrightenedandconfusedanddidnotwanttobedisturbed.Neak

Ta,ontheotherhand,arenotconfused–theymakepeoplesickbecausethey

ownthelandandthewater,andpeoplehavedisrespectedthis.Theypunish

peopleandthereforeorderbehaviour,whereastheDKdeadsimplywantedtobe

leftalone.BesidesthisinmostplacesIvisitedtherearenohauntingghostsor

spiritsfromthedeadoftheKhmerRouge.Guillouherselfcommentsthatghosts

orotherspiritualincarnationsofthosekilledundertheKhmerRougearealmost

nonexistent;mosthaveleftthegravesandthesespaceshavebecomebenign,

andwhereghostshaunt,theyarekhmouchfromrecentdeaths.Thedeadofthe

KhmerRougehavenowbeenreborn,andassuchallthatremainsaretheir

skeletons,whichare‘likewood.’

ThecharacteristicsofthedeadkilledbytheKhmerRougehavechangedalongside

thecountry.Theydonotfunctionasameansofsuppressedvoicesbeingheard,

butparallelthelivingintheiraffectsandstatus.Thisisnotsurprising.Spirits

belongtotheacceptedrealmsofexistencethatbeingscanberebornintoand

manyoftheserealmsofexistencesharetheworldwithhumans.Thatthedead

paralleltheemotionsofthelivingdoesnotmakethemmetaphoricaldepictions

(althoughsometimestheyareusedinthisway,reflectingtheirliminality);they

aresubjecttothesamedisjunctures,chaosanddisorderasthelivingbecause

theyexistalongsidethemandareemotionalandvitalentitieswhoneedcareand

attention.

GhostsandspiritsinCambodia

EncounterswiththedeadarecommonplaceinCambodia,anditishometoa

plethoraofghostsandspirits,allofwhicharesociallyactiveentities-mostspirits

interactwith,andmakedemandsof,humansandanimalsaspartofeveryday

life97.Muchoftheannualritualcycleisstructuredaroundritualsproviding

communicationandconciliationtovariousspirits(LeVine2010;Nou2012),and

theirimportanceinthelivesofthelivingishighlightedintheplethoraoffolktales

andfablesthatcentreonthespiritsofthedead,andthenumberofmyths

circulatedacrossCambodiainwhichtheNeakTa(thelocalguardianspirits)are

fundamental.

Liketheliving,thedeadareorganizedintohierarchiesofpowerandbelonging,at

thetopofwhicharetheboramey:powerfulspiritsusuallyassociatedwith

mythicalandhistoricalbeingswhopossessspiritmediumsandgivethemaccess

toknowledge(Bertrand2001)98.Mostinfluentialinmyinformants’everyday

lives,however,arethelocalguardianspirits:theNeakTa(translatingliterallyas

‘maleoldperson’,orcolloquially‘Grandfatherperson’).Residinginsignificant

featuresofthelandscapesuchasparticulartreesorrocks,and,morerecently

97SocommontoeverydaylifearethedeadthatanEnglishconversationbookIboughtshortlyafterarrivinginCambodia,hadanentiresectiononghostsandhowtoconverseaboutthem,includingquestionssuchas‘Haveyouevermetaghost?’‘Haveyoueverbeenhauntedbyaghost?’‘Wheredoestheghostlive?’

98DidierBertrand,whoconductedresearchwithspiritmediums(Kru)acrossCambodiaforseveral

yearsinthelate1990s,wastoldthatover10,000borameyexist,however,inhisyearsofresearchhecollectedthenamesofonly300(Bertrand2001).

architecturallandmarksofcitiesandtowns(seefigurenine),theyownandgovern

thelandscapeofCambodia.Byengaginginreciprocalrelationswiththehumans

inhabitingorusingtheirspace,theydemandrespectfortheirpropertyand,in

return,offerprotectionandgoodfortuneforthosewhoprovideforthem.Failure

togiverespect(byaskingpermissiontousethelandandgivingofferings)canbe

harmful-misfortune,illnessandevendeathareusedtopunishthoseproving

disrespectful99.

Figurenine:NeakTaonthemainroadintoBattambang

InadditiontotheNeakTaandtheboramey,bothofwhichhelporderKhmerlife

byprovidingmoralandspiritualguidancetopeopleintheireverydayactionsand

interactions,othertypesofthedeadinteractwiththeliving.Ancestors(kruba

cheay)mayappearintheguiseofabuffalooracowtoremindtheirrelativesto

continuerespectingthem.MalevolentspiritssuchasPreayorbrāyandarak(the

In2013theformervillagechiefofKohSopwaskilledbyoneoftheisland’sNeakTa(addressedasLōkTa)becausehecutdownalargeandancientquininetreewithoutpermission.

spiritsofthosewhohavediedviolentdeaths)100andbai-sach(cruelspiritsfrom

ancienttimes)101wreakhavocuponthehumansthatencounterthem,causing

illnessorevendeath.Preta(hungryghosts;thosewhohavediedviolentdeaths,

orwhosekarmafrompreviousmisdeedsleadsthemtoberebornintotanarout–

theKhmerunderworld)needfeeding,especiallyatPchumBenh,otherwisethey

willbecomemischievous,andiftheyarehungrywillvisitpeopleintheirdreams

todemandfood.Thereexistothers,andreadersaredirectedtoAngChouléan’s

workforacomprehensivelist.102

However,thecategoryIammostinterestedinforthischapterarekhmouch.

Khmoucharetheghostsoftherecentlydeceasedandthereforeallpeople

becomekhmouch.Academicallyadifferenceexistsbetweenghosts(khmouch)–

remnantsofthosewhohaverecentlydied-andspirits(vinheankhan)–beings

thathaunt-however,thereisslippageineverydayparlancebetweendifferent

beings,andtheyarenoteasilyextractedfromeachother.Vinheankhanwas

neverusedbymyinformants,whilstkhmouchwasusedtorefertoghosts,spirits

thathaunt(khmouchloung),andvariousotherincarnationsofthedeadthat

interactwiththeliving.Thewordkhmouchisitselfsomewhatambiguous–itcan

Theseareusuallyfemalespirits.Arak(themalevolentspiritsofwomenwhohavediedviolentdeaths,usuallyasaresultofchildbirth)areparticularlytroublesome.Althoughtheycanbecalmed,theyneverbecomebenevolentandareliabletobecomemaliciousagainwithoutwarning.

101Bai-sacharetheonlyKhmerentitiesthatcannotbereborn:evolvingfromancienttimes,they

arefullofevilandwanttokilleachotherandhumanstheyencounter.OneofthemonksIinterviewedtoldmethatanancientKhmerprophecysaysthatthebai-sachwillcomefromtheforestclaimingtobeNeakTa,findkru(spiritmediums)tocommunicatethrough,andcausechaostothecountrybygivingbadadvice.Somemonks,hetoldme,considerthistimetobenow:thebai-sachhaveenteredhumanityandcausechaosbyencouragingpeopletocriticizethegovernment,killothersfortheirowngain,grablandfromothersandengageinothersociallyunacceptablebehaviour.

102AlthoughthespiritsthatChouléandescribesarebecomingrarer,particularlyinurbanareas,

andspiritsincontemporaryCambodiaarebeginningtoresemblethosefromcontemporaryfictionandfilmmorethanthoseofKhmerfolklore.

refertoarecentlydeceasedperson,corpsesoftherecentlydeceased,oraghost.

ThisreflectsthenatureofthedeadinCambodia:immediatelyafterdeaththey

arebothacorpseandaspirit-ittakesuptosevendaysforthedeadto

comprehendtheirdeathandmovetotheirnextlife,andtopreventhauntingand

confusion,thecorpseisusuallynotdisposedofuntilthosesevendaysareover

(withtheoccasionalexceptionofcontemporaryviolentdeaths–seechaptertwo).

Thereisthereforesomeambiguityinpeople’sdiscussionsaboutthedead,

becausetheycanbereferringtoallthreemodesofexistencecontemporaneously.

Itisforthisreasonthatkhmouchareviewedasparticularlypowerfuland/or

dangerous,becausetheyinhabitanambiguousexistencenotyetsettledontheir

finaloutcome.

Khmouchoftenliveintheforestsorinotherwild,uninhabitedareas(prei).They

canbenervousoftheliving,however,theyalsocravetheircompany,anditisthis

thatcausesthemtohaunt.Whilstmanyofthespiritshauntinspecificways(for

exampleaaps103movefromhousetohouseknockingondoorsandwailing),

khmouchcanchangeformandoftendosoinordertotrickpeopleintofollowing

them,orconversingwiththem.Theymaydisguisethemselvesassomeoneyou

know,orreplicateeverydaypracticestofoolpeople,asYayexplainedtomewhen

IaskedherwhetherthosewhodiedundertheKhmerRougemanifested

themselvesinparticularways:

Khmoucharethesame;whentheyhaunt,theyhaunt.It’sjustsomeghostshave

onewayofhauntingandotherghostshaveotherwaysofhaunting.Duringthe

correctionera[PRK]somepeoplehadchildrenandalotofpeoplewereweaving,

sowhentheyhauntedustheymadethesoundofweaving-theyhittheloom.At

103Beingswhodetachtheirheadandintestinesfromtheirbodiesatnightandgohaunting.

thattimepeoplehadkids,sowhensomehauntedustheyalsomadeasoundlike

theyweresingingalullaby.

Intheperiodaftertheirdeathskhmouchmayvisitpeopleintheirdreamstoplace

demandsonthatpersonorcommunity(usuallyaskingforcertainofferings,orfor

particulartreatmentoftheirremains).Althoughtheyhauntandcanmakepeople

sick,theyareusuallynotmalevolent,andaswillbeillustratedinthischapter,the

hauntingisoftenaresultoftheirownconfusedemotionalstate.

ThedeadoftheKhmerRougewereusuallyreferredtobymyinformantsas

khmouch,althoughdistinctionsweremadebetweenthosewhohavedied

recently,andthosewhodiedduringDemocraticKampuchea,whohavemostly

beenreincarnatedandwhoseremainsthereforeareonlyskeletal.Aspreviously

mentioned,althoughintheyearsimmediatelyaftertheregime,theysaturated

thelandscape,physicallyandspiritually,hauntingthosewhocametolivewhere

theydid,nowadaysalmostnoghostsremainfromtheKhmerRougeregime,at

leastnotinanyofthesitesIconductedresearchin.Andineachareathedead

hadundergonesimilarchanges:fromfrightenedandfrighteningentitiesthat

haunted,tobenevolentdeadhelpingtheliving,topowerlessspiritswaitingtobe

reborn,toreincarnatedbeingsnowinhabitingCambodia.

Ethnographiccasestudies

Havingcoveredtherelevantliteratureandexplainedtheplaceofkhmouch,Iwill

nowpresentethnographiccasestudiesthathighlightthewayrelationships

betweenthedeadandthelivinghaveevolvedintheyearsafterDemocratic

Kampuchea,fromhauntingghosts,tobenevolentdead,whohavesubsequently

beenreborn.Thefollowingethnographicencountersshowhowtheinteractions

anddispositionsofthedead,whilstfollowingthesameoverallpattern,arelocally

specific,andrelatedtothesitetheyinhabit.Thetwoethnographiesarecompiled

fromnarrativestoldoverseveralmonths–fromOmYay;OmSrey;MingYay;Yay;

SreySabbay;andherhusbandBuatKohSop,andSreyChanandherhusband

Samnang,OmTa,BongBroh,BuSoth,andBongLaatChoeungEk.

Rebuildinglives:thedeadatKohSop

WhenSreySabbayandBuarrivedonKohSopintheearly1980s,bodiesstill

coveredmuchofthelandandlayrottinginthelakesandstreams:theyhadto

clearthemfromthelandtobuildtheirhouses,sometimesburningthem,but

usuallyjustpilingthemwiththeothersunderthequininetree.Somepeopledid

notbothertoclearthem,theysimplypiledsoilontopofthemandbuiltontop.

Indescribingthebodiesshesaid‘theylookedlikefermentedfish.’OmYaytold

methattheysmelled‘mahes,’aKhmertermthatdescribesadamp,mouldykind

ofsmellofsomethingnotproperlydried,likeawettowel.OmSreydescribedthe

smellas‘sticky’104-togetridofthesmellfromtheirskin,peoplewashedtheir

handswithripeguavaor,iftheycouldgetit,pineapple.Theysquashedthefruit

overtheirhandsandtheacidfromthefruitcutthroughthesmellandprevented

itfromsticking.

Encounterswiththedead,bothphysicalandspiritual,wereinevitableatthistime.

Itwasafrighteningplacetothoselivingnearby.‘WhenIfirstcame’SreySabbay

toldme,‘peopledidnotdaretocomehere.TheyaskedmeifIwasscaredliving

104Irecognisethisdescriptionfrommyownexperienceofworkingwithcorpses–thereissomethingaboutthesmellthatseemstostickinyournose,onyourclothes,inyourhair,andstayswithyoulongafterdealingwithdeath.

here.Peopleontheotherside[oftheriver]sawlightsflyingabout–likefar.’Far

arelightsthatmoveacrossthespace,fadingastheytravel.Theyareacertain

indicatorofthepresenceofghosts.Atfirstthedeadhadhauntedpeople,causing

insecurityandfearforsomevillagers.OmSreyhadneverbeenhaunted,butOm

Yaytoldmehowtheghostscausedtroubleintheearlydaystoherandothersin

thevillage,recountinganincidentoneafternoonwhenshewastransplanting

youngricefrompaddytopaddy:

OmYay: Atfirst,theycausedtroubletous.Theyhauntedus.Iwas

unconsciousfromonetofivepm.

OmSrey: Shehadthefrightenedfeelingwithherthat’swhy.

OmYay: No,itwasn’tlikethat.Inthemorning,whiletransplantingthe

paddies,Ifoundpiecesofclothinginthesoil.Itwasaround1pm

whentheystartedtoaffectme,andthenIfainted.Allmy

childrenwerecrying….IfeltdizzyandIsawthefanwasmoving

fastandthenIfainted.Myjawwasverytight.

OmSrey: Youweresicktooatthattimemaybe;wewereverytiredafter

OmYay: Nosister.IsawthousandsofhandscatchingmylegsandI

couldn’tmove;Ifeltlikethekhmouch(dead)werealloverme….

OmYayreturnedhomeandlaydown,wheretheghostspressedhertothebed,

causinghertofallunconscious.Thekhmouchleftafterafewhours,andthough

theyhavenotbotheredhersince,othersinthevillagehadbeenhaunted.Even

aftertheKhmerRougehadleft,peoplefromacrosstheriverreportedseeing

soldierswalkingallovertheisland,andsomenights,ataroundeighto’clock,the

villageinhabitantswouldhearthemdancingunderthemangotreetothesound

ofbeatingdrums.‘Theywerenotscaredofus’OmSreyreported.

Yaywasalsohaunted.Shearrivedontheislandintheearly1980s,whentheland

wasstillcoveredinforestandfewpeoplelivedthere.Shecaughtglimpsesof

peoplewalkingaround,orsawshadowsinthecornerofhereye,butwhenshe

lookedtheydisappeared.Ononeoccasionsheheardthesoundofsomeone

jumpingintoapondneartoherhouse,butwhenshecheckedthepondwasstill.

Thelandwasstillwildwhenshefirstcame:theclearanceofpeoplebeforeand

duringDemocraticKampucheahadallowedmuchofittobecomeovergrown,and

thebambooforestthatcoveredtheheadoftheislandhadrunrampage.During

theregimethishadprovedconvenient:someexecutionsoccurredinthecoverof

thebamboo,althoughotherswerekilledwherevertheystoodandleftrotting

acrossthesurfaceoftheland.Whenshetoldherhusbandaboutthehaunting,he

toldhernottobesoscared;ghostswouldonlyhauntthosewhowerefrightened.

IaskedOmYayandOmSreywhytheythoughttheghostshauntedintheearly

days.OmYayconsideredittobebecausetheyhadlosttheirfamilies:

Theywereroamingaroundbecausetheywereworriedaboutus….theywere

worriedabouttheirchildren,becausewewereverysmall.Idon’tknowwhere

theywouldgo,buttheywereroamingaround.

Aretheystillroamingaroundnow?

Ithinktheyarereincarnatedalready,becauseitisalmost30yearsagoalready.

Itwasnotonlybyhauntingthatthedeadinhabitedthelandscape;theysaturated

thelandandpermeatedtheplantsandanimalsthatgrewamongthem.‘The

mangoeswerefulloffat,’SreySabbaytoldme.Bu(SreySabbay’shusband)told

methatthefruitwashuge,andwhenthestemswereremoved,wouldoozewith

fat.WhenIaskedaboutthistheybothreplieditwas‘thefatofthedeadpeople.’

Itwasnotjustthemangoes.OmYaytoldmeoftheprintree105:‘whenitfirst

gavefruit,itwasfullofblood.’Afterfeastingonthefleshofthecorpses,the

crabsandthefishwereenormous.Busaidtheywerecoveredinalgaeandwhen

theytookthefishorfruittomarket,noonewouldbuythem.SreySabbayand

Bu,andotherpeopleontheisland,however,atethefruitandthefish.Theyhad

nochoice–theywerehungry,foodwasscarce,andmoneywastight.And‘aftera

yearortwo,[thedead]weren’tinthefruitanymore’Butoldme.

Intheirpresenceinthelandscape,andthroughtheirhaunting,thedeaddisturbed

theliving,andmadeitdifficultforthemtosurvive.Peoplewereafraid,theycould

notsleep,andsomebecamesick.MingYayhadtodismantleandrelocateher

house106becauseitwasbuiltontopofthegravesandthoseinthemhauntedthe

family;sometimesatnightthehousewouldspin,andthechildrenstartedsleep-

walking.AFengShuiexpertcametoassessthehouse:‘hetoldmethatwewould

notbeabletolivesafely(soks’roal107)becausewelivedonothers,’shesaid.‘All

ofthislandwasfullofkhmouch.Iwasscaredtowalkatnoon108.’

105Atypeofplum.

106HousesinruralCambodiaareusuallyone-roomwood,orwoodandpalm-leaf,stiltedhouses.Theycanbeeasilydismantledandmovedasnecessary.

107Soks’roalcanbetranslatedassafelyorpeacefully,orcanmeanboth.

108Itwasexplainedtomethatnoonwastensetimefortworeasons.Firstly,mostpeopletakeanaparoundthistime,sothevillageisquietanddangerousentitiesthereforemorelikelytocomeout.Secondly,ghostscandisguisethemselvesaspeople,buttheydonothaveshadows-atnoonwhenthesunisatitshighestpointandshadowsareshortitcanbedifficulttotellthelivingfromthedead.

ThoselivingonKohSopacceptedtheghostsasafactoflifeintheearlydays.Like

thelivingtheywerescaredandconfused;mostofthemhadbeenkilledfaraway

fromhomeandhadlosttheirfamiliesandtheirdisplacementcausedthemmuch

anguish.Butinordertosurviveandliveinrelativepeace,thosemovingtothe

siteneededtomakepeacewiththedeadandcometoanarrangement:thatboth

partieswouldleavetheotheralonetoexistundisturbed.Aftermovingherhouse,

MingYaytoldtheghoststheywouldnottouchthemanymore,andsincethen,has

hadnotrouble:

ifwetouchthemordoanyharmtothem,theywillharmusback.Theymight

causeusdeath….Soweburntincensesticks109andsaidthat[wewouldnottouch

themanymore]andaskedthemnottomakeussick.Whenweasklikethat,they

willgo;theywillnotharmusanymore.

OmYay’shousewasdirectlybehindthep’teahkhmouch(houseofthedead,or

ghosthouse),where,afterbeingdugupduringthelooting,thedecomposing

remainsofthedeadwerestoredforseveralyears.Atfirstshehadnotwantedto

livethere,becauseitwassoclosetothebodies,however,bythetimeshearrived

ontheislandnootherspacewasavailable.Despiteherlocation,however,and

othersseeingghostsallaroundherhouse(intheformoflights),thedeadlefther

aloneandshehadremainedfreefromhaunting,becauseshehadmadean

agreementwiththeghosts:

Incenseisburnttoletthespiritsknowthelivingarecallingthem.Oneinformanttoldmethatwhensomeonehasdiedinanaccident,aceremonyisheldforthespiritofthedead.Beforetheceremonyisheld,however,incenseislitandanofferingoffoodisleftatthesiteofthedeath.‘Theincenseistoletthespiritknowwearecallingthem’sheexplained.‘ThefoodisfortheNeakTa,sohewillletthespiritbefree.’

Isaid‘Let’sbefriends.Iwon’tdoanyharmtoyouandyoudon’tdoanyharmto

me….’Ijustsaiditlikethat….Isaid:‘Don’tcometostayhere;thisplaceisfor

thelivingpeople.Theliving.’Isaiditthroughthewind(niyeaytamveayor)110.

IftherewereanyspiritstheywouldhearwhatIsaid.

Overtime,andfollowingtheagreementsmadebetweenthem,thelivingandthe

deadstartedtohaveamoreharmoniousrelationship,andthedeadstartedto

helptheliving.Asintheearlystages,thisphasewasmarkedbybothphysicaland

spiritualrelationships.Thoselivingontheislandusedthebonestomake

medicine111;otherstooktheirskullsasamuletstoprotecttheirhouseandthose

withinit112,andaspeoplestartedtogrowcropsagain,ratherthanpermeating

themandmakingtheminedible,thedeadfertilizedthelandandenabledthe

cropstogrow.

However,itwasnotonlybyusingtheirremainsthatthedeadsupportedthe

living.Theyalsohelpedthemrebuildtheirlivesbyprovidingluckandmaterial

support,leadingpeopletofindgoldandothervaluablesburiedintheground;

allowingpeopletoloottheirgravesandtheirbodies.Whenthebodieswere

uncovered,severalpeoplejoinedinthelootingandfoundvaluablestoselland

otheritemstouseforthemselves.BongSrey,forexample,usedclothingfromthe

dead:110Becausethedeadcannotbephysicallypresent,thelivingspeaktothemthroughthewind(niyeaytamveayororniyeaytamkhyorl).

111Theskeletalremains(cha-engkhmouch–bonesofthethedead)wereusedtomakevariousmedicinalremedies.Usuallybeingburnedandthengroundintoapowder,theyweremixedwithvariousotheringredientsandthendrunkasatonic.Sometimestheyweresimplyboiledinwaterandthewaterdrunk.Theywere,accordingtoSreySabbay,particularlygoodfortreatinghighfeversandrubellainchildren.

112Thispracticewascommoninotherareas,wheretheskullsweretakenfromsomeofthemassgravesitesandusedtoprovideprotectiontothosewhotookthem,andtodetertrespassersfromtheland.OneinformantinKeptoldmethattheywereparticularlyeffectiveagainsttheVietnamese.

WhenIwasyoungItooktheclothestomakeintoaskirttogotoschoolbecauseI

didn’thaveanyclothestowear.

Theclothes?

Theclothesofthedeadpeople.Itookthem,washedthemwithwashingpowder

andmadeaskirtforschool.AtthattimeIdidn’thaveanyclothestowear

becausemyfatherwaspoor.

Sheexplainedthatthedeadhelpedher,takingpityonherbecauseshewaspoor;

‘theyalwayslookedafterme’shesaid.Aswellasallowinghertotaketheir

clothes,wheneverfoodwaslow,thekhmouchwouldhelpherfindgoldintheir

graves:

TheyknewwhenIdidn’thaveanythingtoeat;theymademefindgold.Ionly

foundalittlebitofgold,sevenoreighthonoronechi113,butIoftenfoundsome.

Theexchangewasnotaltruistic.Thoughthedeadtookpityonher,andhelped

herout,italsobenefittedthem;assistingthelivinggavethemmerit,whichwould

helpthemintheirnextrebirth(seechapterfour):

WhenItooktheclothestowearlikethat,theyalsogotmerit,sotheyhelpedme.

Manypeoplejoinedinthelootingofthegraves,butthedeadnevermadethem

sick,showing,Yayexplained,thattheyapprovedandwantedtohelptheliving.

Somewerevisitedintheirsleepbythoseinthegravesleadingthemtogoldin

exchangeforofferingsandmeritpassedonatthepagoda.Onemorning

sometimeinthe80s,Yayfoundagoldtoothwhileshewastendingherturmeric

InCambodiagoldissoldbythechianddamlung.Adamlungistenchi,andweighs37.5gmetric.Onehonisonetenthofonechi.

patch.Afterfindingitthekhmouchwhosetoothitwasvisitedherinadream,and

toldherofmorefortunetobefound:

Thosekhmouch…gavemeadream(aoyyulsop)114.Thatone[whovisitedher]

wasveryhandsome.Helookedlikeabusinessman;hecamewithhisbodyguard

togivemeadream.Ifeltwehadafortunateconnection(nissai),that’swhyI

foundhistooth.Ifoundagoldentooth.Itwasmadeofrealgold.Iwasgrowing

tumericandIfoundasetoffalseteeth.WhenIsawthemIsawsomethingand

whenIaskedpeopleifit’sgold,Igotmorethanonechiofgold.Ifoundthegold

duringtheday,andthatnighthecameinmydreambecausewehadnissaiwith

eachother.

Thedreamwasveryvivid–tothisdayYaycanrememberclearlywhatthe

khmouchlookedlikeandhowheshowedherwherethetreasurewas:

Hewashandsomeandwearingproperclothes.Hisshirtwastuckedinsidehis

trousers.Hewaswearingahatandhewasholdingasilverandgoldwalking

stick.Hehadhisbodyguardbehindhim;hisshirtwasalsotuckedinsidehis

trousers,buthisbellywasalittlebitbigger.Butthatmandidn’thaveabigbelly.

Hesaidhewasafive-starsoldier[awartimerankabovethelevelofGeneral].

ThesoldiertoldYaythathehadbeenkilledduringtheKhmerRouge.On

reflection,shethoughtshemustberelatedtohim,becausealthoughkhmouch

hauntwhoeveriscloseby,myinformantstoldmethatthedeadthatvisitpeople

Itiscommonforthedeadtovisitthelivingindreams:calledaoyyulsop–literallythedeadwhogivedreams-theyusuallyvisitrelativesorfriendstomakedemands,whichthelivingmustacton.Theirdemandsusuallyrelatetotheircomfort,askingforfoodorshelter,forexample.Thesevisitsareusuallypositive,andareviewedverydifferentlyfromhaunting(loung).Thoughitwasrare,somedeadfromtheKhmerRougecontactedtheirrelativesandaskedthemtocollecttheirbones,directingthemtotheexactlocationoftheirgrave.Inmostexamples,however,likeYaythedeaddirectedthemtowardsgoldorothertreasure.

intheirdreamsareusuallyconnectedtotheminsomeway;kin,friends,orsome

sharedexperiencefromapreviouslife.Yayrememberedanuncleofhermother’s

whohadbeenrichduringtheLonNolperiodandthoughtitcouldbehim:

Ithinkhe’smostlikelytobemyfleshandblood(sach-chheam)becausemy

relativeswerekilledthereinapitjustbesidesmyhouse,butIdon’tknowwhere.

Helookedsimilartomymother.Hewasverybigandtall.Hisfacewassimilarto

mymothers.Andhesaidthatwewereconnectedbyfate-that’swhyhegave

thegoldtome.

InexchangeforgivingherhistooththekhmouchmadedemandsofYay.Heasked

hertotakesomefoodtothepagodaandofferittopassmerittohimtohelphim

bereborn.Yaydidthis,andforalongtimeshekeptthetooth,onlysellingit

whenshehadtopayformedicalbillsforherdaughtermanyyearslater.

Thehauntingsandthenhelpfromthedeadhadcontinuedforsometime.Even

whilethedeadwerehelpingsomepeople,otherswerebeinghaunted.Butover

timebothbegantowane.Itisusuallyonlythosewhohaverecentlydiedthatvisit

peopleintheirdream;onlyjustafterdeatharetheystrongenoughtoremain

connectedtotheliving.Inaddition,thedeadneedfeedingtostaystrong.Those

whoreceivedhelpfromthedeadgaveofferingstothemandthusimprovedtheir

merithelpingthemtoberebornquicker.OmYaytoldmethattheotherghosts

haddied:fearingtheirpoweriftheyremainedstrong,peoplehadrefusedtofeed

them,andtheyhadgrownweakandpowerless,andeventuallydied:

wedidn’tgiveanyofferingstothem.IfwegaveofferingstothemIthinkthe

spiritswouldbestronger.Butwedidn’tgiveanyofferingstothem.

Withtheirpowerdiminished,theghostshadbecomepowerless-saproleap(sap

translatesliterallyastasteless),thelandfreefromhaunting,andpeoplesafeand

secure(soksabbay).WhenIaskedMingYayaboutit,shetoldmethatthedead

werenotscaredanymore:

peoplegrewcropsonthemanditbecameavillageandahometownthat’swhy

theywerenotscaredanymore.

Mosthavenowdiedandbeenreborn:someasaconsequenceofnotbeingfed,

mostsimplybecausethetimepassedsincetheregimefellhasbeensolong,and

throughreciprocalrelationshipswiththeliving,theyhavebeenabletorebuild

theirkarmaandbereborn.Thefewspiritsthatremainwaitingtoberebornare

powerlessasYayexplained:

Theywouldnotbeabletoharmanyonebecausetheydon’thaveanything[any

power].

Rebuildingthecountry:thedeadatChoeungEk

LikeKohSop,therelationshipsbetweenthelivingandthedeadatChoeungEk

wentthroughtransformationsovertime,followingasimilarpatterntothat

describedabove,althoughwithsubtledifferences.AtKohSopthebenevolence

ofthedeadwasalmostentirelymaterialsupporttoindividuals:helpingpeople

findgold;lettingpeopleunearththeirremainsandusewhatevertheyfound;

providingameansofsurvivalandsubsistence.Thiskindofsupportoccurredat

ChoeungEkforsomepeople,however,thesupportgivenbythedeadherewas

moremetaphysicalandnationallyfacedthanatKohSopandothersitesIvisited.

‘Achilddiedbecauseoftheghosts,’YayChantoldmeaswesatoutsideherhouse

onahot,Augustafternoon.Hersisasmallhutbuiltfromscavengedwoodand

corrugatedmetal,oneofelevensimilarhutsdirectlybehindChoeungEk,

borderingthesmallcanalthatdividesonevillagefromitsneighbour.Thecanalis

stinkingwithfetidrubbishandthechemicalsthatrunofffromthePhnomPenh

municipaltip;toopoortoliveelsewherethesehousesrepresentsecuritytothe

peoplewholiveinthem;thepoorqualityofthelandmeansitisunlikelytobe

desirableforlandgrabbing.Theylivedinrelativepeacenow,thoughsoonafter

theliberationthesituationhadbeendifferentandthedeadmadelifedifficult.‘I

sawthisalongtimeago’shesaid:

threepeoplecamewithanoxcarttocollectwood,butsomethinghappened.We

didn’tknowwhy,butthecowsgotveryspooked.Ishoutedto[thedriver]‘Uncle,

catchyourcows!’ThenwhenIturnedaround,Isawablackshadowanditseyes

werehuge.Ilookedatitanditlookedatme.Ikeptshoutingattheuncleto

catchhiscowsproperly.Suddenly,it[theghost]wentpast,andthecows

abruptlystartedgalloping,sothechilddied[byfallingfromthecart].Igotvery

angrywiththeman;Ikepttellinghimtoholdthecowsproperly,buthedidn’t

listen.

Herhusbandelaborated:

Inthecart,therewasonlyachild.Therewerethreepeople,butonewalked

aheadandonewasdrivingthecows.Butthecowssawsomethinglikethat;they

wereafraidsotheygallopedabruptly.[Thedriver]couldnotcontrolthecows,so

hischildfelldown.Thecartwheelwentoverhimandhedied.

Thedriverofthecartbeathiscowstodeathaftertheincident,butYayChanknew

itwasnottheirfault:‘theysawsomethingovertherethat’swhytheygot

surprised’shesaid.Iaskedherwhatshehadseen.‘Itlookedhuman’shereplied,

‘butaftertheincident,itdisappeared.’Shehadonlyseenitthatonetime,and

hadnotherselfbeenhaunted,butmanyotherpeoplehadbeen.LikeKohSop,

thelandaroundChoeungEkhadgrownwildduringDemocraticKampuchea,and

muchofithadreturnedtoforest(prei).Ghostsstalkedthearea,hauntingnot

onlythesitewherepeoplewerekilled,butalsotheroadsaroundit.Somepeople

makingthelongtreksbacktotheirhomestriedtorestthenightinthebuildings

remainingatChoeungEk,butthenoiseoftheghostswailingandcryingdrove

themout.

ThelootingofChoeungEk’sgravesbegansoonafterliberation,andalthough

governmentled,manyofthepeoplefromthevillagessurroundingthesitecame

toseektheirfortunes.AsinKohSop,somewereluckierthanothers.BuSoth

searchedseveralgraves,butfoundnothing.ThedeadhelpedthefamilyofBong

Brohmeanwhile,allowingmanyofthemtofindsmallamountsofgoldthatthey

wereabletoexchangeforfoodwhentimesgottough.Hefoundanearring,his

youngersisteranecklace,andhismotherfoundgoldonseveraloccasions.

Initiallythefamilywasconcernedthatthedeadwouldcomeanddemandthem

back.Buttheyboughtofferingsanddedicatedthemtothosewhohadgiventhem

thegoldandhelpedthemsurvive:chicken,fruitandothersnacks.

I gave an offering to the khmouch who allowed me to find the gold. I burnt

incenseandsaidthankyousomuchforhelpingmetofindthis:“NowIputrice,

snacks,alcoholandfoodandboiledchickenforyou.”

Havingdonesothedeadwereappeasedandneverreturned,excepttohelp.

Seeingthewaysthedeadwerehelpingsomeofthosereturningtothesite,others

soughttheiraid.Hopingtomakeaconnectionbetweenherselfandthedead,

Dara,wholivesclosetothesite,wenttohandlethebones;‘Itouchedthebones

incasetheyhadsomefortune,’shetoldme.Itseemedtowork;althoughshedid

notfindanygold,theghostsneverhauntedher,andherfamilyremainedwell.

In1983TepVong,oneofthemonksinitiallyinauguratedfollowingthePRK,

broughtadelegationofmonksandforeigndignitariestothesite.‘Hebought

peoplefromIndia,Japanandelsewhere’OmTa,whohasworkedatthesitefor

manyyears,toldme.‘Theforeignvisitorsbroughttheirownmonks.’Thecorpses

werestillstackedaroundtheedgesofthegravesatthispoint;itwasseveral

monthsbeforeap’teahkhmouchwasbuilttohousethem,andinthemeantime

theyremainedexposedonthesurface.‘Theylookedwhitelikemushrooms.’

LikeTuolSleng,ChoeungEkwasanimportantpartofthepoliticalconstructionof

theregimeanditsliberation(seechapterfive).ThevisitofTepVongwasasmuch

anopportunitytoshowthesitetothesedignitariesasitwastoperformany

rituals,however,itenabledthedeadtobebroughtbackintotheappropriate

ritualcontrol,andthereforecalmedthemdown.Althoughtheyhadbeenhelping

certainindividuals,thiscalmingunitedthedeadandallowedthemtostarthelping

thesiteasawhole.‘Before,theycouldnotrest.Butafterweinvitedthemonks,

whoprayedanddedicatedmanygoodthingstothem,theykindofcalmeddown’

OmTaexplained.

FollowingTepVong’svisitthesiteopenedtovisitors.Asteadytrickleoftourists

anddignitariesbegantovisit,andovertheyearsthenumberssteadilyincreased,

duringthehighseasonwhenIwasthereupto1,000peoplevisitedperday.

Althoughghostsareusuallyfrightenedoftheliving,aswehavealreadyseen,

althoughscared,thedeadfromtheKhmerRougewerealsolonelyandseeking

theirfamilies.Thesteadystreamofvisitorsmadethedeadhappybecausethey

werenotlonelyanymore.Italsoenabledthemtofurtherestablishtheir

relationshipswiththeliving,andinreturnforallowingthemtovisitandthesiteto

bedevelopedthedeadreceivedmeritandcouldbereborn.Onlythreefamilies

(thoseoftheguards)liveatChoeungEk,sothebuildingofrelationshipshadless

urgencyandwerelessindividuallybasedthaninKohSop,wherethelivingneeded

tonegotiatewiththedeadinordertoreachagreementtolivealongsidethem.At

ChoeungEkthenegotiationwasnotforlivingspace,butforworkingspace,andto

enablethesitetobeusedasatouristsiteandstatememorial.

BuSothtoldmethatthoughheagreeswithsomepeoplewhocriticizethesitefor

makingmoney‘onthebackofdeadpeople,’maybethedeaddonotmind,

becausetheyrarelyvisitpeopleintheirdreamsanymore,andsincethe

developmentofthesite,theonlypersontobecomesickdidsobecausehe

angeredtheNeakTawholivesbythelake.Thedevelopmentofthesiteis

permittedbythedead,whoallowtheirgravestobedisplayed,theirremainstobe

exhibited,andtheirclothingtobecollected,becausetheywanttheircountryto

develop,partofwhichtheyenable:

TheyfindpeacebecausetheyareKhmer.Theywanttodevelopthecountry.

Theywantthenextgenerationtoprosper.ThatiswhyIthinktheirdeaths…their

lives….theyhelpuswhoarestillalive….Onlythebonesarehere[now],butifthe

spiritswereheretheywouldfeelwarmbecausetheirdeathsarevaluable

already.

Thevalueoftheirdeathsliesinthedevelopmentofthesiteandthecountryasa

whole.BongLa,whoworksasaguideatthesite,andwhoregularlyinteractswith

spiritsofthedead,consideredthistobeintegraltowhythedeadatChoeungEk

havelongsincebeenatpeace,andhavebeenabletomoveonintheir

incarnations.Byreceivingmeritfromthosetheyhelp(individuallyand

collectively),theyhaveaccumulatedkarma,andmosthavebeenreborn(aswe

willseeinthenextchapter):

acoupleofyearsago,inmydream,IsawfiveVietnamese,fourorfive

Vietnamese,gotomyhomeinPhnomPenh.Youknowwhattheysaid?They

said‘Don’tworry–Iamfreenow!Iampeacefulnow!’Theywerewearingnice

shirtsandthen…theyweregone!Soit’sjustlikethatnow;theyhaveanewlife.

It’sjustlike,Itoldmyself–itseemsliketheyweretellingmethattheyhaveanew

lifenow.Andnowtheyhavegonetoagoodplaceorsomewhereelse,Idon’t

know….Theyaredoingwell.

Discussion

Theseethnographicdescriptionsdetailthechangingrelationshipsbetweenthe

livingandthosewhowerekilledbytheKhmerRouge.Fuelledwithfear,

confusion,andmassivedisplacement,theserelationshipsinitiallyconsistedof

distrustfulandfearfulinteractions,however,overtime,reciprocalrelationsbegan

tobere-established,withthedeadinKohSophelpingthelivingrebuildtheirlives

andsurviveinthechaoticanddifficultpost-conflictenvironment,andthosein

ChoeungEkhelpingenabledevelopmenttothecountryandthushelpingthe

Khmerpeoplesurviveintheglobalmarket.Thesereciprocalrelationshelpedthe

deadreceivemerit,whichenabledthemtorebuildtheirkarma,andinboth

locations,mosthavenowbeenreborn.Onlythosewithparticularlybadkarma

(seechapterfour)remain,butthesearepowerlessandsimplywaitingtobe

reborn.

OnemorningasIsatwithLōkOm,anelderymanwholivesintheSouthof

Cambodia,ourconversationturnedtoghosts.Iwashavingdifficulty

understandingthemanywaysinwhichthelivingareconnectedtothedead,soto

explainwhythedeadcontinueexistinginCambodia,hetoldmeanoldKhmer

folktale:

Oncetherelivedafarmer.Everydayhetendedhisricefield,andbecauseitwas

farfromthevillage,andveryquiet,heoftensleptthere,aloneinasmallcottage.

Onedayabeautifulspiritsawhimsleepingalone.Shecametoplaywithhim

everynight,andthetwofellinlove.Thefarmerwasnotsimplyanordinaryman

–hewasaKruwhoknewsomemagic,whichheusedtocallthespirittoliveina

deadbody.Sheenteredthroughthehead,andhetrappedherinside,usinga

tick115tosealthehole.TheKruandhisspiritwifehadahappylifeandovertime

sheforgotshewasaspiritandgavebirthtoachild.Onedayshewaswalkingin

theforestwithherchildandherheadwasveryitchywherethetickwas.She

scratched,buttheitchingwouldn’tstop,sosheaskedherchildtokillthetickfor

her.Thechildpulledthetickout,andthespiritescapedthebody,leavingadead

bodyastheparentofthechild.Sothisiswhythespiritsmuststaywiththeliving

nowadays.

Heusedthisstorytoshowmehowthelivingandthedeadareinterdependent

anditisonlywiththerecognitionofeachother,andmutualsupport,thateither

cansurvive.Ittookmesometimetocomprehendthisnotion,anditwasonly

Insomeversionsofthestorythefarmerknocksanailintotheheadtosealthehole.

throughtheexaminationofthechangingstatusofthosekilledundertheKhmer

RougethatIfullygraspeditsmeaning.

Withintheliterature,discussionsofghosts,spirits,andothermanifestationsof

thedeadoftenconfinesthemtoonecategory,suggestingthatalongsidetheir

liminalstatus,thereisapermanenceofdemeanouranddispositionofthedeadin

whicheverformtheytake.Thisisparticularlythecaseforghosts,who,as

discussedearlier,haveprimarilybeenviewedasliminalbeingswhoareunableto

escapetheirdeathsandthereforeexistoutsidethesocialstructure.Indiscussing

thenotionofmemoryasamoralpractice,MichaelLambek(1996:241)argues

thateverytimespiritsappear,theyprovidenewwaysofconceivingandrevising

narrativesofthepast:

Centraltospiritsaretheirnarrativeandperformativefunctions.Spiritsare

vehiclesformemoryratherthanthefrozenremnantsofmemory.

ItcouldbearguedthatthisishownarrativesofthedeadfromtheKhmerRouge

areutilized.However,toseethemonlyasvehiclesfornarrationandevolving

understandingsissomewhatlimitinginCambodia,wherethedeadareas

constitutiveofcontemporarysocialorderandstabilityastheliving.AsLangford

(2009:682)states,inherexaminationoftheghostsencounteredbyKhmer

diaspora,thedeadinCambodiaare‘tangibleparticipantsin[the]violated

socialitiesoflivinganddead.’Aswehaveseeninthischapter,theghostsofthose

killedundertheKhmerRougewereneitherliminalnormetaphorical,butsocially

salientbeings,whosestatusandemotionschangedalongsidethoseoftheliving,

andnowadayshaveallbutdisappeared.

AsOmYaytoldme,thosekilledbytheKhmerRougewereconsideredtohave

diedlikedogs(khmouchchikkei),andtobekhmouchdtaihong–sufferersofa

violentdeath,whohaddiedwithoutceremony.Assuchtheirplaceintheworld

wasconfused,andtheywouldnotaseasilybeabletomoveontotheirnextlife.

Displacedfromtheirfamiliestheybecameanonymous,wanderingdead,andthe

fearandlonelinessthisinducedcausedthemtohaunttheliving.Inorderfor

themtoaccumulatekarmatoassistintheirrebirth,theyneededtoreceivemerit

fromtheliving;todothistheyneededtoengageinreciprocalrelationshipsof

supportwiththeliving116,somethingthatwasonlypossibleiftheybecame

recognised,individualised(evenwithoutnames)andtherebyincorporatedinto

thesocialworldoftheliving.KwonnotesthatinVietnamtheliberationofthe

ghostsfromgrievousdeathisatwowayprocess,inwhichtheghostshavea

responsibilitytoworktowardstheirfreedombyshowingtheirwillandengagingin

ritualintimacywiththeliving(Kwon2008b:164).Thesamecanbesaidforthe

deadoftheKhmerRougeinCambodia,althoughtheirrelationshipswerenot

madeexplicitthroughritual,butthrougheverydayinteractionsofsupport.

RemainingforamomentwithKwon,heshowsushowperformingthecorrect

ritualsforthedead(i.e.beingabletofeedonesrelatives),andbeingableto

reburytheminappropriatesitesandengageinappropriatecaretransactions

(beingabletofeedthemagain),allowedthedeadtobebroughtinfromthe

streets(duong)tothehome(nha).InCambodiathedistinctionisnotbetween

thehomeandthestreets,butbetweenthetownorhomeland(srok)andthe

forest(prei):ghostswhoareconfused,wandering,andlonely,liveintheforests,

116InthiswaytheyresembletheNeakTa,whorequirereciprocalrelationshipstosurvive,andthelandspiritsofTimorLeste,whohadtobere-animatedfollowingpeople’sreturntotheirlandinordertoregainstability(Bovensiepen2009).

whilstthosewhohavebeenproperlyintegratedintosociallifebelongtothesrok.

AstheritualsinVietnambroughtthedeadinfromthestreetstothehome,the

changingrelationshipsbetweenthedeadandthelivinginCambodiaovertime

allowedthelivingtobringthedeadinfromtheforest.Insodoingtheyhelped

alleviatetheirloneliness,whichstoppedthedeadfromhaunting.Italsoenabled

thedeadtomakerelationshipswiththeliving,byhelpingthemmakeconnections

withpeoplewhowouldgiveofferingsforthem.Byhelpingthemthedeadwould

gainmerit,andsoaccumulatekarmatohelptheirrebirth.

DuringtheKhmerRougeregimethemostsuccessfultoolofkillingwasthe

propagandathatenabledthecadretodehumanisethelivinginordertowork

themtodeath,starvethemoflife,andforthosewhoworkedasexecutioners,to

murderpeoplethenabandonthebodies(Hinton2005).117Aftertheregimethe

dehumanisationcontinued,firstintheinternationalcommunity’sdisinterestin

theconsequencesoftheregime,andtheninthestate’sappropriationofthedead

intheirwritingofhistory(seechaptersfivetoseven).Fromasuperficialglance,

thelootingofthegravesthatoccurredintheperiodimmediatelyaftertheregime

couldbeconsideredacontinuationofthisdehumanisation,andifitwerenotfor

theghosts,perhapsitwouldbe.However,unlikeinJewishPoland,where

ZuzannaDziuban(2014)arguesthatthelootingofthegravesofHolocaustvictims

wasaresultoftheculturalframingofcertaindead,wherememorypolitics

framedtheminsuchawaythattheJewishdeadwerenotonlydehumanised,but

renderedinvisibleandthereforeopentolooting,inCambodialootingthegraves

wasnotacontinuationofthedehumanizationofthosekilledundertheKhmer

117Cambodiaisnotuniqueinthis:NaziGermany;SovietRussia;Mao’sChina–allenforcedregimesthatperpetuatedthedehumanisationofthepopulationtoachievetheirgoals.

Rougebecauseitcouldonlyoccurifthedeadallowedit;assuchtheywerevital

beingsinthenegotiationofthisactivity.

Thelootingwasanaspectofreciprocalrelationsbetweenthelivingandthedead:

byunearthingthem,andthereforeallowingtheirremainstobecollectedand

storedtogether,thelivingwerebringingthedead‘infromtheforest.’Bygiving

offeringstothemtheyhelpedsendthemmerit.Thedeadprovidedsupportto

thelivingbyallowingtheirteethtoberemoved,ortheirclothestakenwithout

punishingthosewhodidit.Thosewhodisrespectedthedeadbecameill,orwere

visitedintheirdreamsandtoldhowtorectifythesituation.Theserelationships

enabledthedeadtobeenfoldedintothelifeoftheliving,whichhelpedthembe

reborn.Thiswasnotnecessarilyaneasytransactionforeitherthelivingorthe

dead,butonethatwasnecessaryandunderstood,asoneofmyinformants

explained:

OnceIfoundanoillampthathadsomegoldandthreewatchesinit.Iliftedup

andIshookitandfoundallthatinside.Istartedcrying;Ijustfeltsosorryfor

them.Ithoughttomyself,“BothyouandIloveourbelongings.Butnowyou

havedied,leavingyourbelongings.”IfounditbutIsoldittofeedmychildren.

Wedidn’thaveanythingaftertheliberation.IcriedsohardbecauseIfeltso

sorryforthem[thedead].Butthethingdidn’tlastforlongbecauseIkeptselling

piecesofittobuyriceandfoodformychildren.Istillfeelverythankfultothe

owner.Evennow,whenIprayathome,Ithinkoftheowner.Ithinkabouthow

theyhadsavedourlives.Isurvivedfromthat,sopleasebeblessedandbereborn

inasafeplace.Icanneverforgetwhattheydidforus.

Itwasthroughtheserelationshipsthatthedeadcouldbere-humanised,brought

infromtheforestandbacktothehomeland,andthereforeabletotransition

frombeingfrightenedbeingsthathaunt,todeadengagedinrelationshipswith

theliving.InherbookConsolingGhosts(2013)JeanLangfordarguesthatthe

deadoftheKhmerRougecouldnevertransitiontobebenevolentancestors,

arguingthatthesedeadareforeverstuckaspretaorkhmouch,andcannot

transformtodifferentstatesofbeing.However,atbothKohSopandChoeungEk

thedeadwereabletomakethistransition.Thiswasonlypossiblebecauseofthe

negotiationsbetweenthelivingandthedead,whichwereonlypossiblebecause

ofthecosmologicalorderofKhmersociety.

Asexploredinthepreviouschapter,allincarnationsofthedead,includingghosts,

existwithintheacceptedBuddhistrealmsofexistence.Assuchtheyaresubject

tosomekindofmetaphysicalbirthanddeath,andaresubjecttoreincarnationin

thewaythatanimalsandhumansare.WhileinVietnamghosts(cobac)belong

neithertotheworldofthelivingnortheworldofthedead(Kwon2008b)in

Cambodia,khmouchbelongtoboth-theyarebothrecentlydeceasedcorpsesand

ghostsofthosewhohaverecentlydied.Anyonecanbecomeakhmouch,and

everyonewill(althoughnoteveryonewillbecomeakhmouchloung-haunting

ghost).Thekhmouchthatpeopleencounterareoftenknowntothem,andghosts

thereforearerelativesofsomeone.Iftheyarenotknown,thensomesortof

relationshipisconsideredtoexistofwhichthelivingisunaware:aconnection

fromapreviouslifeforexample,aswesawinthecaseofYayandthekhmouch

whosetoothshefound.Inadditiontobeingconnected,khmouchalsorepresent

beingsthathumansmaybecomethroughre-incarnationanddeathevents.

Thedifferenceinthedirectionalityofthehelpandsupportgivenbythedead

illustrateshowthedeadreplicatethepoliticallivesoftheliving.Thoselivingand

workingatChoeungEkarehighlyconsciousofitsuseinbuildingtheimageof

contemporaryCambodiaintheeyesoftheforeignerswhomakeupthemajority

ofitsvisitors.TheyarealsoawarethatCambodiadependsheavilyonforeignaid

foritscontinuedeconomicgrowth,andthatitisforeignaidagencieswhosupport

thepoorestandmostvulnerableofthenation.Attheendofeveryformal

interviewIwouldasktheintervieweeiftherewasanythingelsetheythoughtit

wasimportantformetoknow.Theanswersfocusedononetheme:thatwhenI

returnedhomeIshouldtellpeopleaboutCambodia;itsterriblehistoryandhow

poorthepeoplearenow,andbydoingsobringhelptothenation.Sitessuchas

ChoeungEkandTuolSlengwereconsideredimportantinthismissionbymanyof

myinformants(seechaptersix).

ThedeadofChoeungEkalsorecognizedtheoutwardlyfacingaspectofthesite,

andthough,likeKohSop,theygavesomeindividualsupport,theiraidtotheliving

wasmostlynationallyfaced.WhilstinVietnamworshipoftheghostsofwarwas

bannedbythegovernment(becauseitwasseenasevidenceofanundeveloped

nation(Kwon2008b:11),inCambodia,politiciansincorporatedthedeadfromthe

KhmerRougeintotheircampaigns.Payingattentiontothedeadintheunstable

yearsafterliberationwasanimportantpartofpoliticalcontrolfortheruling

party.Annualeventsheldatmassgravesitesincludebangskolceremoniesand

theleadingpoliticiansensuredthatnotonlydidtheyreassurethepublic,butalso

thedead.118

HunSenisparticularlyawareofthepoliticalpowerofrelationswiththedead,andoftenusesitinhispropaganda.AfterlightingSihanouk’sfuneralpyreheclaimedthespiritofthelateKingwaswaitingforhim,becausetheyhaveaspecialconnection(Meas2013).Whilecampaigningbeforethe2013generalelections,heclaimedthatashootingstarwasviewedintheskythenighthiseldestsonwasborn,suggestingheisthereincarnationofapowerfulNeakTawithconnectionstoCambodia’screation(Vannarin2013b).Inthepasthehasclaimedtobethereincarnationof

ThecalmingoftheghoststhatoccurredwhenTepVongledadelegationto

ChoeungEkwasnotonlyaboutre-establishingtherelationshipsneededforthe

survivalofboththelivingandthedead;italsoenabledthecountrytostart

rebuildingitselfinthepost-conflictera.ThedeadatChoeungEkplayedacentral

roleinthisandcontinuetodosotodate;itisbecausetheysupportpeaceand

developmentthatthebonesofthedeadcanbedisplayedandtheirgraves

exploited.InKohSop,thedeadhelpedthelivingthroughindividualrelationships

ofmaterialsupport.Thistooreplicatedthepoliticalpositioningoftheliving

there,who,distantfromthenationalandinternationalambitionsofthe

government,struggledindividuallytoregainstabilityandsecurityinpost-KR

Cambodia.

Conclusion

Thedeadinpost-KRCambodiawerechaoticandterrifyingtotheliving.Butthis

wasnotbecauseofanymalevolentintent;itwasahostilitybasedinfearand

insecurity.IfwereferbacktoVanGennep’sstatementsabouttheimportanceof

funeralrites,hecommentsthatthedeadwhohavenotreceivedproper

treatmentarehostilebecausetheycannotgainaccesstoeithertheworldofthe

livingorthedead(vanGennep1960[1908]:160).Therelationshipsre-

establishedinCambodiaineachlocalitywereanimportantaspectofre-asserting

controlandorderinthepost-conflictchaos.Theirdemiseovertimehasparalled

thepoliticalstabilityofthecountryanditspeople.Intheyearsimmediatelyafter

SdechKan,asixteenthcenturyfighterwhotooktheKhmerthroneafterkillingasupposedlycorruptking(Noren-Nillson2013).Byusingsuchnarratives,HunSenconnectshimselfandhisfamilybothdirectlytoroyalty,butmoreimportantlytothepowerfulspiritualworldthatordersKhmersociety.

theliberation,thecountrywasstillwild:fullofforestthatneededtamingand

controlling;fullofdeadthatneededthesame.

KingFatherNorodomSihnaouk,Cambodia’sformerleader,oncesaidthatif

Cambodiawasmoderniseditsghostswoulddisappear.Asthepopulationhas

grown,andthecountryhasbecomemoreandmoreurbanised,thedeadofthe

KhmerRougehavediminishedintheirpower.However,thisisnotsomucha

reflectionofmodernityasitisaboutstabilityandsecurity.Themodernisationof

Cambodiahasledtothewild‘forests’ofCambodiabeingbroughtundercontrol,

whicheliminatestheelementsthatledtoinsecurity–theKhmerRougefor

example,wholivedandfoughtintheforests(inarecentboutofpolitical

posturing,HunSen,thecurrentPrimeMinisterthreatenedareturntotheforests

ifmorecadreweretobechargedbytheKhmerRougetrials,astatement

suggestingwarandtheresurgenceoftheKhmerRougeincontemporary

Cambodia).

Controllingandeliminatingthe‘forest’notonlycreatesaspacewherethedead

cannotlive,butitalsoallowsthemtobebroughtbackintoacceptablesociety;

althoughtheymayhavelosttheirkin,andthereforethosewhowouldusuallycare

forthem,theestablishmentofnewrelationsthroughassistingthelivingenabled

newnetworkstobecreated,whichboththelivingandthedeadcouldbenefit

from.Bringingtheminfromtheforestenabledthedeadtotransitionto

benevolentbeings,whicheventuallyhelpedthemaccumulatekarmatobe

reborn.UnlikeTimorLeste,where‘pastconflictshavesaturatedthelandscape

withthespiritsofpeoplewhowerekilled,someofwhomwerenotproperly

buried’(Bovensiepen2009:336),Cambodia’sdangercomesnotfromthedead,

butfromtheliving,because,asthischaptershows,thosekilledundertheregime

havenowbecomeharmless,or,inthemajorityofcases,havebeenreborn,asthe

nextchapterwillexplore.

Chapterfour:Karmaandreincarnationinthekillingfields

Sreyisreincarnated.KilledbytheKhmerRougeasayoungboyinVietnam,her

spirithadtowaitforover20yearstobereborn.Whenitwas,itwaswithLōkOm,

aformerKhmerRougecadreinhismid-40swholivesinSouthernCambodia.

Despitethelongwaitingperiod,Srey’skarmawasgood:shewasrebornintothe

humanrealm,andintoarelativelyprosperousfamily.Alsokilledasachild,Lōk

Om’sson,Broh,hasalsobeenreborn.Heisnowpartofanotherfamilyinthe

village,butLōkOmseeshimoccasionally,oftengivingmoneyandgiftstohim

whenhedoes.

MostKhmerare,toborrowObeyesekere’sphrase(2002:176),‘karma-bound

beings’.Theirlivesareenmeshedintheoriesofkarmaandreincarnation,andin

thepresenceoftheverysociallyactivespiritswhoimbuethelandscape.

Followingdeath,rebirthalwayshappens,andkarmadeemswhenandwhereit

willbe.Alongwithmoralordering,andextendingandelaboratingnetworksof

kinships,reincarnationandkarmaalsorelatetoconceptsofjusticeandtothe

waysthedeadarereintegratedintothelivesoftheliving;itistheseaspectsthat

willbediscussedinthischapter.HereIaminterestedinkarmaandreincarnation

associalpracticesandconceptsthat,althoughcomingfromBuddhismcanon,are

playedoutineverydaylife.Reincarnationandkarmawerenotinitialresearch

interests,however,Iheardstoriesofrebirthfrommassgravesalmostfromthe

firstdayIwasinCambodia,andmanypeopleinvokedtheBuddhistnotionof

karmatoexplainthemassdeathanddestructionwroughtbytheKhmerRouge,

andtheirownsurvivalagainsttheodds.Itsoonbecameclearthattheseare

importantaspectsofhowKhmerpeopletodaynarrateandnormalisethemass

deaththatoccurredduringtheregime.

ThischapterconsiderstheplacethatBuddhismplaysinthenegotiationofthe

rupturesthatfollowthemassdeathanddisruptioncausedbytheKhmerRougein

Cambodia.Itisaboutimaginedandregeneratedcontinuities–betweenthepast

andthepresent,betweenthelivingandthedead-andtheintegralplacethat

Buddhismplaysinthis.Butbyconsideringhowthedislocationsand

discontinuitiescausedbytheKhmerRougeregimearenarratedandnormalisedin

contemporaryCambodiaitisalsoabouthowaspectsofBuddhismworktohelp

maintainstabilityandsomekindofpeaceinpost-KhmerRougeCambodiathrough

imaginedconnectionsandlinkagesbetweenthepastandthepresent.

UsingLambek’s(2013)conceptofthecontinuousanddiscontinuouspersonthat

connectshistoricalperiodsaswellaspersons,IwillarguethattheBuddhist

conceptsofkarmaandreincarnationaremeansbywhichmanyKhmerpeople

cometounderstandandnarratethe‘tragedyofCambodianhistory’(Chandler

1993),andinsodoing,tonormaliseandintegratemassdeathintoanexpected

aspectoflife,onethatcanbetalkedaboutandrelatedtothewidercosmologyof

Khmerlife.Iwillexplorehowdifferentincarnationsenableacontinuityand

connectionbetweendifferenthistoricaleras,particularlytheperiodsofpeace

beforetheregimeandnow,andenabletheextensionofsocialnetworksanda

formofre-incorporativekinship.Thejusticeprovidedbythenotionofkarmawill

beexplored,beforeexamininghow,inCambodia,thestabilityofbothBuddhism

andanimismenabledthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRougetobeswiftlyre-

incorporatedintoeverydaylifefollowingtheregime’sdemise.

Inrecentyears,anthropologistshaveusedreincarnation(andtoalesserextent,

karma)asaconceptualtooltoexplorevariousaspectsofsociallifeinthe

communitiesinwhichitexists.AnneBennett(2006)examinesreincarnation

amongsttheDruze-anIslamicsectintheLevantineMiddleEast-where

reincarnationisacommon,thoughcontested,belief.Shearguesthat

reincarnationenhancessectunityandidentityamongsttheDruze,somethingof

extremesocialsignificanceforthismarginalandexcludedcommunity.Anya

Bernstein(2012)examineshowconceptsofreincarnationareusedpoliticallyby

BuryatsinSiberiaasameansofreinforcingorcontestingRussianpoliticalruleof

thearea119,whileinherstudyoftheWariofWesternBrazil,BethConklin(2001)

notesthatabeliefthattheirancestorswererebornaspeccariesbroughtgreat

comforttotheliving,becauseitofferedthemthechancetomeettheirrelatives

againafterdeath.

Otheranthropologistshaveusedreincarnationasalensthroughwhichto

examinetheculturalspecificityofconceptsofpersonhoodandtheformationof

beings.Robertson(2011)discussesrebirthasachallengetotheCartesiangap,

arguingthatreincarnatedbeingssubverttheCartesianseparationbetweenmind

andbody,andthatratherthandiscretephenomena,mindandbodyare

‘emergentpropertiesof…theprocessofbecoming,’whichoccursbetween

peopleandwhere‘personalidentitiesmaytemporarilymerge’(Robertson2011:

585).AkhilGupta(2002)usesreincarnationasatheoreticaltooltoexplore

conceptsofchildhoodandkinship,illustratingthe‘culturalspecificityof

119BringingtomindtherecentDalaiLama’sthreatnottoreincarnateifTibetremainsunderChinesecontrolandthecontroversythishascaused(Kazi2015).

constructionsofthelifecourse’(Gupta2002:42).LikeGupta,AlmaGottlieb

(2004)exploresalternativeconceptualisationsofchildhoodaswellascultural

differencesinchild-rearingpracticesbetweenNorthAmericaandherresearch

communityoftheBenginCôted’Ivoire,wherechildrenarerebornfromwrugbe–

spiritvillageswherethedeadresidebetweenlives.Shearguesforan

anthropologyofinfancythatconsidersinfants’lives‘textstoberead’(Gottlieb

2004:53)sothatwemightbetterappreciateboththeculturalconstructionsof

childhoodandassumptionsrelatedtoitwithinanthropologicalpractice.120

AmongstKhmerscholars,whereBuddhismanditsplaceinthereconfigurationof

post-KhmerRougeCambodiahasbeenextensivelyexplored(manywithinKent

andChandler’s(2008)editedvolumePeopleofVirtue:ReconfiguringReligion,

PowerandMoralOrderinCambodiaToday),littleattentionispaidtothese

concepts,despiteseveralauthorstouchinguponaspectsofBuddhismrelating

directlytothem.JudyLedgerwood(2008)examinesmeritmakinginruralKandal

province(theprimaryaimofwhichistoaccumulatekarmatoimprovethenext

life),butdoesnotdiscussitsimplicationsforrebirth.EveZucker(2013)discusses

therebuildingofmoralityinpost-DKCambodia,butdespitekarmaand

reincarnationbeinginfluentialfactorsinthis,paysthemlittleattention.Inhis

discussionofthepoliticsofmemoryinpost-KhmerRougeCambodia,Alexander

Hintonconsidersthenotionsof‘karma,meritandaction’(Hinton2008:76),

120ReadersinterestedindiscussionsoftheoriginsofreincarnationbeliefsystemsshouldturntoObeyesekere’sbookImaginingKarma(2002).InthishecomparestheoriesofreincarnationinseveralWestAfrican,MelanesianandAmerindiancommunitiestotherebirththeoriesofclassicalGreekphilosophersandBuddhistscripture.Indoingsoheprovidesanargumentforthe‘ethicization’ofreincarnation,suggestingthatethicizedformsofreincarnation(‘karmiceschetologies’),whereethicalbehaviourcontrolsyourfortuneinthenextlife,evolvedoutofnon-ethicisedforms(‘rebirtheschatologies’)wherepeoplearesimplyreborninanendlesscycle.Osbourne(2007)arguesthatitistheotherwayaround,whilstBurley(2013)conteststhenotionofanykindoforderingorprioritytothedevelopmentofdifferentforms.

however,thesediscussionsarebrief,andreincarnationreceivesnoattention

beyondafleetingmention.OneexceptionisErikDavies(2008),whodiscussesthe

continuinglivesof‘MissYaan,’usingherrecollectionsofpastlives,andtheways

inwhichsheusesthemtoextendherkinshipnetworks,asamodeofexploring

howmoralorderingisarticulatedineverydaylife.Hearguesthatinremembering

herpastlives,MissYaanenactsmanyoftheculturaltensionsexperiencedby

Cambodianpeopletoday,andfindssociallyacceptedwaystonegotiatethese.

Ofmostresonancetothischapter,however,isLambek’s(2013)article‘The

ContinuousandDiscontinuousPerson:TwoDimensionsofEthicalLife.’Inthis

Lambeksuggeststwoperceptionsoftheperson:continuous(whichhelabels

forensic)anddiscontinuous(mimeticinhisterminology).Forensicpersonsare

continuousbecause,whilstbeingunique,theiridentityisconsistentovertimeand

they‘carrymoralresponsibilityforpastandfuturedeeds’:theyarethe

‘cumulativeproductoftheactsinwhichshehasengagedorbeenengagedandfor

whichsheholdsherselfaccountable’(Lambek2013:838).Mimeticpersonsare

discontinuousbeingswho‘drawfromasetofnamedpersonnagesordramatis

personaethatthey‘become’,‘inhabit’,‘play’,‘personify’,‘imitate’,or

‘impersonate’alternatelyanddiscontinuously,orpossiblysuccessivelyor

simultaneously’(ibid).

Ratherthanconcentratingonthesedifferentaspectsofpersonhood,Iwantto

pickupLambek’sconnectionbetweenreincarnatedpersonsandtemporality.Ina

briefsectionofhispaper,LambekextendsGeertz’sassertioninPerson,Time,and

ConductinBali(1973)thatpersonhoodandhistoricityareintrinsicallylinked.

Reincarnatedpersonshavecharacteristicsoftheirformerincarnationthatenable

themtobecome‘‘characters’inapoiesisofhistorywhoexemplifyapastepoch’

(Lambek2013:847).Hereferstothesepeopleas‘dramatispersonnae’;aswith

actorsinplays,thosereincarnatedfromapreviouseracandistancethemselves

fromeverydaylifeandconnectthemselves,andothers,toaprevioustime.By

doingso,theyenable‘imaginativeandretrospectiveidentificationsand

connectionsbetweenhistoricalperiods’(Lambek2013:847).

WithinthesphereofreincarnationandkarmarelatedtotheKhmerRougeregime

inCambodia,theseidentificationsandconnectionsperformseveralfunctions:

theyprovideameanswithwhichthedeadcanbereincorporatedintosociallife

viaconnectionswiththeliving;theyprovidestabilityinthecontinuancetheyoffer

betweentheperiodbeforetheKhmerRougeandthepresent,andinthe

assurancethat,despitetheireffortstodestroyit,Buddhismanditscentral

tenantssurvivedandcontinuetoorderlivesincontemporaryCambodia.In

additiontheyprovideaformofjustice:thosewhodieddidsobecauseoftheir

karma;thosewithgoodkarmahavebeenreborn,andthosewithbadkarma(such

astheKhmerRougecadre)willsufferinsuccessivelivestocome.

ReincarnationandkarmainKhmerBuddhism

Reincarnation(kakertloengvinh-literally,birthagain-orkakertm’dongteat-

birthoncemore)andkarma(kamm)arecentraltenantsofBuddhistdoctrine.

Buddhahimselfcycledthroughmanylivesbeforehereachedenlightenment,and

allbeings,livinganddead,existinsamsara,theeternalcycleofdeathandrebirth,

dyingandbeingrebornindifferentrealmsofexistenceincontinueddukkha

(suffering)accordingtotheirkarma.MeritmakingisatthecoreofBuddhist

practiceinCambodia(Ledgerwood2008);theaimofmeritmakingistoimprove

one’skarmaorthekarmaofarelativeorfriend,sothatrebirthmightbequicker

andtoanimprovedstatus.Reincarnationandkarma,therefore,formthecentral

drivingforceofBuddhistactioninCambodia,andassuch,theirinfluenceonthe

livesofmyinformantswasprofound.

WithBuddhismforbiddenduringDemocraticKampuchea,formalritualscouldnot

beconductedforthepilesofdeadthatbegantomount;whiletheylayrotting

acrossthecountryorunceremoniouslydumpedinmassgraves,publicdisplaysof

griefandmourningwerealsoforbidden.OmYay,anelderlywomanwhosold

vegetablesintheshopclosetomyhouse,explainedthistomeoneeveningaswe

satchatting.Lateintheregimeherhusbandwastakentobe‘educated,’a

commoneuphemismforexecution.Sheknewhehadbeenkilled,butbecause

publicgrievingwasnotallowed,remainedsilent.Atnightthelocalcadrewould

cometothehomethatshesharedwithhermother,listeningtoseeiftheywere

crying.Theywouldaskher‘doyoumissyourhusband?’Knowingtheywere

lookingforotherstokill,shewouldanswerno;‘iftheysawuscryingtheywould

takeustoo’shetoldme.121Alltheycoulddowasgiveofferingstothespirits,and

begherhusbandtocomebacktothem:

Mymothersaidifyouarereincarnated,pleasecametobereincarnatedwith

yourfamily,andplease,yourspiritbehappy.

Regardlessofitspublicbanning,manyofthecosmologicalconceptsofBuddhism

continuedtoexistthroughouttheregime,andevensomeritualswerepracticed,

thoughinmediatedandadaptedforms(seeLeVine(2010)foracomprehensive

explorationoftheseadaptations).AsJudyLedgerwood(2008:148)explainsina

Thisenforcedmutenessisexploredinchapterseven.

paperoncontemporaryBuddhistpracticeinruralCambodia,Buddhistmodesof

‘thinking,feeling,speaking,moving,’werelearnedaschildrenand‘embodiedas

habitus;’theycontinuedtobeimportantdespite(orperhapsbecauseof)

attemptstodestroythem.Buddhistreligiousconceptsofferedamodeof

narratingandnormalisingtheeventsoccurringandcouldnotbedestroyed

preciselybecauseoftheirmetaphysicalnature.Reincarnationandkarmabecame

particularlysalientduetothemassivenumberofdeadcreatedbytheregime;

evenaspeopleweredying,thosearoundthemexplaineditaskarma,andwaited

forthemtobereborn.

Aswesawinchapterthree,evenintheyearsimmediatelyafterDemocratic

Kampuchea,whentheKhmerRougerulewasreplacedwiththePeople’sRepublic

ofKampuchea(PRK),publicmourningforthoselostduringDemocratic

Kampucheawasscarcelypossibleduetothetightcontrolofreligionandthe

parityofmonks.Manyritualsthereforeremainedunpractiseduntilthelate1980s

andearly1990saspeoplestruggledtorebuildtheirlives.

Inthisperiod,mostofthedeadremainedintheirgraves;thosescatteredacross

thefieldswereeithergatheredupandmovedtoanearbypagoda,or,as

happenedinmyruralfieldsites,simplycoveredoverwithsoil.Thosethatwere

unearthedwerequicklysubsumedasvehiclesofthenewstate’slegitimationand

politicalpropaganda(seechaptersoneandfive).However,evenonceBuddhist

ritualswerere-established,fewoccurredforthedead,eitherindividuallyor

collectively.Theydidnotneedtobe,becausethedeadwouldbereborn,withor

withoutceremonies,asexplainedtomeoneafternoonbyaVenerablemonkfrom

theBuddhistUniversityofPhnomPenh:

Eveniftherearenomonks,deadpeoplewillstillbereincarnated.Theonesthat

havegoodkarmawillbereincarnatedfasterthantheonewhohavebadkarma….

Allthespiritshavesoughttheirworldalready.

‘Imagineawormmoving,’hesaid.‘Asitpullsitsbackup,itsfrontispushed

forwards-itisinconstantmovement.That’showwemovethroughourlives–

beforeleavingourcurrentlifewearealreadytouchingthefutureone;deathin

thislifepushesusintothenext.Itis‘judtipadisanti’inPali:passingawayand

rebirth.’

IhadcometoaskhimtoexplainthePaliCanon122relatedtokarmaand

reincarnation,becauseIwastryingtobetterunderstandtheseconcepts.‘Our

teachingisalittlebitdeviatedfrompopularbeliefnow’hesaid.‘Manypeople

believethatapersondies,butdoesnotnecessarilytakeuptheirnewexistenceor

newlifeimmediately.Itcantakedays,months,orevenyears.’Thissupported

thestoriesIhadheardsofar:manypeoplefrommyfieldsiteshadtoldmethat

thetimeofrebirthrelatedtoyourkarma:goodkarmaleadstoaquickrebirth;

withbadkarmaitcouldtakealong,longtime.Whentheytalkedaboutdeaths

duringtheKhmerRougeperiod,myinformantsusedthistodistinguishbetween

thedeathsoftheKhmerRougecadre(thePolPots),andtheseemingly‘innocent’

victims:thevictims(usuallytherelativesorfriendsofthepersontalking)had

beenrebornquickly,becauseeventhoughtheirkarmacausedtheiruntimely

deathduringDemocraticKampuchea,itsmannerhadbeenatthehandsofothers.

122ThePaliCanon(Tipitaka)isacollectionofscriptureswritteninPali,whichrecordtheTheravadaBuddhism’sDhamma–theofficialteachingsanddoctrineofTheravadaBuddhism.ThemonkinformedmethatitistheoldestoftheBuddhistCanons,andtheonlyonestillexistinginitsoriginallanguage.

Thecadre,meanwhile,tookalongtimetobereborn.Someofthemarestill

waiting.

‘Mostpeoplethinkwhenthey[thedead]canbereborngoesalongwiththe

actionsoftheirfamily–theyhavetotveabon(domeritousdeeds–literally‘doing

ceremonies’)thatcanbetransferredtothedead,’theVenerablemonktoldme.

‘Theypassthemkarma.’Thesedeedsarenotonlyabouthelpingthedeadtobe

reborninsamsara–thecontinualcycleofdeathandrebirththatBuddhistslivein.

Theyalsohelpthedeadtoprogressinthatcycletowardsnibbana(Sanskrit:

nirvana)–thequalityofcompletenothingnessthatendsthesufferinginherentin

thecycleofsamsara,aslaidoutinthePalicanon:

Thisispeace,thisisexquisite—theresolutionofallfabrications,the

relinquishmentofallacquisitions,theendingofcraving;dispassion;cessation;

Nibbana.(AccesstoInsight2013:Anada3.32)

Inordertoreachnibbana,peoplemustaccumulatekarma,whichprovidesthe

forcetoaffecttherealmsofexistenceintowhichtheyareborn.Karmaisaction,

andisaccumulatedthroughlife.‘Youknow,karmaisnotineverythingyoudo’

themonkexplained.‘Itisonlyinintentionalaction,youknow-somethingyoudo

withwill.’Unintentionalactivitiesdonotaffectyourkarma:akarmicactisone

whereanintentiontoactisthencarriedout.‘Anactofkilling’hesaid‘hasmany

factors.Butitistheintentiontokillandthenenactingitthatmakesitkarma.’

Theseactsaccumulateandaffectyournextincarnation:thekarmicforce

determinesintowhichofthesixrealmsofsamsara123youwillbereborn:asan

123Withinthesixrealmsarethirty-oneplanesofexistence,eachinastricthierarchyofbeing.

avatar(anincarnatedgod),abodhisattva(aBuddhatobe-someonewhohas

reachedenlightenment,butrefrainsfromenteringnibbanatohelpothers);a

human;animal;spirit;orintotanarout-theKhmerunderworld.Reincarnationis

inevitableforallbeings(includingthedead),butwhere,when,andwithwhom

rebirthoccurs,isaffectedbykarma,whichisaccumulatedthroughthis,and

previouslives.Whilstkarmacannotbedeleted,meritousactsenablethe

accumulationofgoodkarma,whichaddskarmicforcetothetransitioninthenext

life.Inthisway,historicalandcontemporaryactionsaffectthelifecycleofthose

insamsaraandfuturepositioningintheworld.

Oneofthewaysinwhichkarmacanaffectyourrebirthisbyaffectingthefamily

intowhichyouareborn.Thebondsofaffectionthattiepeopletoeachotherin

thislifecrosstheboundariesoflifeanddeath,andcanensuretherebirthofthe

deadwiththeirkin,particularlyiftheirkarmaisgood.Theassuranceof

reincarnationinCambodiaallowsforthepossibilityofreunionatsomepoint–if

notinthislife,perhapsinthenextone.Thisistrueforthedeadasmuchasitis

fortheliving:thedeadwanttobeamongstpeopletheyknowandtrust(‘theyare

lonely,andworriedaboutus’OmYayexplained).124Buttheplaceofthedeadis

atthesiteoftheirdeath–itishardforthemtoleaveandtravel(intimeorspace)

unlesstheforceoftheirkarmaisparticularlystrong.Distanceintimefadesthe

memoryofthedead,andtheybecomemorelikelytoberebornamongstthose

livingclosetotheplaceatwhichtheydied.Sometimesitissimplyaquestionof

timing–apregnancyhastocoincidewiththetimewhenthedeadarereadytobe

reborn,whichdependsupontheirkarma.

124ThetiesofaffectioninCambodiaarenotrestrictedtothoserebornwithinthehumanspherebutcanextendintodifferentrealmsofexistenceaswell:thecousinofoneofmyinformantsremembersapreviousincarnationwhere,followingherdeathasahuman,shewasrebornasacow,butwithinhersamefamily.

ThoughIusetheminthischapterasconceptstoexploremeansbywhichpeople

incontemporaryCambodianormalisethemassdeathsthatoccurredduringthe

KhmerRougeregime,itisimportanttonotethatreincarnationandkarma,unlike

otheraspectsofBuddhistdoctrine,areconcretephenomenaofeverydaylifein

Cambodia.Theyareneitheridiomsnorsymbolicexpressionsofrelationshipsand

theconsequencesofaction.Assuch,theymaterialiseconnectionsbetween

periodsoftime,peopleandplaces,andmakeevidenttheeffectsofmoral

(dis)order.

HavingoutlinedtheplaceofreincarnationandkarmawithinKhmerBuddhism,I

willnowprovidethreeethnographicexamplesthatillustratehowtheseconcepts

areusedtounderstand,narrateandnormalisethemassdeathsthatoccurred

duringtheKhmerRougeregime,explainthesurvivalofmanyagainsttheodds,

andprovideameansofembodiedjustice.Thefirst,fromChoeungEkGenocidal

Center,showshownamelessdeadarereintegratedintosociallifebybeingreborn

amongstthoselivingandworkingatthesite.Thesecondexamineshow

relationshipsrupturedduringtheregimearerebuiltinthepresent,andnew

connectionsareforgedandextendedacrossfamilygroupsanddisparate

communities.Thefinalexampleexploreshowjusticeisunderstoodthroughthe

notionofkarmaandreincarnation.

Reintegratingthenamelessdead

DawasintroducedtomeonemorningbytheTaTa,anelderlymanwhosefamily

homewasinthevillagebehindthecenter.KnowingIwasinterestedinthegraves

andthosewithconnectionstothem,headvisedmetospeaktoDa:‘shegot

pregnantfromthegraves,’hetoldme.Da’ssonisthereincarnationofsomeone

buriedinthemassgravesatChoeungEk:hisspiritcametoherwhensheclimbed

intoapittolootitintheearly1980s.

ItwasChineseNewYear,andthevillagewasquiet;mostofthefamiliesonthe

streetareKhmer-Chineseandhadgonetovisitfamily,orwerevisitinglocal

pagodastoaskforfortuneforthecomingyear.Daandherfamily,however,

considerthemselvesKhmersoth–pureKhmer–andsowereathome.Theday

wascoolbyCambodianstandardsanditwasapleasantwalkthroughthedusty

village.AsmyresearchassistantandIwalkedalongthestreetIcouldhear

cricketschirpinginthefields,andthedistantsoundofcarsontheroadthat

passedthecenter.Dainvitedusintoherhometochat.Wesatonthebamboo

platformunderthestiltsofherwoodenhouse.Chickensscratchedthefloor

aroundus,sometimesjumpingupontotheplatformonlytobeshooedawayby

DuringtheregimeDahadbeenevacuatedonlyafewkilometresaway.She

returnedhomesoonafterliberation,butlikeothersinthevillage,wasunawareof

thegravesatChoeungEkuntilgovernmentemployeesstartedunearthingthem,

andthestenchofrottingfleshspreadaroundthecountryside(seechapterone).

Wordsoonreachedthevillagethatvaluableshadbeenfoundinthegraves,and

peoplestartedgoingtoseewhattheycouldfind:‘otherpeoplefoundgold,soI

wantedit,too,’Datoldme.‘Somefoundnecklacesandrings,andIevensaw

somediamonds.’Visitingthesiteoneafternoon,sheclimbedintoagravefullof

bodies,andimmediatelystartedvomiting.Climbingoutofthepit,shecrawled

home;althoughherhousewasonly500mawayittookherhourstomakethe

journey.

Shecontinuedbeingillforsomeweeks,anddespitevisitingadoctor,could

receivenorespite;‘Icouldn’tstopvomiting,’shesaid;‘IwassoweakandI

becamesoskinnythatIhadtositonapillow.’Elderstoldherthatshemusthave

angeredthelocalNeakTa–theguardianspiritofthearea.Otherstoldhershe

haddisrespectedherancestors.Butdespiteprayingandgivingofferingstoboth,

shewasstillsick:

Theysaid[thesickness]wasbecauseofwrongdoingstotheancestors,soIgave

offeringstotheancestors.AndwhentheysaiditwastheNeakTa,Igave

offeringstotheNeakTa.Whateveritwas,Ioffered.Ialsowenttothedoctorfor

injections.Itdidn’thelp.SoIstoppeddoinganythingandjustsatonthepillow.

Myhusbandcarriedmeupanddown.

Notknowingwhereelsetoturn,shevisitedaKruchoalrūp125(spiritmedium)who

toldhershehadnotangeredthespirits,butwaspregnantwiththereincarnation

ofsomeonefromChoeungEk.Sherecoveredfromhersicknessoncehersonwas

bornafewmonthslater.

ThereareseveralreasonsDaiscertainthathersonisreincarnatedfromthe

graves.Thesicknessstartedassoonassheclimbedintothegrave,andrather

thanwaningovertime,itcontinuedallthewaythroughherpregnancy,only

stoppingonceshedeliveredthebaby:

125Seechaptertwo,footnote74foranexplanationofthedifferenttypesofspiritmedium.

Itwasn’tanormalmorningsickness:itwasterribleuntilIgavebirth.Ihad

morningsicknessuntilIdelivered,andassoonasIdelivered,Ifeltsorelieved.I

nolongerthrewuporanything.Assoonashecameout,Ifeltsowell;I

recovered.

Aswellasthesickness,theKruhadtoldheritwasaspirit.Butthesignthatgives

hercompletecertaintyofhisoriginsisherson’sintelligence:‘he’ssosmart,so

intelligent;today,he’sanurse.’Da’sfamilyismodest,andneithershenorher

husbandareeducated,makingDareflectonthekarmaleadingtoherson’s

reincarnation:

Ifeelsorryformyson.I’mnotsureifitwashisbadkarmaorsomething,ifthat

waswhyhebecameso,andwhyhisdestiny(upanisaya)wastobewithme.

Dafeelssorryforhersonnotbecausehewasreborn-forthatsheishappy-but

because(shebelieves)hiskarmahasledtohimbeingreborninalowersocial

classthanthatheleft.ThosekilledatChoeungEkwerealmostentirelybrought

fromTuolSlengprisoninPhnomPenh-theprisonwherehighprofileprisoners

weretaken,includingthosewhoposedthehighestthreattotheregime:lawyers,

doctors,andtheintelligentsia.Inexplaininghowhiskarmahadledtohisrebirth

withher,Dasaid:

there’ssinandgooddeeds(bāp/bon).AccordingtoBuddhism,ifyoudogood

things,youwillberebornsoon.Ifyouhavealotofsin,it’snoteasytobereborn.

Ifyoukillanyoneoranything,youwillnotberebornsoon.Ifyouhavegood

karma,youcanberebornwiththoseyouknow.

Daconsideredherson’sdeathatChoeungEk,andhisrebirthintoamodest,

uneducatedfamily,tobetheresultofhiskarma;althoughstillhuman,she

consideredhisstatustobelowered.126Inaddition,hecouldnotfindhisoriginal

family,andsohadtobebornwithstrangers.Thosewhodied,shetoldme,were

lonelybecausetheycouldnotfindtheirfamilies.Butthosereadytobereborn

neededaplace,andwithoutbeingabletolocatetheirfriendsorrelatives(which

isonlypossibleforthosewithgoodkarma),theyhadtoreincarnatewiththose

closetotheirgraves.Thatiswhyhersonhadcometoher.

Da’ssonisnottheonlypersonrebornfromthegravesatChoeungEk.Afewdays

afterhearingthisstoryIwassittingchattingwithBongLa(whowemetinchapter

one).Hewasnarratingadreamfromafewdaysearlier,inwhichseveral

VietnamesepeoplevisitedhishomeinPhnomPenhandtoldhimtheywerefree

andheshouldn’tworryaboutthem.Herealiseditwaspeoplefromthegraves

tellinghimtheyhadbeenrebornandthattheyareatpeace.

IaskedhimwhythosekilledatChoeungEkhadvisitedhim?‘Ifeellikemyspirit

wasrelatedtothosepeople,or,maybe,I’moneofthosepersonsbutIcameback

nowtotellthestory,’hesaid.‘Andnotjustme’hecontinued,‘mysonstoo.’He

toldmethatbothhissonsarereincarnatedfrompeopleinthemassgravesatthe

site.HisyoungestsonisthereincarnationofanAustralianmankilledthere–he

knowsthisbecauseinadreamhemetanAustralianman,wholeftacaninetooth

nearatreeatChoeungEk,whichhepickedupandheldinhisrighthand.Another

126Aswesawinchapterone,whilstmanyofthoseimprisonedatTuolSlengandkilledatChoeungEkdidcomefromhighsocialclasses,particularlyintheearlydaysoftheregime,astimeprogressedandparanoiastartedtospread,thesitesbecamethefinallocationsformanyKhmerRougecadreandtheirfamilies.Althoughofhighstatuswithintheregimesomewerefromlowerstatusoriginswithlittleornoeducation.

dreamtoldhimthathiseldestsonwasalsoreincarnatedfromthemassgraves–

inthedreamhesawatooth127markedwithBuddhistinscriptions,whichhe

pickedupandhelditinhislefthand.ToBongLathisclearlyindicatestheleft-

handedwritingofhisfirstson.Otheraspectsoflifenowconfirmhisreincarnated

status:

Irealizedwhyheonlyeatsporridge(Borbor)128now.BecauseduringPolPot

timeyou[he]ateporridgealot,sonowyou[he]seemtolikeeatingporridge….

ThoughlifeduringtheKhmerRougewasdifficult,itisthelastmemoryofthose

whodiedduringtheregime,andmemoriesorbehavioursfromthatlifeare

thereforecarriedwiththereincarnatedpeopletothislife,particularlyiftheydied

youngandthereforehavelittleornorecollectionoflifebeforetheregimeto

drawon.ForBongLa’sson,therefore,likingporridgeisabehaviourfromhis

previouslifethatisinherenttohispersona:aformofhabitusthatcannotbe

removed.ThisisoneofthediscontinuitiesthatLambek(2013)referstowhenhe

considersthediscontinuousnatureofreincarnatedbeings(thoughsomemight

arguethesetobecontinuitiesfromthelifebefore):whilsthehasnorecollection

ofhislifebefore,BongLa’ssonembodiesbothhispersonanow,andaspectsof

hislifebefore.Inaddition,hischoiceoffoodbringsimaginarylinkstothatperiod

ofhistory,whenfoodwasscarceandporridgetherationthatmostsurvivedon.

127TeethhaveparticularsignificanceinBuddhistliteraturebecause,beingtheonlyskeletalelementthatarevisibleinlife,theyaredeemedtorepresent‘whatthebodyisandwillbecome,andsoserveasremindersofimpermanencethathelptobridgethedividebetweenlifeanddeath’(Strong2004:180).Buddha’sownteetharepartoftherelicsdistributedacrossAsiafollowinghisdeath.

128Cambodianporridge(Borbor)isusuallymadefromchickenbrothfilledwithmeatorfishandvegetables.DuringtheKhmerRouge,however,rationswereminute,andtheporridgetypicallyconsistedofaspoonfulofriceinsaltedwater.

Repairingrupturedrelations

Thesecondethnographicencounterrelatestotherepairofrelationshipsruptured

duringtheregime.InthissectionwemeetLōkOm,whosetwochildrenare

reincarnated:hisdaughterisreincarnatedfromaVietnameseboykilledduring

theregime,whilsthisson,alsokilledduringtheregime,hasbeenreborntoa

differentfamilyinthevillage.

Amanofaroundforty-five,LōkOmisaformercadreoftheKhmerRouge,only

leavingthemovementinthe1990swhenhiscommander(nowvillagechief)

agreedtopeaceterms.Onapreviousvisitasanasidetoadiscussionaboutthe

peacenegotiationsLōkOmtoldmethattheKhmerRougeshothisdaughter,Srey.

AlthoughtheyhadlostcontrolofCambodiain1979,theKhmerRougehad

remainedactiveanddangerousuntilthelate1990swhenpeacewasfinally

assured,andatfirstIthoughttheshootingmusthaveoccurredduringthislatter

period.Iaskedhimwhathadhappened.

‘Theycapturedherandshother,’hetoldme.HecalledSreyoverandpulling

downtheneckofhert-shirt,showedmearoundpuckeredareaofskinonher

shoulder,justbelowherneck.Iwasshocked.LōkOmsentSreyofftoplay,andI

triedtofindoutwhathadhappened.Ittookmeawhiletofullyunderstandwhy

LōkOmhadlaughedatmyshock:Sreyhadnotbeenshotinthislife,butinher

previousone.Thatdaytheconversationmovedon,butthisparticularmorningI

hadgonebackspecificallytotalkaboutSrey’sreincarnation.

ItwasrainingwhenIgottoLōkOm’shouseandhewastakingadvantageofthe

softeningtheraingavetothebakedsoiltoploughthericefieldnexttohishouse

inpreparationforplantinginthefollowingweeks.WhenIarrivedhestopped

ploughing,releasinghiscowtograze,andwemovedtositunderthesala:a

roofedbambooshelterbeneaththetreesinhisfrontyard,enjoyingthereliefthe

rainbroughttothestiflinghumidityofCambodiainJune.Aswetalked,Sreyran

aroundtheyard,playingintherain.

DuringtheKhmerRougeregimeSreyhadbeenayoungVietnameseboyfromthe

borderzoneofVietnamandCambodia,closetoLōkOm’shouse.TheKhmer

Rougewereparticularlyactiveinthatarea:inthelatterpartsofDemocratic

Kampucheatherehadbeenregularborder-raidsintoVietnam;fightingwas

frequentandmanycasualtiesoccurredasaresultofoffensesonbothsides129.In

onesuchborderraid,theKhmerRougehadcapturedtheboyandshothim.

YearslaterLōkOm’swife,Yay-yay,wastakinganafternoonnapinthehammock

swingingundertheirhouse.Asshedozedshestartedtodream.Shewaswalking

alongabeachwhenshesawaNeakdtienehchai–aspiritwaitingtobereborn–

collectingrocks.Asshewalkedpastthespirithedroppedtherocksandfollowed

her.Shetoldhimtoleave,butherefused,tellingher‘I’mcomingwithyounow.’

Whenshewokefromthedream130Yay-yayknewshewaspregnantandthatit

wasthisboy.WhenSreywasbornshehadmarksonherarmsfromtheligatures

shehadbeentiedinbytheKhmerRougeandtwobirthmarkswhereshehadbeen

shot:oneonherbacksideandoneonhershoulder-themarkthatLōkOmhad

129Areportfrom1977ontheconflictrecordedover1,000VietnameseciviliansbeingkilledorwoundedintheareabetweenSeptemberandNovember1977(Kiernan2007:312).Asaresultofsuchactions,thereare,accordingtosomeofmyinformantsfromthearea,massgravescontainingKhmervictimsexistinginVietnam.Iwasnotabletocorroboratethisduringthisresearch,butitcouldprovideaninterestingpointforfuturework.

130Thistypeofpregnancydream,whereaspiritvisitsthemothertobeor,occasionally,aclose

relativeofthemother,isrelativelycommon,andiscalledSuBenKor.

showedme.Unlikesomechildren,Sreydidnotrememberherpreviouslife,nor

hadanyoneelserecognizedher.ItwasYay-yay’sdreamthathadtoldthem.

Srey’skarmahadobviouslybeengood,LōkOmtoldme,becausewhenshewas

reborn,itwasasahuman,andshehadbeenabletochangeherlifecircumstances

forthebetter,progressingfrombeing‘Yuan’(aderogatorytermusedbymany

KhmerforVietnamesepeople)tobeingKhmer.Aftertellingmethis,LōkOm

added:‘mysonisalsoreborn.’

Hisson,Broh,alsodiedandhadnowbeenreborntoanotherfamilyinthevillage.

‘He’sabouttwoyearsold’Sreyinterjected.Brohlooksnothinglikehedidinhis

previouslife,buttheyknowitishimbecauseduringhismotherconsidered

terminatingthepregnancy,buttheboy’sspiritvisitedherandaskedhernotto.

KnowingLōkOm,shefeltshecouldnotabortthefoetus.ItoldthefamilyIwas

sorrytohearabouttheboy’sdeath.LōkOmtoldmenottoworry–everyonelost

people,hewasnotalone.‘Anyway,’hetoldme‘itwashiskarma.’

LōkOmregularlyseeshisson;hehelpshisnewfamilysupporthimbygivingthe

childmoneyandgifts.Sometimeshepaysforhisschoolbooks.Hisobligations

towardsBroh’snewincarnationresemblethoseofagodparent:thereisnodirect

responsibility,butitisexpectedthatlinkswillbemadeandsupportcanbecalled

onintimesofneed.

BothSreyandBroh’sreincarnationswereannouncedbyspiritsvisitingtheir

mothersindreams,andforthisreasonbothfamiliesacceptthenewincarnation,

andtherelationshiptotheoldone.ThisismadeeasierbecauseLōkOmgets

alongwithBroh’snewfamily,andSreydoesnotrememberherpreviouslife,so

doesnothavethedualpersonalities(anddesiresthatgoalongsideit)ofher

incarnations.However,sometimesthespiritdoesnotvisit,anditisthechildthat

rememberstheirpastlife.Thiscancauseconflicts,particularlyifthechildisborn

intoanunknownfamily:somechildrendemandtovisittheirpreviousfamily,and

inthesecasesitiscommonforthemtoreplicaterelationshipsthatexistedintheir

previousincarnation131:unlike‘new’children,reincarnatedchildrenarealready

fullyformedsocialbeingswithcompleteidentitiesfromtheirpreviouslivesthat

maycontradicttheirnewplaceinthesocialhierarchyaswellasintheirown

particularfamily.132Newparentswilloftengivethechildmedicinetohelpthem

forgettheirlives,fearingthatthechildwillwanttoreturntotheirpreviouslife.

Oncefamiliesmeet,however,andthereincarnationisaccepted,theybecome

linkedinanextensionofthekinnetworksthatexistedbefore,asisthecasewith

LōkOmandBroh.

WecanhereseehowLambek’sconceptofthelinkingbetweentimesandpeople

worksinthisscenario.WhilstSreydoesnotrememberherpastlife,thespirit’s

visitandthebirthmarksshehasclearlyindicateherreincarnationtoherparents.

Cambodia’srelationshipwithVietnamwasoftenhostileduringtheKhmerRouge,

withfrequentfightinginthearea,andCambodia’srelationshiptoVietnamhas

Oneofmyinformant’sgrandmothershasbeenrebornasherdaughter.Atagethreeshechosetoleavehernewbirthfamilyandmoveinwithheraunt,whowas,inherpreviousincarnation,herfavouritechild.Becausethefamiliesliveclosetoeachother,andaredirectkin,thismovewasallowed,becausemyinformantalsorelatedtoherdaughterasherpreviousincarnation;‘Icallhergrandmotherandmyself‘Agn’[aninformalformof‘I’usedinself-addresswhentalkingtosomeoneolderorofhighersocialstatusthanyourself]….Weknowthatshe’sourgrandmother.It’simpossibletoaddressher‘Ahmeng’[aformofyouusedtoaddressyoungerpeopleorthoseofinferiorsocialstatus]’shetoldme.

132ItisthiselementofreincarnationthatGuptaargueschallengesWesternunderstandingsof

childrenasbeings-in-process:childrenthatareincarnatesofpreviousbeings(particularlyhuman)are‘inhabitedbytheir(adult)thoughtsandgestures’andtherefore‘havetobeconceptualizedasmorecomplexbeingsthanisallowedbythestandardnarrativeofchildhoodwhichpositsanewbeingwhoslowlyfindshisorherwayintheworld’(Gupta2002:1).

remainedfragilesincetheregime.ThevillagewhereLōkOmlivesisonly20

kilometresfromtheVietnameseborder,andpeopleoftenvisitthebordertowns

totrade.Inaddition,manyVietnamesemigrantworkersliveandworkintherice

fieldsoftheareaalongsidetheKhmerlivingthere.Reincarnatedfroma

VietnameseboykilledclosetoLōkOm’shome,Sreynotonlyoffersameansof

reintegratingthenamelessdeadintocontemporarylife,butalsooffersamodeof

repairingrelationshipsandprovidingabridgebetweenclashingnationsand

communitieswhofoughtviciouslyduringtheregime,butnowlive,workand

tradetogether.

Broh,meanwhile,embodiesseveralotheraspectsofLambek’sproposition.As

boththenewchild,and,concurrently,LōkOm’sson,hereunitesparentsand

child,repairingtherelationshiprupturedbytheregime.Healsoreconnectsthe

periodbeforetheregimewiththepresent,offeringabridgebetweenthetwo;

andbybeingbornintoadifferentfamily,presentingameansofextending

relationshipsandnetworksacrossdifferentfamilies,withtheassociated

obligationsandsupportsystems.

Thejusticeofkarmaandreincarnation

Thefinalencounterconsidersthewaykarmaandreincarnationareconnectedin

thenarrativesofmyinformantstoconceptsofjustice.HereIaminterestedin

justiceasitismaterialisedthroughsociallifeandembodiedexperiences,rather

thaninitsjudicialstatus.Oneencounterispresentedinthissection:OmPich,

wholostovertwentymembersofherfamily,butwhodespitebeingdisabled,and

beingtakenfor‘re-education’(afateusuallyendingindeath),survivedthe

regime.

OmPichwasoftenill,sufferingfromhighbloodpressureandthefrequentbouts

ofdizzinessthataccompaniedit,soshedidnotleavethehousemuch.Wewould

sitinthehammocksunderherhouse,oronchairsinthegrassyareabehindit,

andasIswattedthemosquitoesthatconstantlyplaguedme,shespokeabouther

lifeduringandaftertheKhmerRouge.Shewantedmetotakethestorieshome

sopeopleinBritainwouldknowhowterriblelifehadbeeninCambodia:how

manypeoplehaddied,howmuchpeoplehadsuffered.

OmPichlostmanymembersofherfamilyduringDemocraticKampuchea.She

missedthemdaily,shetoldme.Heraunt,uncleandsisterwerekilled.Bothher

parentsdiedattheruralworkcampinKampongThomprovincewheretheywere

evacuated.Herbrotherwaskilledbythecadre:

Myfamily,onmymother’sside;threedied.Butonmyfather’sside,therewere

more:sevenpeople.Allgone.

HerAuntandUncle’sfamiliesfaredevenworse;thewholefamilywaskilled

duringtheregime-fifteenintotal.‘Nobodyisleftinthosetwofamilies’shetold

me.However,despitethegrief,OmPichexplainedtomethatforpeopletohave

sufferedsomuchandexperiencesuchterribledeathswasbecauseoftheirkarma

frompreviouslives.DuringtheKhmerRouge,shesaid,peoplewere´forcedto

die.’WhenIaskedhertoexplain,sheelaborated:

Iftheydidn’thavekarma,theywouldnotdie.Itmustbethattheycommitted

baddeeds;that’swhytheywerekilledlikethis.

Aswehavealreadyseeninthisthesis,theKhmerRougewereruthlessand

inclusiveintheirkilling.OmPich’sAuntandUncle’sfamilieswerekilledbecause

herUnclehadbeenaLonNolsoldierbeforetheregime,fightingagainstthe

KhmerRougeguerrillasintheearly70s.Herbrotherwasexecutedbecausehe

displeasedoneoftheKhmerRougeofficersinhisworkgroup.Herparentsdiedof

starvationandfatigue;hersisterofdisease.Butsomehow,OmPich,although

disabledbeforetheregime,survived.Thiswasnotonlyunusualinthecontextof

herfamily,butalsobecauseofherdisability:mostdisabledpeoplewere

slaughteredbytheregime,whoneededfit,ablepeopletotakepartinthe

massiveprojectsthatwouldconstructthenewCambodia-disabledpeoplewere

simplyadditionalmouthstofeed.OmPich,however,survivedandhadbeenable

toliveandworkthroughoutDemocraticKampucheaalongsideothervillagers

fromherhometowninKandalprovince.

DuringtheregimeOmPichhadworkedintheyouthsectionofamassiverural

workcamp.Shehadcomeclosetolosingherlifeonmorethanoneoccasion,but

somehowhadsurvived.Atonestageshewasimprisonedbythelocalcadreand

takentobe‘builtup’(kāsang).IncontemporaryKhmerkāsangliterallytranslates

as‘tobuild’.However,duringtheKhmerRougeregime,thewordtookonadual

meaningwhere‘tobuild’alsomeanttodestroyorteardowninordertostart

buildingfromscratch:akindofdeathandrebirthofparticularinstitutions,or,

morecommonly,ofindividualswhoweretakento‘kāsang’(Harris2008:186).

Shedescribedittome:

Oh…Oun133…thattime,theycapturedusjustbecausewescreamedbecauseof

hunger.TheycalledusNeaytunSakadePhum134.Wecouldn’tevensayaloud

Ounisatermusedtoaddressthoseyounger,oroflessersocialstatus,thanyourself.

134VillageLeader’sChild-aphraseusedtodescribechildrenwhocomplainalot.

thatwedidn’tgetenoughrice.I,myself,wasattheTuolKrosangdam135,ohmy

god,Iatesixbananasthesizeofthetoesinsteadofrice,andthemorningglory

soupwascookedsometimeswithrootsandsmallfish.Weateitjustforthesake

ofeating.Iftherewasacameraatthattime,you’dseehowthinIwas.Just

steppingovergrassIwouldtripandfall.Duringtheregime…letmetellyou,so

manydied.Somediedofsickness,somediedbecausetheycomplained,like:‘I

wishwehadthisorthatfood’or‘I’mnotfull….’Theywouldtakeustobuildus

up(kāsang)becausetheydidn’twantustothinkofthepast.Itwassodifficult….

ButaccordingtoBuddhism,Ihadgoodkarma.That’showIsurvived.

OmPichconsideredkarmatobetheonlyadequateexplanationastowhyshe,a

disabledperson,hadsurvivedwhilstother,non-disabledpeoplehaddied:

Allofthesedeadpeoplemusthavehadbadkarmainthereligion.Yes,nowyou

thinkaboutit-theywerestrongandphysicallyhealthy.Whataboutme?How

couldIsurvive?ImetaDonChee(laynun),achiefmonk,anâchar(laypriest).

Thechiefmonkwasdisrobedandhadtocarryagun.Hetoldmeso.Buthow

comeIstayedalive?

Oneofthosewhohaddiedwasherbrother.Aftertheregime,shehadrunintoan

oldneighbourwhohadworkedinhiscommune:

Hetoldme‘Iworkedwithyourbrother.Whenwefinishedcarryingsoil,he

showered,andthenhisnamewascalledout.Theykilledhim.

TheneighbourtoldOmPichwhohaddonethekilling,thathewasstillalive,and

toldherwherehelived.

OneofthemanydamsbuiltundertheKhmerRougerule.

IthoughtIwantedrevenge.ButthenIthoughtabouttheBuddhistteaching-

thatitwasprobablyhisbadkarmafromapastlife,soitwaslikethat.

Thoughherbrotherwasonlyayoungmanwhenhewaskilled,hisdeathwasa

consequenceofactionsfromapreviouslife.OmPich,therefore,didnotneedto

seekrevenge;hisdeathwasinevitable.Thoughthereisanelementoffatalismin

thiskindofthinking,itdoesnotmeanthatactionsinthislifearemeaninglessand

havenoeffect.Quitethecontrary:thekarmicforceofevildeedsissostrongthat

itwillpotentiallyaffectpeopleformanylivestocomeandallsubsequentactions

arethereforeimportant.

Discussion

InLambek’sconsiderationofcontinuousanddiscontinuouspeoplehearguesthat

discontinuouspersons(i.e.thosereincarnatedwhoaresimultaneously

themselvesandanother)presentameansbywhichhistoricalperiods,andpeople

withinthem,canbeconnectedthroughretrospectiveandimaginarybridges

betweentime.ForLambek,thosereincarnated(orpossessedbyspirits)

materialisethepast,andthereforeenabletheseimaginativeconnectionstobe

InCambodiathosereincarnatedarerarelyfiguresfromthedistantpast(ancestors

andpowerfulhistoricalfigureshaveinsteadbecomepowerfulboromeyspirits

whopossessspiritmediumsandprovidethemaccesstoknowledge).Insteadthey

arereincarnatedfromrecenthistory,andratherthanparticularepochs,embody

relationships.Thatsaid,thosereincarnatedarenotalwaysknowntothosethey

cometo,andparticularlyinthecaseofthosereincarnatedfrompeoplekilled

duringtheKhmerRougeregime,theconnectionbetweenpeopleofferedby

reincarnationprovidesameansofreintegratingthemassdeadintocontemporary

AswesawinthecasesofDaandBongLaandhissons,thosewhodiedduringthe

regimehavenotbeenforgotten,nordotheyremainnameless,despitemost

remaininginmassgravesandneverhavinghadfuneralceremoniesperformedfor

them.Thoughritualsdonotoccur,peoplecanbereborn:thisoffershopeand

reassurancetomany.AsErikDavisnotesinhisdiscussionofMissYaan’s

continuinglives,itisintheeverydaylivesofpeoplethattheculturaldesiderataof

orderandjusticeisenacted(Davis2008:129);implicitinthereincarnationofDa’s

son,BongLa’schildren,andBongLahimself,isthedesireforanewlifebeing

offeredtothosefromwhomitwastornduringtheregime.

LōkOm’ssonBroh,meanwhile,exemplifieshowreincarnationprovidesameans

ofrepairing,orcontinuing,rupturedrelationships.Inaddition,itenablesnew

connectionsandrelationshipstobemadeamongststrangersandneighbours.

Beingtiedthroughreincarnationofferspotentialbenefitsforbothsides:in

additiontoprovidingcomforttotheoriginalfamily(throughknowingwhoand

wheretheirlovedoneshavebeenreborn),itreinforcesorextendsthenetworks

ofkinandsupport,sometimesacrossvastswathesofland.AsDavisnotes(2008:

TheCambodianfamilymapslargerCambodiansocietymoreflexiblythandoes

thetraditionalWesternfamily.Familyboundariesappearloose,andvarious

typesofadoption,god-parenting,andotherformsof‘fictivekinship’havebeen

created….Thisnetworkoffamilymembersdefinesanddelimitstheboundaries

ofthesocialworld,thelandonemaysafelytravel,thepeopleonemaytrustand

uponwhomonemayrely,andthenetworksandintimaciesthatcomposeour

emotionalgeographies,thosespaceswherewerecognizetheemotional

landmarksandwherewecannavigatewithmoreexperienceandconfidencethan

withstrangers.

Reincarnationprovidesoneofthemanymodesofmakingconnectionsand

strengtheningandextendingkinshipnetworksinthefragilepost-conflictworldof

Cambodia.Thisisavitalelementofprovidingstabilityinacountrystillfraught

withdifficultiesandongoingstructuralanddirectviolencebythegovernment

againstitspeople,wheretrust,destroyedduringtheregime(whenchildrenkilled

parents,loversbetrayedeachother,andfriendsbecamebitterenemies)remains

elusive.

Therelationshipsformedthroughreincarnationnotonlyprovideacontinuance

betweenthelivingandthedead,butalsobetweenthepastandpresenteras.

Peopledonotend;andwhilsttheymayhavebothforensicandmimetic

propertiesofpersonhood(Lambek2013),manytransformintootherbeings.This

metamorphosis,asGupta(2002:49)callsit,providesstabilityandreassurance

becauseofthecontinuityallowedbythetranspositionofsomeessentialqualities

ofthepersonthathappenswithreincarnation:alook,awayofspeaking,marks

onabody(aswesawwithSreyandherbirthmarks):

Insteadofemployinganideaofgrowth,withitscorollaryofteleological

directionality,weneedtodrawuponanotionofmetamorphosisor

transformation.Metamorphosisemphasizescontinuityandsurvival;itinvolves

nottheobliterationorannihilationoftheselfasitsfinalstagebutatransposition

ofsomeofitsessentialqualities.Inthefluxandflowofhumanpropertiesacross

bodilyinscriptions,reincarnationstressescontinuitywhereideasofgrowthcould

onlyseediscontinuity.

Thedifferenttemporalitiesthatexistwithinreincarnationarenotonlyabout

linkingpeople,theyalsolinkdifferentperiods:reincarnatedbeingsarecomplexes

ofhistoricalerasandsopresentcontinuationbetweenthoseeras,mostsaliently,

betweenthetimebeforechaosdescendedonCambodiaintheformofcivil

conflictandtheKhmerRougeregime,andthemorestableexistencefeltbymany

today.

ThisrelatestoBuddhistnotionsofthecircularityoftimeinitswidestsense,made

explicitwithinBuddhistpropheciessuchasthePutTumneay136.Theseprophecies

(whichsomeofmyinformantscalledbunaatasaa-‘curses’)dictateanexistence

incontinualfluxbetweenperiodsofprosperityandperiodsofdevastation.Most

ofthepropheciesarehighlymetaphorical,however,theyarere-examinedinlight

ofwhathappens.Ashootingstarin1969,forexample,wasasignofwarforan

employeeattheMinistryofCultandReligionIinterviewed,whoalsousedan

ancientpredictiontoshowmehowancientBuddhistphilosophershadpredicted

theoverthrowingofSihanoukbyGeneralLonNolin1970:

Amythicalbirdleavesitsnest,fliestocatchanotherbird,butwhenahunter

comes,thebirdleavesthemythicalbird.Canyoutranslatethis?Thisprediction

hadexistedsincealongtimeago.Butifyouthinkaboutthecoupd’étatin1970,

you’llseethatitmatchedtheprediction.

136PuthTumneaytranslatesas‘ThePredictionsofPuth’.TheseareancientpredictionswithinKhmerBuddhism,manyofwhicharepassedbetweenpeoplebywordofmouth.IheardseveralvariationsthroughoutmytimeinCambodia,butthepredictionmostcommonlyrelatedtometoexplaintheKhmerRougeregimewas:‘Bangkokro'lum;PhnomPenhro'leay;Battambangkmchatkmchay;sabbaiAngkorWat’–‘Bangkokwillcollapse;PhnomPenhwillbedestroyed;Battambangwillbescattered;happinesswillreturntoAngkorWat.’

Othersputitmoreplainly.OmPichtoldme‘ithadtohappen.’‘Therewillalways

betimesofdeath:itisthecurseofBuddhism.’Thesecurses,however,donot

affecteveryoneequally:therearenotionsofjusticeboundupintheir

interpretationthatrelatetokarma.

ThecaseofOmPichandherfamily,particularlyherbrother,illustratehowkarma

isusedtoinvokenotionsofjustice.OmPichsurvived,whenmanyothersdidnot,

becauseofherkarma.Herfamily,friends,andthousandsofothersaroundher,

sufferedanddiedbecauseoftheirs.Likewise,whenLōkOmspokeofhissonwho

haddiedandthedaughterhenowhas,hepronouncedtheirdeathstobetheir

‘karma’.Ashe,andseveralotherstoldme:‘webelieveinbon/baap:goodand

evil-ifyoudogood,youwillreceivegood,ifyoudoevil,youwillreceiveevil.’

Theyhadtodiebecauseactsinpreviousliveshadgiventhem‘bad’karma.

Thenotionofjusticeisnotlimitedtopeople’stimeofdeath.Thekarmicforceof

theactscommitted(inthislifetimeandpreviousones)determinesintowhichof

therealmsofsamsarayouwillbereborn.AsHintonexplains(2008:78),

Buddhismoffers‘asortofontologicaljusticeforthevictims’inCambodia,

providingasystemofrewardandpunishment,regardlessofhowcontemporary

societydealswithpasttransgressions.Justiceisalsoplayedoutinrelationto

whereandwhenpeoplearereincarnated.LōkOm’ssonBrohhadgoodkarma:he

wasthereforeborntoalocalfamilyclosetoLōkOm.Sreylikewisehadgood

karmahetoldme–madeevidentbyherprogressionfromVietnamesetoKhmer.

ThekarmaofDa’sson,however,wasnotsogood,sohewasreborntostrangers

ofalowersocialclassthanwherehecamefrom.Justiceisthusmaterialisedby

theplaceandtimeofbirth,aswellaswithintheassurancethatperpetratorswill

suffercosmologicalpunishment.

TiedinwithBuddhistnotionsofforgivenessandlettinggoofanger(Hinton2008:

76),karmaprovidesawayofacceptingthemillionsofdeathscausedbythe

KhmerRouge;ultimatelyeachindividualisresponsiblefortheirownkarma,inthis

andotherlives.Adherencetothisconceptenablespeopletolivein

contemporaryCambodia,whereKhmerRougeperpetratorsliveopenlyinthe

populationwithoutseekingrevenge.Thiscanbere-assuringinacountrywherea

cultureofimpunitycondonesviolencepastandpresent,wheremanyex-Khmer

Rougecadreholdpositionsofauthority,andwhereithasbeendeclaredthatonly

fiveperpetratorswilleverbeprosecutedintheUN-backedKhmerRougetrials-a

movearguedtoensurethePrimeMinisterandotherinfluentialpoliticianswill

remainuntouched(Sperling2009:137).

Inaddition,itoffersanavenueofpotentialreconciliationforCambodianpeople–

knowingthattheirkarmawillensureKhmerRougecadrearepunishedbytheir

rebirthintotherealmsoftanarout(theunderworld)oraspreta(hungryghosts)

andunderstandingthatpeople’sdeathswereduetotheirownkarma,prevents

peopleseekingrevenge,asOmPichexplained.ItisthiscertaintythatledKok

ThayEng,aseniorresearcherattheDocumentationCenterofCambodia,a

researchfacilitywhoseaimisto‘helpCambodianshealthewoundsofthepastby

documenting,researching,andsharingthehistoryoftheKhmerRouge’(DC-Cam

2012),tousekarmaandreincarnationasapleaforforgivenessandreconciliation

withintheKhmerpopulation,inanewspaperarticlepublishedin2010:

TheenormityofthecrimescommittedbyleadersoftheKhmerRougecould

makethemtheworstbret137(lostorwanderingghostswhohavecommitted

serioussinsduringtheirlifetimesandcannotbereborn)ofall,whowouldalways

behungryandwanderingwithoutdestination.Iftheycanbeforgivenby

survivors,theirprospectforlifeafterdeathcouldbeimproved(Eng2010).138

Somebelievethisisalreadyhappening.Realmsofexistencearenotonly

ontologicalrealities,butalsometaphoricalmaterialisations.Anadvisoratthe

MinistryofCultandReligionsummarisedthiswhenwemetoneafternooninan

officeattheBuddhistUniversity.Theendemiccorruptionandviolencein

contemporaryCambodia,hetoldme,isduetothesereincarnatedKhmerRouge

stalkingthecountryaspreta;hungryghostswhopreyontheliving:

Thespiritsthatwebelievedwerehauntingwereactuallymorethanjust

haunting.Theyarethespiritsofmorethantwomillionwhodiedwithoutcare.

Thesespiritscamebackintohumanbodiesandcausedthemtokilloneanother,

likedrinkingeachother’sbloodforthosespirits.Khmer[people]usedtorespect

eachother,respecttheirparents,respectteachersandleaders.Theyusedto

loveandhelpeachother.Nowtheydon’tloveandhelpeachotheranymore.

Childrendon’tknowtheirparents.Andtheyfightwitheachother.Thismeans

theyhaunteachother.Inthepast,ghostshauntedindifferentways...Butnow

theyhauntinaformofmurdering,hauntingbyputtinghumanbeingagainst

humanbeing.Peoplearelosingtheirmorality.Andoncetheylosetheirmorality

andwhentheyaresousedtoseeingthekilling,theyfollowthat.Theykilleach

other.Whentheyseecorruption,theyfollowit….Thelawsaysthis;theydo

137Althoughtranscribedhereasbret,theKhmerwordforhungryghostsisusuallytranscribedaspretorpreta.

138ItisnotonlyforKhmerRougecadrethatformsofincarnationprovideatypeofcosmicjustice;someconsidertransgendermalestohavebeenfemalesinapreviouslifewhostolethehusbandorpartnerofanother(Drennan2013).

that.Forexample,thelawdoesn’tallowdeforestation,buttheycutdownthe

trees.Thelawdoesn’tallowmurder,buttheykilleachother.Thelawdoesn’t

allowrobbery,buttheyrob.

Theadvisorwasnotreferringtothepossessionofhumansbymalevolentspirits;

hewasusingpretaasbothmetaphorfortheendemiccorruptionofcontemporary

Cambodia,andasanexplanationforwhyitisoccurring:reincarnationin

Buddhismcanleadtosomebeingreincarnatedasspirits,andpowerfulspiritscan

sometimestaketheformofhumans.Pretacanonlybereleasedfromtheir

suffering(andCambodiafromtheirsinisterpresence)oncetheyarereborn.For

thattheyneedtoaccumulatemerit,somethinghardtodoifyouareapreta.

However,itcanbedone.Thepopulationhasfundedmostofthepagodasthat

havebeenrebuiltsincethedemiseoftheregime,withthelargestdonationsoften

comingfrompoliticiansorbusinessmenandwomenasamodeofmerit-making.

Thesameistrueoftheconcretecheddei(stupasforthedead)thathavebeen

builtinrecentyearstoreplacethewoodenp’teahkhmouch(houseofthedead)

thatusetocontaintheremainsofthosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRouge.Some

ex-KhmerRougecadrehavebecomeâchar(layBuddhistpriests),donchee(nuns),

orelderswholiveinpagodasandtakecareofthemonks.Theseareallgreat

sourcesofgainingmerit,whichcanbeaccumulatedtocounteractthekarma

alreadycollected.MeritisalsopassedtothedeadatBuddhistceremoniesthat

occuronregularoccasions.Althoughoccasionallyorganisedspecificallyfordead

relatives,thisformofmeritmaking(tveabon)hasbeenincorporatedintothe

annualritualcycle,andprimarilyoccursduringPchumBenh,andatKhmerNew

YearinApril,aswesawinchaptertwo.

Conclusion

JudyLedgerwood,whohasspentmanyyearsworkingacrossruralCambodia,

wrotethatpost-DemocraticKampuchea,manyBuddhistpracticeshavebecome

embodiedactsofrememberingtheperiodbeforetheKhmerRouge,recreating

sensesofplaceandbelonging(Ledgerwood2008:159).Indoingsotheyprovide

comfortandstability,particularlytotheelders,becausetheypresentamarkerof

continuancebetweenthenandnow,somehowlesseningthechaosthatthe

KhmerRougeperiodthrewthecountryinto:

IfyouaskruralKhmeraboutBuddhismtodayyouarelikelytogetthereplythat

Buddhismismuchthesameasitwasbeforewarandrevolutiondevastatedtheir

country.Whatisdifferenttoday,theywillsay,isthemoralityofthepeople,their

inabilitytoliveaccordingtothetenetsofBuddhism.Thisthemeisconsistent

withastandarddiscourseofcrisisandreformationinBuddhisthistory–timeis

cyclicalwithperiodsofglory,prosperityandlonglifethatalternatewithperiods

ofdeath,destructionanddespair(Ledgerwood2008:147).

Thischapterhasshownhowreincarnationandkarmaactinthesamewayforthe

peoplewhodiedduringtheperiod(and,ofcourse,whodienow).AsLambek

asserts,theyprovideacontinuity,bothwiththepersonthemselves,andwiththe

erabeforethewars.Theyofferameansofmakingsenseoftheperiod,and

narratingittoday.Theyenablethenarrationofthechaoticandterrifyingperiod

ofDemocraticKampuchea,intoanormalisedandunderstandablecosmological

contextbywhichthedeadcanbereintegratedintosociety.

Thisisonlypossiblebecauseoftheself-containedsystemsofBuddhismand

animismexistinginCambodia,whichwhilstflexibleandendlesslymalleable,

nevertheless,remainresistantintheirenduringpresence:

TheBuddhistcosmosisoverwhelminglyverticalandhierarchicalinitslogicof

organization,canonicinitsselfknowledge,everythinginitsrightfulplace,fully

continuouswithinitself,carefullycontrollingeverybeingwithinitself,through

itself.Thiscosmosisheldtogetherfromwithinitself(HandelmanandLindquist

2011:11).

ElementswithinBuddhismwereabletoexistthroughoutDemocraticKampuchea

andhavecontinuedintothenewCambodia,despitetheattemptatdestructionof

thereligion.Karmaandreincarnationaretwosuchelements.Whilstritualsorder

thepracticeofBuddhism,andtheSangha(themonasticorderofnunsandmonks)

organiseitsplacewithinthewidersociety,ultimatelyallpeoplecontinuetolivein

samsara,cyclingthroughrealmsofexistence,dyingandbeingrebornincontinued

dukkha(suffering)accordingtotheirkarma.Whetherritualsareconductedornot,

allwillbereborn.

Thedifferenttemporalitiesenabledbyreincarnationprovideconnectionsand

continuities:betweenthelivingandthedead,betweenpeopleandplaces,and

betweenhistoricalperiods.Inallowingpeopletomeetagainitconnectspeople

acrosstimeandspace,providingameansofextendingnetworksoftrustand

kinship.Thejusticeprovidedbykarmaprovidesasenseofredressand

retribution,aswellasareleasefromresponsibilityofsurvivors;withindividuals

beingultimatelyresponsiblefortheirownkarma,whichinfluencestheirdeaths,

thosewhosurvivedcanexplaintheirownsurvivalwhilstothersdied.Karma

explainsdeath,butalsooffersamodeofembodiedjustice;thosewhodieddidso

becauseoftheirkarma;thosewithgoodkarmaarerebornwithfamilyorfriends;

thosewithbadkarmawithstrangers;KhmerRougecadrearereincarnatedas

pretaorintotanarout,orinsomeextremecases,arestillwaitingtobereborn.

Theexplorationofkarmaandreincarnationinthischapterallowsforan

explorationbeyondmemory,tothesocialincorporationofthedeadinto

contemporaryCambodia.Initsmoststraight-forwardinterpretation,

reincarnationallowsforcontinuedattachmenttothedeadandthepossibilityof

meetingagain,andkarmaprovidesamodebywhichpeoplecanunderstandand

narratethechaosraineddownbytheKhmerRouge.Karmaalsoprovides

opportunitiesforcosmologicaljusticeandaresistancetothepervasivepolitical

impunityinCambodia.Reincarnationmeanwhile,enablesformsof

reincorporativekinshipthatextendssupportnetworksandrelationshipsoftrust

incontemporaryCambodia.Bothprovideimaginedcontinuancesbetweenthe

periodsbeforetheregimeandnow,andindoingso,allowfortherupturesand

disjuncturescausedbytheregimetobenarratedinthepresent.

Finallytheconceptsofreincarnationandkarma,aswellasotherBuddhist

conceptssuchasthecircularityoftime,offeranelementofstabilitytolifein

Cambodia.Theydonotimplythatnothingchanges,butthatchaosand

destruction,aswroughtbytheKhmerRouge,areelementsofBuddhistlife,andas

such,arebothinevitableandtransient.Regardlessofwhathappens,peoplewill

continuetoexistinsamsara,movingthroughcyclesofdeathandrebirth.Itis

thatinevitability,asmuchasthephysicalreincarnationofthosewholivedbefore

it,whichconnectsthe(relatively)peacefulerasbeforetheregimeandthe

present:noamountofkilling,noamountofritualdestruction,noamountof

devastation,canpreventrebirth–‘weareborn,wedie,wearebornagain.It’s

likethat’OmPichexplained.

SectionThree:GraveConcerns

Chapterfive:Pastpresent,presentpast–politicsinCambodia

Thegovernmenttakesoutthebonestoscarepeople:

–thiswastheKhmerRouge.

-OmTa,onthedisplayofremainsatmemorialsites.

********

Whilethedeadaresociallysalientbeingswhointeractwiththelivingandthus

affectthewaytheyareconceivedandrelatedto,theirspacesofdeathandburial

areopentointerpretationandappropriationforstateandinternationalpolitics,

aswellasindividualneeds.Aswith(most)massgravesandtheirmemorialsites,

politicsrendershowthosefromtheKhmerRougeregimearepresentedand

experienced.InCambodia,thosethatare‘remembered’publicallyarehighly

politicizedsitescentraltothere-workingofnarrativesoftheregime.The

selectionofwhichsitesarecommemoratedandwhicharenotisapolitical

statement,makingvisiblethecontainedculpabilityofonlyafewnamedKhmer

Rougeleaders,andtherebyrenderinginnocentthehundreds(ifnotthousands)of

lowergradecommanderswhowereactuallyresponsibleforthemajorityofthe

killing,manyofwhomstillholdpositionsofpowerinregionalandlocal

governmentsacrossCambodia.Sitesthatare‘forgotten’meanwhilenegatethese

simplisticnarrationsandprovideothercontestednarrativestostateand

internationalnarrativesontheregime.

Movingonfromconsiderationsoftheeverydayinteractionsandindividual

relationshipsbetweenthelivingandthedeadthatwereexploredinthelast

section,thenextthreechaptersallconcernnationalpoliticalusesforthemass

graves,showinghowthegovernmenthascommodifiedthedeadandtheirgraves

asinstrumentsofstatepoliticsandthebuildingofa‘new’Cambodia–in

developmentandtheretentionofpower.Itwilldothisbyconsideringstate

relationshipstothosekilledthroughthespacesoftheirgraves,examininghow

politicscontrolsknowledgeaboutthem(whichcanbeknownandwhichare

forgotten),andhowthegravesandtheirdeadareputtoworkforparticular

politicalendsthroughtheuseofspecificmemorialsitesthatdisplaytheskeletal

remainsofthosewhodied.

Thischapterexaminesthepoliticallandscape,discussinghowitcameintoplace,

howsuccessivegovernmentshavenarratedtheKhmerRougeperiod,andthe

placeofthegravesandtheirdeadinthis.Acentralaspectofthisisa

considerationofthegravesandmemorialsthatareintegraltothispolitical

manoeuvring,forwhichthosekilledaremostusefulasanonymouspilesofdead,

allowingtheirrecognitionasamasscollectiveratherthanasindividualliveslost.

ItwillfirstexplaincontemporaryKhmerpolitics,introducingtherulingparty(the

CambodianPeople’sParty)andtheirrisetopower,beforelookingatthewaysthe

deadandthegraveshavebeenusedpoliticallysince1979,exploringtheselective

memorialisationoftheperiod,thechoiceanddismissalofsitesinofficialrecords,

and,thewaythedead’s‘stagedbodies’(Feldman1991:8)areputtoworkas

agentsofviolenceindisplayofhumanremains.

Bydoingsoitlaysthegroundworkforthenexttwochapterswhichexamine

specificwaysinwhichthegravesareusedpolitically,bylookingattheuseof

ChoeungEkfortourismasameansofeconomicdevelopment,politicalstability,

andfuturesocialimprovement(chaptersix),andthemaintenanceofpower

throughtheharnessingofthespectralpresenceoftheKhmerRougeinpolitical

campaigning(chapterseven).

PoliticsincontemporaryCambodia

Officiallyaconstitutionaldemocracy,contemporaryCambodiais,inreality,a

countryofauthoritarianrulewithadomineeringPrimeMinister(HunSen),whois

notadversetoviolenceandextremeviolationofhumanrights139.Hisparty,the

CambodianPeople’sParty(CPP),remainsincontroltodaythroughamixtureof

force,intimidation,corruption,andadroitpoliticalmanipulation,inwhichthe

KhmerRougeperiod,itsdead,andtheirgraves,arevital.Thoughtheyhave

fluctuatedinimportanceinpoliticaldiscoursewithsuccessivegovernments,being

demonisedduringthePRK,and‘buried’inthelate1990sandearly-mid2000s

(Chandler2008),theyhaverecentlyresurgedassitesofpoliticalpower.This

resurgencemostlikelyrelatestotheestablishmentofthetheExtraordinary

ChambersintheCourtsofCambodiain2006(theECCC,akatheKhmerRouge

TrialsorKhmerRougeTribunal),atwhichpointitbecamemostusefulforthe

governmenttore-harnesstheregimeanditshorrificviolence.

HunSenhasoneoftheworsthumanrightsrecordsforany‘democratic’leader.ThelistofviolationsundertheCPPisextensive,including:politicalkillings;torture;extrajudicialdetention;arbitraryarrests;summarytrials;censorship;bansonassembly;violentrepressionofprotests;anationalnetworkofspiesandinformantsusedtofrightenandintimidatethepublicintosubmission;theobstructionoftheKhmerRougetrials;andimpunitytotheendemiccorruptionthroughoutthegovernmentandcivilsociety(HumanRightsWatch2015a).

TheCPPhaseffectivelyruledCambodiainoneformoranothersincethedeposing

oftheKhmerRouge,withthecurrentPrimeMinister,HunSen,atitshelmsince

1985140.AtitscoreareseveralformerKhmerRougecadrewhodefectedto

Vietnamin1977and1978,andwhohaveformedpartofeverygovernmentsince

1979,includingthePrimeMinisterHunSen,partyChairmanHengSamrin,andthe

formerpartyandSenatePresident,thelateCheaSim141.FollowingVietnam’s

invasionofCambodiainDecember1978,thesedefectorsformedFUNSK(Front

d'UnionNationalepourleSalutduKampuchéa-KampucheanUnitedFrontfor

NationalSalvation):asmallpartywhichwasbackedbytheVietnamese

administrationandputintogovernmentduringthePeople’sRepublicof

Kampuchea(PRK:1979–1993)astheKampucheanPeople’sRevolutionary

Party142.FollowingtheVietnamesewithdrawalfromCambodiain1989,theparty

continuedtorule,changingitsnametotheCPPin1991inpreparationforthe

1993UNTAC143managedelections,whichweretoheraldthebeginningofa‘fully

Nowthesixthlongestrunningleaderofanycountryintheworld,HumanRightsWatch(2015)reportthatHunSenhasbeenabletojoin‘anexclusiveclubofmennowinpowerwho,throughpoliticallymotivatedviolence,controlofthesecurityforces,manipulatedelections,massivecorruption,andthetacitsupportofforeignpowers,havebeenabletoremaininpowerwellbeyondthetimeanyleaderinagenuinelydemocraticpoliticalsystemhaseverserved.’

141HunSenjoinedtheKhmerRougein1968,wasacommanderintheEasternZoneduringDK;

foreignministerinthePRKfrom1979–1985;andPrimeMinistersincethen.HengSamrinwasaKhmerRougearmydivisioncommander;PrimeMinisterinthePRKfrom1979–1981;andisnowPresidentoftheNationalAssemblyandCPPChairman.CheaSimwasaKhmerRougecommanderofEasternZone20;MinisteroftheInteriorinthePRKfrom1979–1981;PresidentoftheNationalAssemblyfrom1981–1998;andPresidentofthepartyfrom1991,andtheSenatefrom1999,untilhisdeathinJune2015.HunSendefectedin1977,andHengSamrinandCheaSimin1978followingafailedrevoltbydissidents(includingthemselves)againstPolPot,whichledtothemostbloodypurgesoftheregime(BartropandJacobs2015).AlthoughinsufficientevidencehasbeenfoundtoindictHunSenforhisactionsduringDK(Peou2013),in2006evidencerelatedtoHengSamrinandCheaSimwaspresentedtotheECCCforinvestigation,however,thesewerenotpursued,allegedlyduetopoliticalcontrolofthecourtsbyHunSen(HumanRightsWatch2015b).

142AtthistimetheyweretheonlylegalpartyofCambodia.

143TheUnitedNationsTransitionalAuthorityinCambodia(UN-TAC)administeredCambodiafrom

1992–1993andmanagedthe1993electionsaspartofthe1991ParisPeaceAccordsorganizedtoendtheconflictsinCambodia.Thepeaceaccordsmandatedthedisarmamentoffightingfactions,mineclearance,theimplementationofanewdemocraticconstitutionaldemocracyandimprovedhumanrightsamongotherthings(USIP2015).

realisedpluralistliberaldemocracy’inCambodia(Gray2014:56)somethingthey

categoricallyfailedtodo.Despitelosingtheelections,bythreatofviolenceHun

Senforcedacoalitionwiththemajoritywinners,FUNCINPEC144,beforetaking

completecontrolaftercivilconflictsin1997145.SincethattimetheCPPhaswon

everyelectionwithasubstantialmajority(until2013,seechapterseven).An

employeeattheMinistryofCultandReligionsummeditupformeaswechatted

oneafternoon:

TheelectionorganizedbyUNTACwasjustandfair.FUNCINPECwon.Butafter

that,inelectionswithoutinternationalmonitors,[they]neverwonagain.

MuchofthelongevityoftheCPPisconsideredtobetheresultoffear,

intimidation,andwidespreadcorruption:electioncampaignsaretingedwith

violenceandrepression,andpoliticalviolenceisrife,includingtheassassination

ofpoliticalrivalsandcritics,violentintimidationofvoters,andextensive

bureaucraticviolence.

Centraltotherulingparty’sdiscourseisaconstructednarrativeinwhichthe

party,withHunSenatthehelm,emancipatedCambodiafromtheKhmerRouge,

144SetupbyPrinceSihanouk,FUNCINPECstandsfortheFrontUniNationalpourunCambodgeIndépendant,Neutre,Pacifique,etCoopératif-the‘NationalUnitedFrontforanIndependent,Neutral,Peaceful,andCooperativeCambodia.’FUNCINPECwaspartoftheCoalitionGovernmentofDemocraticKampuchea(1982–1993)–agovernmentformedinexilebutexertingsomecontroloverthecountry-thatincludedtheKhmerRougeaswellasRoyalistfactions.

145ThereissomedebateastohowpowerwaswrestedfromthecoalitiontotheCPP.ThepressandinternationalorganisationssuchasHumanRightsWatchcontenditwasabloodycoupbyHunSen(Adams2007;Efron1997;GarellaandPape2005;HumanRightsWatch2015);whileothersargueforamorenuancedanalysis(bothoftheeventandthevalue-ladenterm‘coup’)duetothehistoricalcomplexityandresultingoutcomesofpoliticalstability(Kevin1999;Ledgerwood2010).Oppositionparties,however,haveusedthedateofthiseventintheirpoliticalpropaganda:in2002,FUNCINPECmovedtheiranniversarycelebrationstothedateoftheclashes(July5-6)(althoughtheylaterstoppedthis),andin2014and2015,themainoppositionparty(theCNRP)heldcommemorationservicesinPhnomPenhfortheevent.PoliticalcommentatorsagreethatthemainpurposeofsucheventsistoremindthepublicoftheviolenceandterrorcausedbytheCPP(Meas2014;Vong2015).

andbywhichonlyheandhispartycanmaintainorderandpeace,withoutwhich,

theregimewillriseonceagain.ThedeadoftheKhmerRouge,aswellasthe

spectralpresenceoftheregime,arecentraltothemanipulationofCambodia’s

collectivenarrationofitsliberation.Thisisparticularlystrikingbecauseofwho

theleaders,andanumberoftheCPPofficialsacrossthecountry,are-former

cadre,manyofwhomheldpositionsofrankduringtheKhmerRougeregime.

WhilecentralgovernmentofficialssuchasHunSen,HengSamrin,andCheaSim

areamongstthese,therearemanyothersbesides;OmJah,whoIworkedwithin

Kep,isaparticularexample.Nowaquiet,elderlyman,heisawell-respected

memberofthelocalcommunecouncilforasmallvillageatthefoothillsof

PhnomGrahom.OmJahwaswarmandwelcoming,andwassurroundedby

peoplewheneverIsawhim.Helavishedlovingattentiononhismany

grandchildren,andwasviewedaskindandgenerousbythecommunity.The

villagehelivesinispeacefulandrelativelyprosperous,afactormanylocalpeople

attributedtoreliableandconsistentleadership,includinghis(Hull2013).

ThroughouttheKhmerRougeregime,however,hislifewasverydifferent.One

ofthreehighrankingcommandersinthearea,heledacohortofcadrerenowned

forviolenceanddisruption(‘theyusedtosay,‘ifyouwanttofight,comewithme

toPhnomGrahom,’hetoldme).Intheearly1970s,disillusionedwiththe

government,andangryabouttheUSbombingthatdevastatedthecountry,he

hadjoinedtheguerrillaKhmerRougearmyintheforestsofKep,andwassoon

promotedtocaptain.Althoughhesupportedtheiraims,itwasadifficulttime:

thereweresomanyproblemsfrombombs;weaponslikeIdon’tunderstand.So

manyordinarypeoplewerekilled,someburned,somecremated;wholefamilies

gone.ItmadethepeopleveryangrywiththeUSandthegovernment[ofLon

Nol].Peoplediedintheforestandwereeatenbyanimals;thesmellwasterrible.

Itwasaterribletime.

OncetheKhmerRougetookcontrolofthecountry,theareabecamehometotwo

prisonsandseveralkillingfields,andalthoughthecadrecoulddescendfromthe

forests,itremainedwildanduntamed.‘Theforestsarefullofskeletons’the

districtchieftoldmewhenIfirstarrivedinthearea.AfterthedemiseofDK,when

VietnamesetroopsforcedtheKhmerRougetowithdraw,manycadre,including

OmJah,wentbacktotheforest,anditremainedoneofthelaststrongholdsofthe

KhmerRouge,wheretheysurviveduntilthelate1990s.146

PeacewasfinallybrokeredundertheWin-winpolicyofthelate1990s.Attributed

toHunSen,thewin-winpolicygaveamnestyandaparallelpositionwithinthe

newgovernmenttoKhmerRougecommanderswholaiddowntheirarmsand

defected.147Bythemid1990smanycadreweretiredoffightingandtheconstant

struggleoflifeintheforests.InPhnomGrahom,thoughlocalvillagerssupported

thembybringingfoodandmedicalsupplies,manybecamesickanddied.During

thetransitionalperiodbeforethe1993elections,UNTACsoldierscametoKampot

totryandbrokerpeace.Althoughtheydidnotenterthearea(itwasdeemedtoo

dangerous),severaloftheKhmerRougecommanders,includingOmJah,went

downtomeetthem.

146TheKhmerRougeretainedcontrolofsomeareasinKepandAnlongVeng,andfrequently

raidedvillagesacrossthecountryforsupplies.TheyalsoransomeoftherefugeecampsattheThai-Cambodianborder,fundingtheirexistencethroughgemandtimbersmuggling,andviaassistancefromChinaandThailand(Lischer2006;Pear1988).147

Thiswasnotthefirstinstanceofamnestybeingoffered.In1979,inpartnershipwiththe‘showtrail’ofPolPotandIengSary,immunitywasofferedbytheVietnamesetoanyformerKhmerRougememberswillingtoworkagainstDemocraticKampuchea(HederandTittimore2001:7).

ThiswasthebeginningofthepeaceprocessforPhnomGrahom.Theseinitial

talksopenedthepossibilityofofficialnegotiationsbetweenthegovernmentand

theKhmerRouge.148‘TheKhmerRougewerelikebamboo’OmJahexplained:‘to

bendityouneedtodoitlittlebylittle.’Oncethepossibilityofcompromisewas

conceded,andtheKhmerRougeofficersinagreement,defectionbecamea

conceivablefuturethattooklittletimetoenable.

Althoughacontroversialpolicy,becauseoftheimpunityitgavetoformerKhmer

Rouge,thewin-winpolicyis,arguably,theonlywaypeacecouldhavebeenmade

inCambodiaatthetime;itwastheonlywayhigh-rankingKhmerRougeofficials

suchasKhieuSamphan(HeadofStatefortheKhmerRouge)andNuonChea

(BrotherNumberTwo)couldmakepeacewithoutlosingface149,andthis,

alongsideitscriticaltiming(whenmostcadrewerewearyoffighting,butneeded

awaytobeabletolaydownarms),madeitremarkablysuccessful(Hull2013).

HunSenandtheCPPhavetakenthissuccessandturneditintoacentralnarrative

supportingtheircurrentpositionasleadersofthecountry.Theyhavecombined

itwiththeirpresenceintheinitialVietnamese-backedgovernmentofpost-Khmer

RougeCambodiatocreateanarrativethattheysavedCambodia,andthatonly

theycanmaintainpeaceandpreventtheKhmerRougerisingagain(seechapter

seven).

Althoughofficiallyonoppositesides,thegovernmentandKhmerRougesoldiersinPhnomGrahomhadbeenworkingtogetherforyears.ItwasthegovernmentsoldierswhotoldtheKhmerRougewhenatrainwascoming,andtheysharedthespoilsaftereachambush.‘Itwaslikeagame,’aformercadreintheareacommented:‘wefoughtinthedayanddranktogetheratnight.’

149InAugust2014KhieuSamphanandNuonCheabothreceivedlifesentencesforCrimesAgainst

HumanityinCase002oftheECCC.Theirindictmentsin2007causedsomeresentmentandnervousnessamongstformercadre–OmJahtoldmethatmanypeoplefeltangryaboutthis,notbecausetheydidnotfeelliketheyhadcommittedterriblecrimes,orthatCambodianeededsomeformofjustice,butbecausetheyhadbeenpromisedimpunitywhentheydefected.HefeltHunSenhadgonebackonhisword,whichwasmakingsomeex-cadrenervouswhileIwasthere.Becauseofthis,wheneverIworkedwithex-cadre,Ihadtobesuretoemphasisetheanonymityofmyresearch.

However,thisrenewedinterestintheregimeisrelativelyrecent,andanexample

ofthefluctuatingdiscoursesandnarrativesregardingthattime,something

illustratedbythetreatmentofremains,andthefluctuatingprivilegingand

selectivememorialisationofthegravesandthedead.

Raisingthedead:politicalusesofthedeadandtheirgraves

Aswehavealreadyseen,whilemanylocalpeoplelootedthegravesforvaluables,

theinitialattentionpaidtothemassgravesbythestatewasasevidenceof

atrocityasamodeofpoliticallegitimation150.Aswehavealreadyseen,the

VietnamesebackedgovernmentofthePRKexploitedanyevidencethatcouldbe

usedtosupporttheirruleandembedtheirnarrativesofpower.TheKhmerRouge

weredemonisedRouge,labelledas‘‘genocidal’and‘facist’toencourage

comparisonswithHitler’sGermanyandtodownplayDK’ssocialistcredentials’

(Chandler2008a:360).DemocraticKampucheabecameknownas‘samayaPot’-

thetimeofPolPot,andtheblameforallitscrimeslaidatthefeetof‘the

genocidalcliqueofPolPot,IengSaryandKhieuSamphan.’Thedeadandtheir

gravesbecamecentralcomponentsinthis.

Therewasnoshortageofphysicalevidence.DemocraticKampucheadidnothide

thedamageitwrought.Thepopulationwasemaciated,starving,andrifewith

disease.Thedeadlitteredthelandscape.Withindaysofbeinglocated,TuolSleng

prisonwasturnedintoamuseumforforeignjournalistsandvisitingdignitaries

(Chandler2008c;Tyner2012a).Althoughitwasnotofficiallyturnedintoamuseum

150Itiscommonformassgravestobeexploitedinsuchwayswhennewgovernmentstakeoverfrompreviouslybrutalregimes.Theyofferameansofdifferentiatingthemselvesfromtheoldregimeandsecuringtheirstatusassavioursoftheirnation;thiscanbeseenregularlyinthemedia,mostrecentlyinSyria,LibyaandIraq(Al-Jazeera2011;BBC2012;Crossley2014;Hassin2011;Mezzofiore2015).

until1988,in1980guardswereputatChoeungEk,andofficialsbroughtforeign

visitorstothesiteseveraltimesayear.Othergravesandtheirdeadbecamepartof

thislegitimation:AnneGuilloureportsthatfollowingtheVietnameseinvasion,many

localcommuneswereorderedtocollectbodiesfromthelocalfieldsandre-house

theminvillagememorialstupas(Guillou2012a,2012b).Inmanyareasgraveswere

notexcavatedforthis.Theydidnotneedtobe;therewereenoughbonesscattered

acrossthesurfaceofCambodiaanditwaseasytocollectthousandsofremainsfrom

these.Twoelderlyâchar(laypriests)fromavillageacrosstheriverfromKohSop,

BuMuoyandBuBpii,hadbeeninvolvedinthiscollection:

[BuMuoy]: Atthattime,theboneswerescatteredallovertheplace.That’s

whytheyaskedpeopletogotheretocollectthebones.They

werescatteredallovertheplace;somewerenearthepitsand

somewereneartheforest.Sowecollectedthem.

[BuBpii]: Theboneswerecollectedtoputindifferentpagodas:this

pagoda,thatpagoda…

[BuMuoy]: Theboneswerecollected.Whenitwasnew[immediatelyafter

liberation]theboneswerescatteredallovertheplaceandsome

hadthefleshattachedtothem.Thenthefleshgotrottenand

theboneswereallovertheplace,andwewenttocollectthe

bonestokeepinoneplace.ThatwasduringPRKafterthe

liberationofDemocraticKampuchea.

Whenyouwenttocollectthebones,werethebonesonthetop[thesurface]?

[BuMuoy]: Yes,theywereonthetop.

[BuBpii]: Yes,theywerenotburied.

In1982thePRKissuedadecreeorderingthatthephysicalevidenceof‘the

genocidalcliqueofPolPot,IengSeryandKhieuSamphan’shouldbepreserved.

Thesedecreesandordershavebeentakenasevidencethatthisiswhythegraves

wereexhumed;FawthropandJarvis(2004:217)statethat‘graveswereexcavated

bytheCambodiangovernmentintheearly1980s….’andCraigEtcheson(2005:

125)notesthata‘significantproportionofthemassgraveshasbeenexhumed

overtheyearsbyCambodiangovernmentauthorities….’Certainlythedeadwere

exploitedforthispurpose,althoughwhetherthemajoritywerefirstexcavatedby

governmentdecree,orbylocalslootingthemforvaluablesisdebatable:the

bodiesatallthesitesIvisitedduringmyresearch(sixteenlocationsacrossseven

provinces),exceptChoeungEk,wereinitiallyunearthedastheresultoflocal

interventions-peoplelootingthegravesforvaluables.Theseuneartheddead

werethencollectedtodisplayinp’teahkhmouch(builtundertheordersofthe

government)alongsidethosewhohadlaidonthesurface.151FawthropandJarvis

notethatMinKhin,oneoftheeightpeopleformingthePeople’sRevolutionary

CouncilofKampucheawhichfunctionedasthecabinetuntil1981,recallssending

adirectiveout‘throughthegovernmentalapparatustovillagelevelaskingthe

peoplenottotouchtheremainingphysicalordocumentaryevidence’ofthe

regime(2004:41).Thisdirectivewasanattempttotryandstopthedeletionof

theregime’smaterialpresenceintheformofbuildings,whichweretorndown

(usuallyformaterialsbutsometimesoutofanger)aswellasmassgraves,which

werebeinglooted.

DC-Cam’smappingdatasupportsthishypothesis.Ofthe47caseswheretheexcavation

methodisrecorded,onlyninereportbeingorderedbygovernmentdecree.35werereportedasbeingdugupbypeoplesearchingforvaluables,onebyfamilymemberslookingforrelatives(thiswasrare),andtheotherthreearenotmadeclear.FawthropandJarvis(2004),Etcheson(2005),andDC-Cam(2005)allacknowledgetheactionsofthosesearchingforvaluablesinthegraves;however,theyarenotattributedtobeingresponsibleforexhumingthebodies,orofbeingtheinitialmotivatorsforopeningthegravesinmanylocations,aspeopleoftentoldme.

Memorialisingviolence,forgettingnames

Whicheverthecase,theremainsbecameimportantevidenceofmassviolence

andusefulpoliticaltools;acrossthecountrytheboneswerecollected,cleaned,

lefttodry,andeventuallydisplayedinthewoodenp’teahkhmouchbuiltineach

districtundergovernmentorders.Thesecametoserveasmemorialsofthe

regime;DC-Camrecordsovereightyofthesehutsservingas‘local’152memorials,

withTuolSlengandChoeungEkfunctioningasnationalones.Memorials153

provideidealsitesfortheembeddingofnationalconstructionsofhistorical

narratives;warmemorialsinparticulararesitesatwhichthenationisconstructed

andreified(Mosse1991),because,asJennyEdkins(2003:16–17)assertsinher

bookTraumaandtheMemoryofPolitics,‘inthemostpart,memorialisationof

warisapracticethatreproducesstoriesofnationalgloryandheroism.It

produceslineartime,thetimeofthestate[which]caninscribethenationalmyth

ortheimaginedcommunity.’154Thisworksparticularlywellinthecaseof‘event-

centredframesformemory’(suchastheKhmerRougeregime)becausetheseare

‘amenabletonarrativeanddramaturgicalmodesofrepresentation’(White2006:

293).Insuchacase,thememorialisedeventorpeoplebecomeasymbolof

Thereferencetothesememorialsas‘local’memorialsissomewhatmisleading,implyingthatthesewereinitiatedbylaypeople,notthattheywereameansofdisplayingtheconsequencesoftheregimeacrossthenation,thusembeddingitsviolentremindersnomatterhowfarfromPhnomPenhyouare.

153Iusememorialstorefertomonumentsbuiltorpreservedtocommemorateeventsofthepast.

Eventscanalsobememorialised,ofcoursethroughliterature,art,dance,theatreandotherperformances.Thompson(2013)providesanexcellentexplorationofmemorialisationthroughartinCambodia,highlightingthetensionbetweenartisticexpressionandconsumptionandnationalconstructionsof‘truths’abouttheKhmerRouge,managedthroughtheDocumentationCentreofCambodia,whichcontrolsamonopolyonknowledgeandmemoryincontemporaryCambodia.

154Herbookillustrates,however,thatalthoughoftenseparated,personalmourningandthe

impositionofnationalmytharenotnecessarilyopposed,using,asanexample,thepartHolocaustmemorialsandcommemorationsinIsraelhaveplayedintheconstructionofanarrativethatsupportsthemilitarisationofthestate.

solidarityviaanemotionalpresentationofhistorythatisapowerfulenablerof

nationalsubjectivitybyrendering‘thecontextofviolenceoneofnational

sufferingandsacrifice’(ibid:296),andtherebypresentingthesubjectsofthe

memorialastheembodimentofnationalidentity.155

Theserepresentationsenableunified,politicallysalientstoriestobepresented

(‘rehearsedmemories’asCarolineWinter(2009)labelstheminherexamination

ofsocialmemoryofWW1inAustralia),andthroughtheirpresentationinthis

form,thesenarrativesbecomereiteratedinbothnationalandinternational

collectivememoryandfixedasstatichistoricalpresentations.Thisisarguablythe

caseinCambodia,whereitsturbulenthistoryhasbeenconsolidatedinpopular

internationaldiscourseintooneevent:destructionbytheKhmerRouge.Thishas

partlybeenachievedthroughtheamalgamationofnamelessdeadintostate

memorials,wheretheyhavecometorepresentCambodianswhosuffered,notat

thehandsofhundreds,possiblyeventhousands,oftheircountrymen,butbya

selectfew‘evil’KhmerRouge.JamesHolt(2012)arguesthatthePRKmemorials

directedstatesponsorednarrativesthatputthedeadtoworkinthenameofthe

newlyconstructedstate,tellingastoryofliberationandfreedomthatarguably

thePRKregimedidnotfullyepitomise;whileallowingpeopletoreturnhomeand

beginfarmingandworkingagain,thePRKstillstrictlycontrolledCambodia,

restrictingpeople’smovementandcontrollingreligionandlandownership.

Violencewasstillrife,extrajudicialimprisonmentscommon,andhundredsof

Thepremierexampleofthisis9/11memorialisations,wherethe‘greatsacrifices’ofthedeadareusedtojustifydevastatingmilitaryinterventionsacrosstheglobe.AmorerecentexampleistheshootingofholidaymakersinTunisia,whichhasbeenmanipulatedbythegovernmenttoexhibitthedeadasmartyrsinthe‘war’againstterrorism.

thousandsofpeopledied,fromdiseaseandstarvationintheinitialyears,and

fromtheK5plan156inthelatter(Slocomb2004).

WhilethePRKemphasisedthegenocidalactionsofDemocraticKampuchea,

followingVietnam’swithdrawalfromCambodiain1989andamovetowards

democraticruleintheStateofCambodia(1989–1993),duringthe1990s

‘amnesia[became]theorderoftheday’(Chandler2008a:363).Aspeacewas

brokeredbetweentheongoingfightingfactions,widespreadimpunityforKhmer

Rougecadreandtheircollaboratorsbecamethenorm,andrankingcadrewere

enfoldedintotheranksofthegovernment(theaforementionedwin-winpolicy).

ThoughChandlerdiscussesthisamnesiainrelationtoCambodianpoliticsinthe

1990s,aninternationalamnesiaprecededthis.The1991ParisPeaceAccords157,

drawnupinanattempttoendtheongoingconflictinCambodia,notonlyinsisted

thattheKhmerRougebeincludedintheinterimgovernmentofCambodia(which

theCPPresisted),butalsoensuredanymentionofkillings,torture,orother

sufferingenduredundertheKhmerRougewasomittedfromtheinternational

lexiconandtheword‘genocide’removedfromdiscussions,insteadreferringto

‘thepoliciesandpracticesofthepast’(Chandler2008:364).Partlythiswas

relatedtothe1993elections(internationaladvisorsconsideredthatelections

couldnotbefreeandfairifonepartywasabletoaccusetheotherofgenocide),

AlsoknownastheBambooCurtain,theK5planranfrom1984–1989andwasanattemptbythePRKtocutoffKhmerRougeaccesstoCambodia.Uptoonemillionpeople(mostlymen)wereforciblyconscriptedtothisprogramme(HumanRightsWatch2015a)inwhichthousandsofacresofforestwerefelled,wirefenceserected,trenchesdug,andsomewherebetween4and25millionmineslaidalongalmosttheentire750kilometreborder-thedifferenceliesbetweenofficialandunofficialreceiptsofmunitionsatthetime;amilitaryveteranreportedthatforeveryofficialshipmentrecorded,6or7unofficialshipmentsalsoarrived(Roberts2011).Thousandsofpeoplediedfrommalaria(Gottesman(2003)estimatesupto25,000althoughitcouldwellbemore)andtheminesmaimedorkilledmanythousandsmore,andremainathreattoday.

157SignedbytheStateofCambodia,theKhmerRouge,theKhmerPeople’sLiberationFront,and

FUNCINPEC.

butitalsoresultedfromColdwarpolitics:aroundtheglobeVietnam’s

interventioninthecountryin1979wasseenasanaggressiveactofinvasion,and

itsongoingpresenceinthecountrythroughoutthe1980sasillegaloccupation

(Martini2007).AsaresulttheKhmerRouge(incoalitionwithtwoothersmall

parties)heldtheUNseatforCambodiauntil1993,whenitwasconceded

followingtheelections.158

AsHunSen’srulebecameembeddedwithouttheinternationallyfrownedupon

Vietnameseassistance,andasmoreandmorecadredefectedtothegovernment,

theKhmerRougeregimebecameweakerandweaker.AstheCPPtriedtobroker

peacewiththoseremaining,highlightingtheevidenceoftheatrocitiescommitted

duringDemocraticKampucheabecameilladvised,asdidsinglingoutKhieu

SamphanandNuonCheaasleadersofagenocidalregime(thisistheamnesia

Chandlerrefersto).Atthistime,allresponsibilityforthecrimesoftheregime

waslaidatthefeetofPolPotandafewloyalfollowerssuchasTaMok159.

AlthoughTuolSlengandChoeungEkcontinuedtobeimportant,thep’teah

khmouchthatstoodacrossthecountrybecamelesspoliticallyimportant;astime

wentontheywereneglectedandmanyfellintodisrepair.Remainsdecayed,

animalsateortrampledonthebones,andinsomeareasfloodsandbadweather

destroyedwhatremained.Localpeoplehadonlyevermaintainedthemunder

governmentorders,andwithcentralcontrolbeing(violently)assured,these

formsofevidencebecamelessimportant.AnneYvonneGuillou(2012a;2012b)

Not,sadly,inrelationtotheatrocitiescommittedbytheKhmerRouge,whichhadlongbeenknownbytheinternationalcommunity.

159TaMok(nicknamedthebutcherbecauseofhisreputationforbrutality)wasaleadingKhmer

Rougecommander,andaccordingtoHinton(2006)oneofthekeyarchitectsoftheKhmerRougegenocide.In1977hebecamechiefoftheKhmerRougearmyandoversawallinternalpurgesoftheregime.TaMokwastheonlyKhmerRougeofficial,exceptPolPot,torefusetodefecttotheCPP.In1999hewasarrestedandchargedwithgenocideandcrimesagainsthumanity;hediedinprisonin2006(ibid.).

andRachelHughes(2005)reportthatthisneglectwasaresultofdisinterestfrom

localpeople,whosawnouseforthesememorials,andforwhomtheybearlittle

resonance.160

ThedefectionsbytheKhmerRougecontinuedthroughoutthe1990s,until1998,

whenNuonChea(BrotherNumberTwo)andKhieuSamphan(Presidentof

DemocraticKampuchea)cameovertothegovernment.Thegovernment’smode

fordealingwiththeregimeatthispointbecameburial.Atthepressconference

thatwelcomedthetwoovertothegovernment,HunSenentreatedpeopleto‘dig

aholeandburythepast’(Chandler2008:356).Teachingabouttheregime,which

hadbeenstoppedintherunuptothe1993elections(becauseofitsinsistenceon

genocide)remainedabsentfromtheschoolcurriculum.161However,the

devastationcausedbytheregimecouldnotbecompletelydismissed,andafter

decadesofnegotiation,intheearly2000s,thepossibilityofaKhmerRouge

tribunal162becameinevitable,andinterestintheregimeanditshistoryresurged.

GuillouarguesthattheruralpopulationofCambodiahavetheirownmethodsofcommemoratingthedeadwhich,ratherthanbeingchronologicalandrelatedtoparticularsites,worksina‘switchon,switchoff’fashion,wherethedeadinterjectintothelivesofthelivinginsomeperiods,andatothertimesareforgottenaseverydaylifeprogressed.Thisismostlikelytrueregardingtheiruseasmemorials,however,aswesawinchaptertwo,thesep’teahkhmouchwerenot,accordingtomyinformants,completelyalienorunnecessarybutprovidedaplaceforthedeadtobebroughtinfromtheforest,andbehousedappropriately,whiletheircarewasmanagedspirituallybytheirfamilies.

161BongLatoldmehehadneverlearntabouttheKhmerRougeatschool,andalthoughhisparentshadtoldhimsomestories,mostofwhatheknowshetaughthimselfwhenhebecameatourguideatChoeungEk.‘Actually,nowIknowmorethanmyparentsaboutit,eventhoughtheylivedthroughtheregime,’hetoldme,‘becauseIworkhere,andeverydayIlearnmoreandmore.’

162FawthropandJarvis(2004)provideagoodsummaryoftheupsanddownsofgettingthe

tribunalstarted.Readersshouldbeaware,however,oftheheavybiasinthisbooktowardsHunSenandtheCPP.

Resurginginterest:theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia

Followingtheircompleteseizureofpowerin1997,theCPPsoughttolimitits

symbolsoflegitimationtocertainsites(primarilyTuolSlengandChoeungEk),but

asinterestintheregimeresurfacedintheearly2000s,givenhis,andmanyofthe

CPPmembers’pasts,thehistorystillneededmanaging,andHunSenonceagain

soughtcontroloftheremains.InDecember2001,shortlybeforelegislationwas

signedoffonthecreationoftheECCC,HunSenissuedthefollowingdirective

(RGC2001,myhighlights):

Followingtheliberationof7January1979,numerousgraveswereleftbehind

throughouttheentireterritoryofCambodiaasphysicaltestimonyofthecrimes

committedagainsttheinnocentCambodianpeoplebythegenocidalPolPot

regime.Rightaway,theauthoritiesandcitizensmadeeffortstotaketheremains

ofvictimsandtopreservethemcarefully,someinstupas,andsomeinother

formsofappropriatememorial.However,thegovernmenthasobservedthat

sincethattime,thesememorialshavenotbeenproperlymaintained.

Inordertopreservetheremainsasevidenceofthehistoriccrimes…alllocal

authoritiesatprovinceandmunicipallevelshallcooperatewithrelevantexpert

institutionsintheirareastoexamine,restoreandmaintainexistingmemorials,

andtoexamineandresearchotherremaininggravesites,sothatallsuchplaces

maybetransformedintomemorials….163

Thisdirectivemakesitclearthatthepersonnowblamedforthecrimes

committedwassingular:PolPot(incontrasttoduringthePRK,whenithadbeen

ThisdirectivealsoorderedthepreparationfortourismofAnlongVeng,thebaseoftheKhmerRougeleadership,andburialsiteofPolPot’scremains.

PolPot,IengSaryandKhieuSamphan)furtherobfuscatingthenamesand

numbersofothersinvolved,thewidergeo-politicalcircumstancesthatledtothe

regime,andtheongoingviolencethatbroughtthecurrentgovernmenttorule.

Ataroundthissametime,skeletalremainsstartedtomovearoundthecountry

fromtheruralp’teahkhmouchtoconcretecheddei(stupa)withinparticular

pagodasites.ADistrictChiefinKandalprovincetoldmethatthereasongivenfor

movementwastomakethingseasierfortherelativestovisit,butinpracticemost

weremovedundergovernmentdirectivesoftheearly2000ssothateach

provincialmemorialwouldhavemoreremains.AtKohSop,theremainswere

splitbetweenthreepagodas164,however,themajorityoftheremainswenttoa

pagodacomplexwithinahundredmetresoftheCommuneOfficeandclosetothe

DistrictandProvincialOffices.InKep,remainsweremovedfromseverallocations

toWatKampongTralach,againthepagodamostcloselyassociatedwiththelocal

districtandprovincialoffice.InBattambangitwastoWatSamrongKnong.The

sitestheymovedtowerenotonlyselectedfortheirgeographicallocationor

politicalaffiliation.Mosthadalsobeenkillingandmassgravesites.Theessence

ofKhmerRougekillingtherefore,remainsinthesespaces.Itisatthesecentral

pagodasthatmanypoliticaleventsnowoccur;fortherulingparty;forthe

opposition;andforotherorganisationsandindividualswishingtomakevisible

perceivedviolencesintheworld(seechapterseven).

Althoughdrivenbythegovernment,thesemovementswerenotunwelcomedbythoserunningthepagodasandsomeactivelysoughttheremains;onemonktoldmethatceremoniesarethemainmeanspagodashavetoraisefunds,andbecausememorialceremoniesforthedeadoftheKhmerRougeonlyoccurwherethereareremains,somepagodastookbonesfromlocalp’teahkhmouchinordertoencouragepeopletovisitduringPchumBenhandNewYear,duringwhichtimetheywouldprovidegenerousdonationstothepagoda.

Contemporaneouslytheannualremembranceceremonyfortheregime,TheDay

ofAnger,wasrevivedatthesecentralisedsites.In1984,commemoratingthe

datein1976thattheKhmerRougefirstinstigatedcollectivization,thePRK

nominatedMay20thasT'veerChongKamhaeng:theDayofTyingAnger(orthe

DayofMaintainingRage(FawthropandJarvis2004:73)).Onthisday,ceremonial

eventswereheldacrossthecountry,usuallyatpagodasorotherpublicspaces

suchasschools.Theseeventsservedtwopurposes:legitimisingthenewPRK

regime,andkeepingthehatredaliveagainsttheKhmerRouge,whostillposeda

threatacrossmuchofCambodia.‘WemadestatuesofPolPotandthrewstones

atthemanddestroyedthem.Theytaughtthechildrenthataction’BongLatold

me.Hatredattheseeventswasnotonlyaimedattheregime,butbecauseof

theircontinuedsupportoftheKhmerRouge,alsodirectedtowardstheUSand

China,bothofwhombearsomeresponsibilityfortheriseandsuccessofthe

KhmerRouge(Kiernan2004),bothofwhichenforcedatradeembargoon

CambodiafollowingitsliberationbytheVietnamesein1979(FawthropandJarvis

2004),andbothofwhich(alongsidemostotherpowers)opposedbringingthe

KhmerRougetojustice,andensuredtheirretentionoftheUNseatforCambodia

until1993(Marks1994).

T'veerChongKamhaengwassuspendedduringtheUNTACperiod(1992–1993),

butin2001theCPPrevivedtheevent,renamingitT’ngaiRomluk(Dayof

Remembrance).Priortothemovementofremainstocentralisedsites,‘anyplace

thathad‘witnessed’killing,torture,burialorforcedlabourduringtheDemocratic

Kampucheaperiod(1975-1979)wasconsideredanappropriatedplaceforthe

May20thcommemoration’(Hughes2000:40).Nowhowever,itoccursonlyat

thesecentralisedsites.Itsrevivalservesanequallyusefulpoliticalfunctionasits

creationduringthePRK,helpingsolidifynarrativesrelatedtotheparty’sliberation

ofCambodia’sfromtheKhmerRouge,whilstsimultaneouslyremindingthe

populationoftheterrorandviolencetheregimeengendered.Atmostpagodas,

theeventisunderstatedandalthoughmostlygovernmentemployeesattending,

somelocalpeopledotoo.AtChoeungEk,however,theeventismuchmore

formalized,andthecentralelementisagraphicre-enactmentofthebrutalityof

theregimeanditseventualdemiseatthehandsoftheCPP(seechapterseven).

Notonlyhasthiseventbeenrevivied.Aspartoftheproposedreparationsbythe

ECCC,fivenewmemorialswillbecreated.165Thesememorialswillbeatsitesthat

canbedirectlylinkedtothefiveperpetratorstriedbytheECCC:KaingGuevEav

(ComradeDuch);NounChea;IengSary;KhieuSamphanandIengThirith.James

Tyner(2014)arguesthatthisselectivememorialisationfunctionsinthesameway

JamesHolt(2012)arguedVietnamesememorialisationdid:asameansof

controllingthehistoricalnarrativesandsettingtheCPPapartfromtheKhmer

Rougeasperpetratorsofnationalviolence,inordertoconsolidatetheirposition

aspatronsofCambodia.ThefirstmemorialwasinauguratedatTuolSlengin

February2015.Itsplanningtookmuchtime,andcausedmuchcontroversy

becauseamongsttherecommendationswerethelistingofthenamesof‘victims’

torturedatTuolSlengandChoeungEk.Thecontroversyarosenotonlybecause

namingpeopleonamemorialisnotaKhmertradition,andwasviewedasa

foreignimpositionbytheinternationaladvisors(McPherson2014),butalso

becauseastheonlysitenamingthedead,itwouldbemostlyKhmerRougecadre

AlmostallconceivedofbyinternationaladvisorsandPhnomPenhbasedNGOsfundedbyinternationalfunding.In2012IattendedoneofthemeetingsheldbytheECCC’sVictimSupportServicediscussingwhatkindofreparationsshouldbegiven.ThemeetingwasheldintheInterContinentalhotelinPhnomPenh,andofthe20+peopleattendingthemeeting,onlytwoorthreewereKhmer,allemployedinPhnomPenhbasedorganisations.

whobecamememorialized,thusinscribingtheirnamesasvictimsofKhmer

historywhilstallothersremainnamelessandthereforedeletedfromthe

record.166

Inaddition,anewwaveof‘local’memorialshavebeenrecentlyconstructedbya

PhnomPenhbasedNGO,fundedwithforeignmoney.Thesememorials(hidden

awayatthebackofthesitestheymemorialise)donotmentionthedead.Instead

theyrepresenttheKhmerRouge.TheyarestatuesofKhmerRougesoldiers(asin

WatEkPhnominBattambangprovince);depictionsofslavelabourintherice

fields(asinKapmotProvince);paintingsoftheregime(asinKraingTaChanin

TakeoProvince).Thesememorialsaremuchmoreaboutrememberingviolence

thantheyarecommemoratingthedead,alinemuchfavouredbytherulingparty,

whichusesthistoitspoliticalandsocialadvantage.

Hierarchiesofdeathinthewrittenrecord

Itisnotonlythelocationofmemorialsandeventsoccurringthatcontrolmemory

thisway.Thelistingofmassgravesalsoaffectsthesitesthatarerecordedin

historyandthosewhichareforgotten,excludingthosewhichdonotsuitthe

politicalrhetoricofoneguiltyleader,withahandfulofloyalfollowers,andan

otherwisebenignandmalignedfollowing.

MuchoftheinformationcurrentlyexistingonthemassgravesinCambodiacomes

fromatenyearmassgravemappingprojectundertakenbytheCambodian

GenocideProjectatYaleUniversity,inpartnershipwithDC-Cam.Thisproject166

Interestingly,thememorial,likemuchofthememory-workbeingdoneinCambodia,wasfundedthroughtheGermanyaidagencyGIZ.Muchofthememory-workreplicatesthatdoneinGermanyfollowingtheHolocaust.ItsappropriatenessforCambodia,andGermany’splaceaspatronsofremembering,is,perhaps,aninterestingtopicforfurtherresearch.

attemptedto‘mapthegenocide’bymappingthesecuritycentresandkillingfield

sitesacrossCambodia,andputtingsomefiguresonthescaleofthekillingsby

recordingestimatednumbersofbodiescontainedwithingravesatthesesites.

Althoughthemappingprojecthasmajorflaws(seeintroduction,footnote13),itis

theonlysuchattemptthathasbeenundertakenandisthereforethestarting

pointofanyresearchonmassgravesinCambodia.Indeed,itisfromtheirlistthat

IdiscoveredmanyofthesitesthatIvisitedinCambodia167.

Theinclusionsandexclusionsinthismapping,however,provideaskewedviewof

themassgravedistributionandcontents,whichisfurthercontrolledviathe

nationalmemorialisation.Omittedfromthelistaregravescreatedbefore1975or

after1979168,gravesfromknown(orsuspected)hospitalsandfieldclinics,sites

wheretheresearchersfelttheycouldnotestimateafigure(evenifseveral

witnessesandnowcourtproceedingsreportedthepresenceofgraves,suchasin

theareassurroundingTuolSlengprisoninPhnomPenh),andsitescomposingof

singlegraves,evenwherehundredsorthousandsofsinglegravesresultedfromthe

policiesoftheregimerenderingthemsitesofkillinganddeath(seeintroduction).

Thislistcausedsomepeopletoviewmewithsuspicionuponfirstmeetingme:askingmewhohadgivenittomeandwhatdidIneeditfor?

168AlthoughtheKhmerRougeonlyruledCambodiabetween1975and1979,asmentionedin

chapterone,theyhadcontroloversomeareasofCambodiaintheearly1970s,andhadalreadystartedtheirsystemofsecuritycentresbeforetheycametopower.Despitefindingevidenceforseveralgravesfrompre-1975,onlyoneappearsonDC-Cam’slist:M-13,aprisonfacilityinThpongdistrictofKampongSpeuprovince.M-13waswhereKaingGuekEav(ComradeDuch)perfectedhiscraftofextractingconfessionsthroughtorture.Asthedataforthemappingprojectwasbeingcollected,itwasalreadyclearthatDuch(whohadbeeninprisonsincegivinghimselfupin1999)wouldpotentiallybethetrialcasefortheECCC,andevidencefromM-13wasimportantinhisconviction.Inaddition,althoughtheterribleyearsofDemocraticKampucheawerethemostbrutal,thedecadesbetween1960and2000sawmassiveperiodsofcivilunrest,duringwhichmanypeoplelosttheirlives.Althoughoccurringinperiodswheretraditionalfuneralritualswereenabled,someofthesebodiesareburiedinmassgraves:TaVengdistrictinRatanakiriprovince,forexample,hasatleasttwocommunalgravesforthosewhodiedasaresultoftheUSbombing(DC-Cam2000),andaninformantwhohadbeeninK5toldmethisoccurredelsewhere,particularlyinthoseareasheavilyaffectedbythebombingsandothercivilunrest.

Researchersdidnotvisitsomeareas(suchastheheavilyforestedareasof

Ratanakiri,orareaswheretheKhmerRougewerestillatlarge,suchastheborder

regionsofThailand),gravesinothercountries(suchasVietnam),orthoseof

contemporarypoliticalinterest169.Itisnoteventhatsuchgravesappearlisted

elsewhere;theyaresimplyrenderedinvisible(andthereforenon-existent)through

theirexclusion.

Omissionstoitslistofgravesconstructsahierarchyofthedead:onlythosewho

wereexecutedduringApril1975–January1979,andthosewholieatsitesnot

consideredpoliticallychallenginghavebecomeworthyofrecording,andtherefore

rememberedas‘victims’oftheregime.Thisparallelsthereductionofthose

responsibleforthedeathsanddestruction,bothofferingapoliticallycontrolled

narrativeofblame,aswellasofviolentdeathandgenocide.

Violentbodiesandaffectiveremains

ThisfinalsectionwilluseFeldman’s(1991)argumentthatthebodyinjuredin

terrorbecomesitselfanagentofthatterror,togivespecificconsiderationtothe

displayofhumanremainsacrossCambodia.Thesedisplays,alongsidethecontrol

ofinformationandnarrativesoftheregime,exemplifyhowtheCambodian

169KampongChhnangairportisonesuchexample.Onlyafewkilomtersfromtheprovincial

capital,theairportiseasilyaccesseddownwell-builtconcreteroads.Thesitestandsneglected,withoneortwoguardslookingoverit.Upto10,000peopleworkedonthesiteatthepeakofitsconstruction,andmanymorepassedthrough.NearlyallwereRAK(RevolutionaryArmyofKampuchea)soldiers–menandwomenfrominsideDKranksaccusedofbeingtraitors(ECCC2015b).Hundreds,ifnotthousands,ofpeoplediedthroughexhaustionandothersdisappearedintheevenings.Althoughmanyweremovedtoothersitestobeexecuted,thoseIspoketowholivedontheapproachroadtotheairport,andaguardwhohadbeenworkingatthesitesince1979,toldmethatwhentheyreturnedin1979thesurroundingfieldswerefullofbodiesandtheairaroundthesitewasfetid.DC-Camneverdeployedaresearchteamtothishighlyaccessiblesite,notevenafteritbecameasiteofsignificantinterestincase002and003attheECCC.In2012,itwasannouncedthattodivertsomeofthetrafficfromPochentonginPhnomPenh,theairportwillbeexpandedtobecomeCambodia’ssecondmajorinternationalairport.

governmentismanipulatingtheinherentsymbolicpowerofdeadbodiesto

furthertheirpoliticalaims.Aswehaveseen,itisthematerialityofdeadbodies

thatiscentraltotheirefficacyassymbolsbecause,asVerdery(1999:28)asserts,

theyaremademeaningfulthrough‘culturallyestablishedrelationstodeathand

throughthewayaspecificdeadperson’simportanceis(variously)construed.’

ThedeadoftheKhmerRougearepowerfulnotbecauseofwhotheyare,but

becauseofwhatthey:anonymouspilesofskeletalremainsthatbecauseoftheir

pastarebothemblematicandagentsoftheviolencethatcreatedthem.

HunSenhasoftenstatedthattheremainsofthosekilledduringDemocratic

Kampucheawillnotbecrematedbecausetheyremaintheonlyevidenceofthe

KhmerRougeregime.170Myinformantsfeltthesame.Chan,ateacherwholives

behindChoeungEkandusesitasasiteofeducationforherpupilstoldmethatin

heropinion,theremainsshouldbekeptforaslongastheycould:

theyshouldbekeptasevidencefortheyoungerKhmergenerationtoshowthem

itwasreal:thattherewastheKhmerRouge,thatKhmerkilledKhmer.Itwasnot

alegend.Becausesometimeselderlydolietous,forinstance,theywouldtellus

toeatthefishesfin,sothatwecouldswim,andeattheendofsugarcanesothat

wecouldswimaswell.Actuallythosethingswerenottasty,theyjustwantedus

toeatthem.Ifwejusttoldpeoplethroughwordofmouth,theywouldnot

ThispreservationwasasiteofcontestationbetweenhimandSihanoukwhenhewasalivewhowantedtheremainstobecremated.OmJahwasconvincedhewantedtodestroytheevidenceoftheregime,whichhe,andmanyothers,heldSihanoukresponsiblefor:‘itwashimwhocalledustotheforests’hetoldme(awidelyacceptedview:BenKiernan,ahistorianwhohasundertakenextensiveresearchintotheregime’srisetopower,arguesthatwithoutSihanouk’ssupport,theKhmerRougeareunlikelytohavereceivedthelevelofsupporttheyneededtotakeCambodiain1975(Kiernan2004).PhilipGourevitch(2012)putitmoreprosaically:‘HisnamebecametheKhmerRouge’sgreatestrecruitmenttool,andthemostextremeCommunistmovementinhistoryswepttopoweronroyalcoattails.’HunSen,meanwhile,hassopersuasivelyre-workedthehistoricalnarratives,thateventhisworksinhisfavour:astheonewhowantstokeeptheremainshepresentshimselfasonewhocannotbearforthehorrorsofthepasttobeforgottenandwilldefenditsattempteddeletion,whilstatthesametimecontrollingnarrativestosuithisownends.

remember.Heretheycanseethetruth,becausethebonesarepiledup.WhenI

camehere,Irealised,eventhoughIwasnotborninthatera,thiseventobviously

happenedinKhmerSociety…KhmerkilledKhmer.

Itwasacommontropethatwithouttheskeletalremainsitwouldbeharderfor

people,especiallyyoungergenerationswhohadnotlivedthroughtheregime,to

believethatithadhappened.171OneofthedirectorsatChoeungEkfeltit

importanttobeopenaboutthepast,becauseonlythenwouldyoungerpeople

believetheveracityofthetalestoldtothem.

thisisatruestory.Wecan’thideatruestory.Weshouldn’thideitfromthenext

generationatall.Weshouldkeepalltruestories,whethergoodorbad,as

evidenceforthenextgenerationsotheycanuseit.Letusshowbothgoodand

badfromthepastsothatitisknownwhatthereasonswereandits

consequences.Sodefinitely,wemustknowthetruthfromthepast.Thenext

generationmustknow.Wemustnothide.Yes,wemustnothide.Sowemust

keepeverythingforthemtosee,becauseeverythingistrue.Itisnotfake.Itis

Itwasnotjustabouteducatingtheyoung.Foreignerswouldalsobebetter

convinced,Iwastold,iftheycouldseepilesofhumanremains.172

SomeofmyyoungerinformantsalsotoldmethattheKhmerRougeislikeabogey-mantomany:itisusedbysomeparentsasathreattoencouragegoodbehaviour,inthemodeof‘ifyouhadrefusedyourfoodduringthePolPots,youwouldhavebeenkilled’.This,alongwiththelackofeducationabouttheregime,encouragesamythificationoftheKhmerRouge.

172Theneedforforeignersinparticulartoseethisphysicalevidencewasexplainedtomeoneday

byanoldmanIwasinterviewing.Hewasadamantthatiftheinternationalcommunityhadknownwhatwashappeningtheywouldhavecometotheiraid.Hewasshocked,andIfelttheinheritedguilt,whenItoldhimthattheyhadbeenaware,buthadchosennottointervene.

OnecouldassumethattheevidencetheyrefertoisfortheongoingKhmerRouge

trial.Humanremainshavebeencentraltootherwarcrimetribunalssuchasthe

InternationalCriminalTribunalfortheFormerYugoslavia(ICTY)andthe

InternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda(ICTR).However,noskeletalremains

havebeenusedintheECCC.Noforensicexpertshavebeencalledtoexamine

eitherthecorporealremainsoranygravesites(Jarvis2013).173Rather,the

evidencereferredtoistoprovetheexistenceoftheKhmerRougeregimeandfor

thegovernmenttoreifytheCPP’snarrativethattheysavedCambodiaandonly

theycankeepitfromsafefromaresurgenceoftheregime(seechapterseven).

Ofcoursethisisnotthecase:thereisplentyofotherevidenceofthehorrorsof

theregimeanditsdevastatingeffect.However,skeletalremainsholdaclaimto

authenticitythatfewotherartefactscanapproachandthereforeprovide

compellingevidence.AsRenshew(2011:32)explains,inherexaminationofmass

gravesfromtheFrancoregimeinSpain:

Thedeadbodyaswitnessholdsapowerthatlittleelsecanmatchbecauseofits

authenticity;thematerialityofdeadbodies‘enablerepresentationsofthepastto

bemadewithoutapparentauthorshipormediation.

Assuchtheyoftenholdprecedenceoverotherartefactsandtestimony;incases

ofabusesofhumanrightstheyhavebecomeoneoftheonlyformsofevidence

AsaforensicanthropologistitwascleartomethatthereasonforthiswasthatbecauseoftheKhmerRougekillingmechanismsthemajorityoftheremainswillbearlittleornoskeletaltraumathatwouldbeusefulasevidence.Additionally,theremainswereexcavatedsolongago,andmanyhavebeenmovedaround,thatitisimpossiblefortheirprovidencetobeproven;allamassivepileofbonesprovesisamassivepileofdead–whereandwhenthesecamefromisdifficulttodetermineunlessforensicprotocolsarefollowedfromthefirstdayofinvestigation.Mostofthemassgraves,meanwhile,havelongagobeenre-appropriatedintoeverydaylivingspace.Remainswithinthemarelikelytohavebeendestroyedfromyearsoffarming:theyhavebeenhumanfertilizerformanyyearsnow.Assuchitwouldbedifficulttolocateagravewithenoughintegritytobeusefullyexcavatedforevidence.

thatistrusted.Theauthorityofbodiesisonethatnootherdocumentorartefact

canclaim:theyoncewerepeople.Wetoohaveskeletons,andthiscouldbeus.

ThehumanremainsdisplayedthroughoutCambodia,therefore,havesymbolic

credibility,despitethehumanmediationthathasgoneintotheirarrangement

anddisplay.Thoughcuratedobjects,thesebodiesappearnottobe‘histories

after-images’(Young2000:3);theyarenotsimplyrepresentationsoftheevent

leftbehindthatmustbemediatedinordertopresentaparticularnarrative(at

leastintheviewer’seyeswhenseeingthem);theyAREthehistory:theyarethe

deadandthereforetherealstory.However,theyarealsoexhibitionartefacts,

collatedandcuratedinorderto‘‘preserve’thepast’(Hoskins2003:13).The

corporealremainsthereforematerializetheKhmerRougeperiodinawayno

otherartefactcould.174

However,asSaraGuyer(2009:159)arguesinherdiscussionofmemorialsitesin

Rwanda,allbodiesmakebones,andthosedisplayedatChoeungEkandother

sitesacrossthecountrycouldbeanydead.Todisplaytheremainsinsuchaway-

piledontopofeachother,arrangedbyskeletalelementratherthanindividual

people;dirty;dusty;disorganised–enablestheirusenotasarepresentationof

individualslost,butinsteadacollective:thosewhodied:

torememberthedeadthroughthesheeranonymityofthesebonesmeansthat

nooneisorcanberemembered.Apileofunrelatedbonesorashelfwithrows

ofcarefullyarrangedskullsdoesnotcommemorateaperson.175

Sodisregardedisotherevidence,thatwhentheschoolheadmasteronKohSopdiscoveredshacklesandotheritemsleftoverfromtheKhmerRougeprisonnearhishome,hethrewthemintheriver.‘They’renotusefulforanyone’hetoldme.

175Guyerarguesthatsuchdisplaysrepresentadehumanisationofthosekilled,andbydoingso

engendersafurtherpoliticalviolenceonthosedisplayed.Asimilarargumenthasbeenmadefor

Thecollectiveidentityrenderedbytheirun-namedstatusenablestheiruseas

objectsofconstructednarratives.AsGuyerstates(2009:172),suchmonuments

servenotasremindersofwhathappened,butaslessonsofwhatwemustsee:

‘what[suchdisplays]showsusisnottheholocaustaswemightrememberit,but

rathertheHolocaustaswemustlearntoseeitforthefirsttime.’Genocide

rendersagroupofpeopleasone:onethatcanbedeletedfromlife.These

anonymousdisplaysdothesameinthepresent:thesebones,theseseemingly

unrealbones,rendertheremainsasone:‘evenasthememorialpreserves

individualbodies,itturnsthesebodiesintomerepartsofasingleanonymous

form’(ibid:173).Buttheyareaparticulardead–theyarevictimsofabrutal,

genocidalregime.Assuchtheirsymbolicpowergoesbeyondthemanipulability

renderedbytheiranonymity.Theyarealsoinstrumentsoftheterrorinstilledby

theKhmerRouge,anditisthisthatgivesthemtheirstatusinCambodia.

Inhis1991examinationofterrorinNorthernIreland,AllenFeldmanarguedthat

powerisembeddedinthebody.Onceinscribedwithviolence,heargues,bodies

becomeasmuchpoliticalagentsasthosewhoauthoredtheviolence,because

theycannotbeextricatedfromthatviolence;‘thebodymarkedbyviolence

encapsulatescertainpoliticalpurposes,mediations,andtransformations’

(Feldman1991:70).Thisgoesasmuch,ifnotmoreso,fordeadbodies,because

oftheirinherentmanipulability.Theskeletalremains,andthemassgravesin

whichtheywereburied,cannotberemovedfromtheviolenceinflictedonthem

bytheKhmerRouge,andbecauseofthistheywillforeverrepresentthepower

thattheregimeheld,apowerinstilledbyterror.Theyareagentsofthatpower:

thephotographicdisplaysatTuolSlengprisonandexhibitionsrelatedtoit(Sontag2003),andtheremainsatChoeungEk(Hughes2005)although,aswehaveseeninpreviouschapters,thisisaparticularlyethno-centricwaytoviewtheremains,althoughitisanargumentthatcouldbevalidwhenconsideringinternationaltourists’encounterswiththeremains.

thedeadmaintainelementsoftheterrorwithwhichtheKhmerRougeruled,and

itisthiselementofthemthatenablestheirusebythecurrentgovernmentin

theirpedagogyofterror(seechapterseven).Therealityofdomination,Feldman

(ibid.:8)writes‘isorganizedthroughthelogicofmythicinstantiation,andthe

bodyisacentralmediumofthepoliticalinstant.’Everytimethebodiesareused

incontemporaryCambodia,theirinscribedterrorworksagain,evenonthosewho

didnotlivethroughtheregime,butwholivetheconsequencesofiteveryday.It

isbecauseofthisterrorthatmanyofmyinformantswantedtokeeptheremains;

sothatthey,andothers,maynotforgetthehorrorsofthepast.Thebones,Ta

Chasinformedme,wereimportantforeveryone,notonlytheyoungerpeople

whohadnotexperiencedthehorrors,ortheforeignerswhocametolearn,but

alsothosewho,likehimself,hadlivedthroughtheregime:

Theywillmakemerememberitformywholelife.Evenmychildrenand

grandchildrenwillrememberit.Thereweresomanypeoplekilledhere.Soitisa

placetoremember:theKhmerRougekilledus.

Thesesites,therefore,actnotassitesofcommemorationofthedead(aswesaw

inchapterstwotofour)butinsteadasremindersoftheKhmerRougeasa

mythologised‘phantasmororic‘genocidalclique’(Chandler2008a:363).Intheir

repeatedpresentationofviolenceanddeath,theyevoketheviolenceof

dehumanisationandmassbrutalitybyreproducingthesamewiththebonesthat

remainondisplayandtheglutofhorrortheyrepresent.Tocommitgenocide,to

maim,totorture,tostarveanddebasethousandsofpeopleanelementof

dehumanisationisrequired.ThiswasintegraltotheKhmerRougecadre’s

abilitiestoslaughter(Hinton2005).Theunnameableremainspiledhighatthese

memorialseffectsthesameaction,andindoingsosignifiesagaintheviolence

thatthesepeoplesufferedandtheregimethatbroughtitabout.Askeletonisnot

aperson.Theyareeasilyremovedfromourunderstanding:anobjectofinterest,

ofstudy,offascination,maybe.Butnotaperson.176Buttheyareagentsof

violencebecauseofthelinktoittheyhold.Andthisiswhatmakestheiruseso

powerful.

Conclusion

In2006,thejudgesweresworninandcasesbeganintheKhmerRougetribunal–

theExtraordinaryChambersintheCourtsofCambodia177.Theconsequencehas

beenaresurgenceofinterestintheKhmerRougeperiod.Theresultofthisisa

revitalisationoftheKhmerRougebythecurrentgovernment.Thememorialsites

haveonceagainbecomeusefulsitesofpoliticalpowerandtheanonymousdead,

thatarethemselvessitesoffluctuatingprivilegeandattention,areagainuseful

silententitiestowhichothersputvoicesandnarratives.

InCambodiaimportantcorpses,suchasmonksorKings,arepreservedbecause

someelementoftheconnectionbetweenspiritandbodyremains,alongwiththe

associatedkinandcommunityrelationships(Marston2006:494).Itisbecauseof

theirsocialimportancethattheseparticularbodiesarepreserved.Thedeadfrom

theKhmerRougearepreservedforthesamereason.Asanonymousdeadthey

maintainelementsofpowerfulassociationwiththeregimeanditsviolence.In

thesamewaythatotherexhibitionsofmasskilling,suchastheHolocaust

TheyalsorefertoBuddhistideology;whenwedie,wearereborn;wetravelthroughacontinualcycleofdeathandrebirth.Ateverydeaththebodythatheldusinthislifebecomesasifdrywood:itreturnstotheearthandthushelpsformthenewlife.

177ReadersinterestedintheestablishmentandworkingsoftheECCCshouldrefertoClaussen

(2008),Gray(2014),andthecourt’swebsite(ECCC2014).

exhibitionattheImperialWarMuseum,usetheexhibitionofphysicalartefactsto

narratehistory(Hoskins2003:14),inCambodiaitistheskeletalremainsthatdo

OnemightthinkitstrangethatapartysoimplicatedintheKhmerRougeregime

wouldworksohardatmakingitsconsequencesvisiblebydisplayingthedeadand

holdingcommemorativeeventsthatre-enacttheviolenceanddevestation.

Ordinarilyonewouldexpectittobeanalternativeregimethatemploysthe

powerofthedeadasamodeofpoliticallegitimation–asawayofdistancing

itselffromtheregimethatcausedthedeaths.178Themanipulabilityofthedead

enablestheirharnessingforalmostanynarrative.Italsoenablestheobfuscation

ofothernarrativesand‘truths’thatmayexist.This,infact,makestheKhmer

Rougedead,andtheirmassgravesites,idealforusebytherulingparty,which

havestrictlycontrolledpresentationsoftheregime,andusesofthedeadand

theirgravesinmultifariouswayssincethedepositionoftheKhmerRougein1979.

Itisoftenthecasethatspacesremainneutraluntiltheybecomepoliticallyuseful:

itisatthistimethatpeoplere-forgeaninterestandownershipofthespaceand

itscontents.Springer(2008)proposesthatpublicspacesinCambodiaarespaces

ofcontestation–theyaresitesofprotest-andcontrolofthepopulationisoften

practisedthroughthembycontrollingaccessandlegalactivitywithinthese

spaces.AsIhavearguedearlier,massgravesareeminentlypoliticalbecauseof

thebodiestheycontain(ed)andthekillingtheyborewitnessto.Thiscanbeseen

Massgravesareparticularlyusefulinthisregard.Malaki’sgovernmentinIraqhasbeenexcavatingmassgravesfromSaddamHussein’sregimesince2009–everytimetheyfindanewgrave,orbeginworkonolderones,newsstoriesarereleasedandphotographersinvitedtorecordthegrave.ThroughoutthecontemporarycivilwarinSyriastoriesthenewsregularlypublishstoriesofrebelcausedmassgravesandfollowingtheoverthrowofGaddafiinLibyamassgravesofthosekilledunderGaddafi’srulestartedappearinginthemedia.!!!!!!

inthecaseofmemorialisationofmassgravesitesinCambodiainthe1980s,their

neglectinthe1990s,andtheresurgedinterestbutevenmoredirectedfocusin

thelate2000s.Itcanalsobeseenintherecordingoromissionofsitesfrom

‘official’informationontheperiod.

Thecontrolofmemorializationandthedisplayofthedeadwithinthosesites

createsahierarchyofthedeadandmassgravesitesanderasesfromhistoryand

memorythosenotincluded.Bydoingsoitalsoallowsaparticularstoryofthe

pasttobetoldandreinforcedthroughthelandscape:thatofasmallnumberof

perpetratorsinanotherwiseneutrallandscape.Therealityis,ofcourse,very

different:hundreds(ifnotthousands)ofpeopleweremembersoftheKhmer

Rougeandcommittedatrocities,andeventhosewhowerenotcadreoftenco-

operatedtoensuretheirownsurvival,frequentlyattheexpenseofothers(Ngor

2003).ThroughoutCambodia,victimsandperpetratorslivesidebyside,andthe

landisfilled(physicallyandmetaphysically)withevidenceofthisviolentpast.But

the‘preservation’oftheKhmerRougestoryhasbecomesolelyfocusedonthe

tortureandkillingsthatoccurredwithinit,duringaspecificperiod(Democratic

Kampuchea)atparticularsites,omittingmuchelsefromthenarrative.This

provesincrediblyusefulinthetwomainwaysitisputtowork:nationallyasa

modeofmaintainingfear,andinternationally,asameansofengenderingpityand

sorrow.AsElaineScarry(1985:109)comments,‘whatis“remembered”inthe

bodyiswellremembered.’

InhisdiscussionofthedifferingpresentationsoftheKhmerRougeregimeby

successivegovernments,DavidChandler(2008:356)wrotethatHunSen’sover-

ridingconcernsinthelate1990sandearly2000swere‘todevelopCambodiaand

tomaintainhimselfinpower.’Atthattime,thisinvolvedinstigating‘induced

amnesia’abouttheregime.FollowingtheestablishmentoftheKhmerRouge

trials,however,thisamnesiaisnolongerfeasible.Itismuchmoreuseful,

therefore,forHunSentoonceagainharnesstheregimetowardsthe

achievementsofhisgoals.ChaptersixwillexplorehowtourismatChoeungEk

(andbyextensionothersitesrelatedtotheKhmerRougeregime)workstowards

thefirstaim(thedevelopmentofCambodia),whilechaptersevenwillexamine

thesecond(hismaintenanceofpower)bylookingatpoliticalcampaigningduring

the2013generalelectionsinCambodia.

Chaptersix:Hauntingthefuture-tourismatChoeungEk

AshewalksaroundChoeungEkcarryingouthisdutiesasacaretaker,OmTa

carriesasmallplasticbag.Initheplacesthesmallbonesandteethhefinds

emergingfromthesoil.Oncehehasafew,hetakesthemtoaglasscasewhere

newlyunearthedremainsandbitsofclothingaredisplayed.Thedisplaysare

integralpartofthetouristencounterwiththesite,andwithoutthetourists,the

sitewouldbeneglected.‘Myjobisimportant,’hetoldme‘becauseit’slikewe’re

helpingournation.’

TourisminCambodiaisagrowingtrade.In20144.5millioninternationalvisitors

arrivedinthecountry,contributing$2.8billiontoitseconomy(ADB2014;Ministry

ofTourism2015).Intheattempttoattractincreasingtouristrevenue,Cambodia

hascommoditisedtheKhmerRougeregimeandspecificsitesofsufferingand

deathrelatedtoit.ChoeungEkisoneofthese.Althoughthesitehasmany

functions,itsprimaryfocusistourism.In2014over210,000foreignersand

50,000Khmervisitedthesite.

WhilemostscholarshaveconcentratedonChoeungEk’splaceinCambodia’s

circuitofdarktourism,oritsuseinthepoliticalnarrationoftheKhmerRouge

regime,thischapterexaminesitsplace,notasasitefacedtowardsa

concretisationofthepast,buttowardsthecreationofthefuture.Offeringa

companiontoRachelHughes’(2009)conceptofthe‘dutifultourist’(onewho

aftervisitingsitesofhorrorfeelscompelledtosupportthenationwherethey

occurred),thischapterwillshowhowsuchhorror,pityanddesireisharnessedby

myinformantsatChoeungEk,andhowintheexploitationofsuchsites,the

ambitionsofthestate,localcommunities,andthetouristunite,albeit

temporarily.ItwillalsodrawonChristinaSchwenkel’s(2006)theoryof

‘recombinanthistory’(wherethemeaningofsitesofmemoryarenegotiated,

recycled,andreconstitutedinneo-globalspheresofimaginationforeconomic

development)toarguethatinthecaseofChoeungEk,itscentralrolein

Cambodiantourismisdirectlylinkedintheimaginationsofthestaffandthestate

toeconomicprosperityandsocialdevelopment,aswellastofuturepeaceand

stability.

Thesearefacilitatedbyinternationaltourists,whobycomingtothesite,engage

inreciprocalrelationshipswithCambodia,supportingitastheysimultaneously

learnfromit.AstheyengageinthesereciprocalrelationsCambodiabecomes

connectedtoawiderglobalnetworkandprovideameansofimaginingamore

positivefuture,sowhilstthetransformationsinherentinthecommodificationof

sitesofconflictfortourismalterandadjustcollectivenarrationsofthepast,they

dothisinanticipationofthefuture.Suchcommodificationtherefore,andthe

transformationsitbothrequiresandengenders,areasmuchabouthopeand

changeastheyareaboutreificationandmanipulation.

Inordertoexplorethesetopics,Iwillfirstexaminethetheoreticalframeworkof

thechapter,beforeofferinganintroductiontotourisminCambodiaanditsplace

inthewiderdevelopmentplansforthenation.Thetouristencounterwith

ChoeungEkisdesignedtoengenderanoverwhelmingsensoryencounterwiththe

site’shistory,adescriptionofwhichwillprefacetheethnographicsectionofthe

chapterwhichillustratestheroleoftouristsandthesiteinthefutureof

Cambodia,asimaginedbySreySrey,OmTa,BongLaandTaSann.The

ethnographyforthischapterisbasedentirelyinChoeungEkas(untilrecently)the

onlyofficialmassgravememorialforthecountry179whoseprimaryaimistourist

incomegeneration.

ThepopularityofChoeungEkasatouristdestinationispartofawidelyreported

trendofincreasingglobalcommodificationofsitesofsufferinganddeaththatput

collectiveviolenthistoriestoworkinthedevelopmentofnationalidentityand

economicprosperity-socalled‘dark’or‘thanatourism’180(ibid;Strangeand

Kempa2003).Forthosedirectlyconnectedtothesite(bytheirown,arelative’s

orfriend’sexperience)suchplacescanofferameansofconnectingand

understandingpersonalexperiencesinthepastandpresent(Kangetal.2012;

LennonandFoley1999,2000).Forpeoplewithnoconnectiontothesite,the

motivationsofsuchtourismaremanifold:adesireforhistoricallearning(Kanget

al.2012);anopportunityforexistentialcontemplationondeathanddying(Seaton

1996)181;orthefeelingofamoralimperativetovisit(Caswell2014;Hughes2008;

Linfield2010),forexample.

AlthoughTuolSlenghassomemassgravesitisprimarilyconsideredasadetentionandtorturecenterandispresentedfirstlyasamuseumandsecondlyasamemorial.

180Darktourismrefersto‘adiverserangeofsites,attractionsandexhibitionsthatareassociatedwithdeathandthemacabre’(Stone2006:145),whilethanatourismisrelatedspecificallytositesassociatedwithviolentdeaths.

181Fewwriteonthevoyeurisminvolvedinsuchencounters,althoughEmilyGodbey(2006)writesof

the‘thrillofencounteringtheauthenticandthereal’indiscussingthe‘rubberneckers’oftheJohnstownfloodof1889.Perhapsagreatdistanceintimeisneededtobeabletoconfrontoradmittothisaspectofhumanencounters.

Theprimaryattractionofsitesofdeathandsufferingistheirmateriality:they

offeratangiblelinktoahistory182thatcannotbegainedfromremotesources;as

suchtheyengenderafeelingofconnectionandembodiedknowledgetothe

visitor(Huyssen1995:255).MeganBest(2007)arguesthatsuchsitesaresitesof

emotiondesignedtoprovideembodiedandaffectiveencounterswiththepast.

Violi(2012:36)assertsthatsuch‘traumasites’‘existfactuallyasmaterial

testimoniesoftheviolenceandhorrorthattookplacethere.’Thattheyare

preservedassitesoftourismdisplayschoicebythepost-conflictsociety‘about

whatpoliticsofmemorytoadoptineachcase,’ofwhichshemakesaninteresting

discussion,butheracceptanceofthe‘truth’presentedbythesesitesishighly

problematic.Bickford(2009)arguesthatpublicmemorialsare‘primarilytoolsof

humanrightseducation’andassuch‘ChoeungEkandsimilarsitesthroughout

Cambodiacouldbecomeimportantplacesoftruth-tellingabouttheKhmerRouge

period.’183PaulWilliams(2004)meanwhile,arguesthatbothTuolSlengand

ChoeungEkareeffectivevehiclesforcommemoration,arguingthattheyarevital

asremindersoftheregimeinacountrywherelittlejusticeagainstthe

perpetratorsprevails.Whiletheremightbesomevaliditytothesearguments,

theyfailtoquestionnotionsof‘truth’and‘fact’,thehumaninterventionrequired

topreserveanddisplaysuchsites,andthepoliticsbehindtheconservationof

certainsitesandthedismissalofothers.

Iusehistoryheretorefertoeventsthathappenedinthepast,whichmayhavemultipleandchangeablereadingsandpresentations.

183Themultifariousissueswiththisreportaretooextensivetolisthere,buttheyinclude:

normativeassessmentsoftheconceptsofhumanrights,justice,democracyandcitizenship;ethnocentricnotionsofhealing;theproblematicideathatmemorialsprovideanykindof‘truth’(andtheideathatthereisonetruthofthepast);andalackofdiscussiononthepoliticalinfluenceonmemorialsandtheirpresentation.

JensMeierhenrich(2009)addressesthisfluctuatingprivileginganddismissalof

memorialsitesbyexaminingtheNyabarongoriverinRwandaasasiteof

‘underprivilegedmemory,’chartingitstransformationfrom‘anotoriouskilling

sitetoasanitisedbuildingsite’(2009:15,italicsoriginal).Bydoingthishe

discussestherelationshipbetweenmemorialisationandmodernisation.The

river’stransformationresultsfromtheconflictingforcesofmemorialisationand

modernisation,wherecentralisedprojectsofeconomicandpoliticalreform

marginaliseorevendestroydecentralisedeffortsofmemorialisationthatdonot

perfectlysuitthestaterhetoric.Thislinkstotwomajormotivationsformany

statesinthecommoditisationofsuchsites:controlofmemorytosupportstate

rhetoric,andeconomicdevelopment,forwhichaparticularnarrativethatappeals

totouristsmustbeconstructed.Wood(2006:181-182)assertsseveralnegative

consequencesof‘puttingthecountry’shistoryofsufferingattheserviceof

attractingrevenue’,including:

Asingularversionofhistoryatoddswithandattheexpenseoflocalparticipation;

amemorializationapparatusthatreproducesandextendsexistinghierarchiesand

linesofcontrol;andanintensifiedcommodificationofhistoricalsitesandlandthat

generatesgreatereconomicvulnerabilityandsocialtension.

Tegelberg(2009:499)concurs,arguingthatthecommodificationofKhmerRouge

sitesfortourism‘threatenserasureofthemorenuanced,multi-facetedcultural

narrativesthatcharacterizetheregion’svasthistory.’

However,tourismisnotonlyabouteconomicprosperity.Italsoofferstoolsfor

politicalstabilitythroughitspartinwiderregionalandglobalnetworks(Telfer

2002),andasSkinner(2006)notes,itisalsoausefultoolinthecreation,

embedding,andmaintenanceofnationalidentitiesandideologies,aspeoplecreate

andperformparticularnarrativesofthepast.Assuchitisa‘highlypolitical

phenomenon’(Richter1989:2).Severalpreviousscholars(Hinton2008;Hughes

2005,2008;Ledgerwood1997)havefocusedonsuchpoliticsofmemory,exploring

theuseofKhmerRougesitesinthecreationofstatenarrativesthatcontrolthe

historyoftheregime,andcertainlythisisacentralfeatureoftheuseofChoeungEk

today.However,suchargumentsoftenfailtoengagewiththeconceptthatwhile

beingeconomicallyandpoliticallydriven(oftenbeingadeliberatemanoeuvreby

thestatetoraiseawareness,engendersympathyforvariousends,attracttourist

revenue(onwhichmanymayrely),andassertapresenceinthegeo-political

sphere),theaimsofsuchcommodificationarenotnecessarilyatoddswiththe

ambitionsoflocalpeople,whomayjustasopenlyexploitsuchhistories(andtheir

own)totheirownends,andtherebydirectittowardsthefuture.

RachelHughes’(2008)article‘DutifulTourism’examinesthemotivations(orat

leastretrospectivenarrations)oftouristsvisitingTuolSleng,however,someofits

argumentscanbeequallyappliedtoChoeungEk.Shesuggests(ibid.:328)that

peoplevisitthesitebecausethey‘desiretobehaunted;’throughthishaunting

theycanshowcompassion,sympathyandrecognitionofthesufferingundergone

inthis,andotherregimes.Aftervisiting,sheargues,theyarecompelledto

become‘dutifultourists’:

ThedecisionsofcontemporaryvisitorsatTuolSlengarerefiguringsoftheworld

fromwithinvariousdiscoursesofmorality.They(re)constructmoralgeographies

whichbringeventsofthepastintoproximity,allowpoliticalconcernstotravel

alongwiththemandactinways(albeitminor)thattheybelievewillimprovethe

livesofthoseintheplacestheyvisit.Theirvisitinginvolvesreturningtoamoral

terraininwhichmasspoliticalviolenceanditsongoingsocialand(geo)political

effectsareapproachedthroughdutifulexposure.

The‘Battlefieldtourist’Schwenkel(2006:4)asserts‘isdrivenbythedesiretosee,

experience,andunderstandmassdestructionandviolenceinthemodernera.’

ManycountriessuchasCambodia,andVietnam(whereSchwenkelworks)have

takenadvantageofthisincreasingtrendtocommodifysitesofconflictand

disasterasameansofpromotingeconomicdevelopment.Asthesesitesare

recycledandreproduced,Schewenkelargues,thememoriestheymaterialiseare

rearticulatedinincreasinglytransnationalarenasinfusedwithcapitalistvalues.

Thisisnotnecessarilynegative:the‘new’memoriescreatedviathis

commodificationdonotdisplaceotherunderstandings,butratherareconstituted

throughaprocess‘ofencounterandcontestation’whichaddlayersofmeaning

andunderstandingtothesites.Thisshelabels‘recombinanthistory,’suggesting

‘theinterweavingoftransnationalmemories,knowledgeformations,andlogicsof

formations’(ibid.:5)

TheaspectofSchwenkel’sargumentthatIwishtoengagewithisthatthe

narrativesattachedtosuchsites,therefore,arecontinuallychanging,andthere-

imaginingsandre-creationsrequiredfortourismarenotnecessarilynegative,nor

subsumeothermemories,butareseenasworkingforthebenefitofindividuals

andcommunitiesaswellasthestate.InVietnamtheindividualbenefitisthe

veteransofthewar,someofwhomworkastourguidesandtowhomitprovides

anopportunitytosharealternativehistoriestothestate’s,particularlyimportant

inacountrythat‘attemptedtoimposehistoricalamnesiaonthe“losing”side’

(ibid.:20).Likewise,inthecaseofChoeungEkmemoriesandhistorical

presentationsareworkedandre-workedinrelationtothetouristmarket,a

negotiationthatwhilstrequiringacompliancewithonemodeofnarration,is

imaginedtomyinformantsasprovidingbenefitstothemselves,their

communities,andthestate.

ChoeungEkinCambodianTourism

Sincerelativepeacewasmadeinthelate1990s,tourismtoCambodiahas

increasedsteadilyatarateofapproximately20%peryear(MinistryofTourism

2015).In2014,4.5millioninternationalvisitorsarrivedinthecountry,90%of

whichweretourists,andtourismwasthesecondlargestincomegenerator,and

thethirdlargestsectorafteragricultureandtextiles,contributing$2.8billion

dollarstotheeconomy(17%oftheGDP)(ibid.).ItsimportancetoCambodiais

illustratedbyitsplaceinthenationalinvestmentandplanningstrategies:

between2006and2011,54%ofinvestmentfromtheCambodianInvestment

Boardwenttotourism(ADB2014)184,anditisoneofthefivenationalprioritiesin

Cambodia’sNationalStrategicPlan(RGC2014).Thisfocusispartofachangein

nationalstrategyfrompoliticalstabilityto(neoliberal)development,asexplained

intheNSP:

Inthefirstdecadeuntilthe2000s,thehighestpriorityoftheRGC185was

rebuildingthesociety,theeconomyandtheinfrastructure.Inthesecond

decade,thecountrybeganpursuingplanneddevelopmentinamarket

framework.

Resultingin,amongotherthings,itsbrandingas‘TheKingdomofWonder.’

185RoyalGovernmentofCambodia.

HunSenhasregularlyemphasisedtheimportanceoftourisminCambodia’s

development,botheconomicallyandstrategicallyintheregion,andasChheang

(2009:69)pointsout,inacountryembeddedinapatronagesystemwithatop

downdecisionmakingprocess,thewordsofthepremierinevitablyequateto

nationalpolicy.Tourismisrepeatedlyreferredtoas‘greengold’inministerial

speeches(ADB2014;Samouth2013;PPS2013),beingviewedasameansof

economicgrowthandpovertyreductionthroughincomegenerationandjob

creation,andpoliticalstabilityandco-operationthroughthenegotiationand

maintenanceofregionalallegiancesinSoutheastAsia(particularlythroughthe

ASEAN186network).

Tourismisalsooneofthewaysthestatepromotesapositiveimageofthe

countrytoothernations;thisaspectwasviewedasespeciallyimportantformy

informantsbecauseofitsunstablepast,particularlytheviolenceoftheKhmer

Rouge,whichexistswithinlivingmemoryformanypeoplevisiting.Forthis

reason,neitherChoeungEknorTuolSlengappearonofficialgovernmenttourism

information,despitetheattentionandinvestmentthathasgoneintobothover

theyearsandtheirstatusaskeytouristsites.Althoughitsnumbersaresmall

comparedtoAngkorWat(approximately260,000visitorsin2014,comparedto

AngkorWat’stwomillion),itreceivesover25%ofPhnomPenh’stourists(Ministry

ofTourism2015)andChoeungEkisthusintegraltotourisminthearea.

Itsuseasatouristsiteisnotnew.Sinceitsdiscoveryasasiteofkillingin1979it

hasalwaysbeenoutwardlyfacing;likeTuolSlengitwasquicklyharnessedasa

showcaseofevidenceoftheatrocitiesoftheKhmerRougeandduringtheearly

AssociationofSoutheastAsianNations.Memberstatesare:BruneiDarrusalam;Cambodia,LaoPeople’sDemocraticRepublic;Malaysia;Myanmar;Philippines;Singapore;ThailandandVietnam.

daysofthePRK,thosevisitingthesitewerealmostexclusivelybroughtby

governmentofficialsastheyuseditintheirpost-depositionpropaganda(Chandler

1999,2008;Tyner2012a).Overtimehowever,thetypeofvisitorsbeganto

change.Between1992and1993,whenUNTACruledCambodiaforeignsoldiers

becameregularvisitorsandslowlyasmorevisitorscameoftheirownvolition,

family-runbusinessesstartedtoopen.187AsthesituationinCambodiastabilised

andvisitornumbersincreased,ChoeungEkgrewinpopularityasatouristsite.

EasilyaccessiblefromPhnomPenh,withdramaticphysicalevidenceintheformof

skeletalremainsandvisiblegravepits,thesiteiscompelling.Bythelate1990sit

sawaregularinfluxofforeignvisitors,andsometourguidesfromPhnomPenh

begantosituatethemselvesatthesite.BongLa,wasoneofthese;initially

comingin2000undertheadviceofhisaunt(whoworkedintheMinistryof

CultureandFineArtswhichhadjurisdictionofthesiteatthetime),hehasstayed

eversince.

In2005thesitewasprivatized,anda30-yearleasegiventoaprivatecompany,JC

Royal&Co:aJapanese-Khmerco-operativecompanythatcomesundertherule

ofPhnomPenhmunicipality.188Theaimofthisleasewastoincreasetourist

revenue,andthisprivatisationhascomeundermuchcriticismfrombothnational

andinternationalmedia,whodeemitdisrespectfulandaccuseitofcorruption

Thefirststallwasrunbyoneofthedirectorsofthetime.Itwasnothisidea:arepresentativefromCocaColabroughtthedirectoreightcasesofsoftdrinksandofferedthemtohimforfree.Hefoundtherewasgoodmoneytobemade,andasthenumbersgrewandtypeofvisitorchanged,itbecamealucrativebusiness.

188ThoughreportedtobeaJapanesecompany,thedirectorsatthesitetoldmeitisapartnership:

theJCinthetitle,theytoldme,standsforJapanese-Cambodian,andtheJapaneseprovidedoverallplansofimprovementofthesiteandcapacitybuildingskills,forwhichtheyreceivesomerevenue(reportedly$15,000perannum).

(Doyle2005;KinetzandKuch2008;Mydans2005;Sokha2010;Yimsut2005).189

Criticscontendthatitisabusivebecauseoftheforeignoriginsofthemanaging

companyandtheexploitationofthehumanremainsitdisplays(Becker2013;

Hughes2005).ButsinceDemocraticKampucheaChoeungEkhasneverbeen

aboutrememberingthedead.Itwasfirstlyabouterasingthem,thenabout

showcasingthem.

Theprivatisationhasledtochangesinitslayoutandpresentation,andaddedto

thefacilitiesavailableatthesite.Asmallmuseumwaserected,newtoiletsbuilt,

andwhenIwasthereapavedfootwaywasbeinglaidalongthepaths.Flowers

andbusheshavebeenplanted,andbenchesputuparoundthesite;amanager

theretoldmeitspresentationischangingfromaraggedexhibitionofconflicttoa

peacefulparkofmemory(‘Ihavemixedfeelingsaboutthat,’shecommented‘I

canalsoseethevalueoftryingtopreserveaplacethat,ofcoursewillalwaysbe

politicized,butdon’twewanttobeabletoshowpeoplethisiswhatpeoplecan

dotoeachother–thisiswhatthey’vedonehere.SoI’malsonotsurethatit

shouldbemadenice’).Aspartofthecompany’sleaseacharitablefoundation

wassetup:the‘SunFoundation.’Throughthissomeproceedsgotocharitable

work;thesitefundsseveraluniversitystudents190andgivesmoneytoelderly

peopleinthelocalcommune–eighteenfamiliesreceived$10and15kgofriceper

monthwhenIwasthere.Andeventhoughtherestofthemoneygoestothe

municipality,thosewhoworkthere,particularlythosewithexperiencefrom

before,viewitsprivatisationpositively.‘Before,’BongLareported‘itwasonly

Oneparticularlydamningarticleclaimedthatthousandsofdollarsinrevenuehavegonemissing.‘Theynevercameintothesiteandinterviewedus,andgaveusachancetoexplain’thesite’sdirectortoldmewhenIaskedheraboutit.

190Thenumberisunclear–onepersontoldmetentotwelvestudentsaresupportedannually,

anothertoldmethattheyhavesupported550since2005.

underthegovernment,andwehadnoideawhathappenedtothemoneythey

madeatthegate.Nowit’sbetterbecausetheyhavetotelluswhereitwent.’

Thetourist191encounteratChoeungEkisahighlychoreographedandheavily

mediatedexperiencedesignedtoteachthevisitorabouttheKhmerRougeregime

whileengenderingsympathyandempathybyengagingtheminanimmersive

sensoryexperience.Passingthroughthegatesofthesite,visitorsaredirected

firsttotheticketcounter,andthentotheaudioguidestationimmediatelynextto

it.Almostnonerefusetheaudiotourandithasnowbecometheprimarywayby

whichtouristsengagewiththesite;moreorlesstheonlypeoplenottakingit

arrivedwithaguidefromPhnomPenh,andnowadaysevensomeofthose

encouragetheirclientstotakethemselvesroundwiththeaudiotour.Itis,of

course,ahighlydesignedtourofthespace,andprovidesdirectedreadingsto

boththeencounteranditsinterpretation.Thatisitsjob:toguidethosewhotake

itonwhattopayattentionto,bothvisuallyandimaginatively.Andasaprovoker

ofemotion,andconnectionwiththesite,itisbothpowerfulandsuccessful.

Thetourfollowsapatternmostwesternmuseum-goersarefamiliarwith.

NarratedbyaKhmer‘survivor’192itleadsyouaroundtonotifiedstops,ateach

directingattentiontospecificaspectsofthesite:theareawhereprisonerswere

heldbeforebeingtakentotheirdeaths;achainedoffareawherebonesare

emerging;the‘Magictree’fromthebranchesofwhichhungspeakersthatblasted

musictodisguisethesoundofkilling.Asitmovesalongthepaththatwinds

aroundthesiteittellsthestoryoftheKhmerRougeandofChoeungEkin

Iusetouristheretomeaninternationalvisitors,becausetheencounterforKhmervisitorsisverydifferentandmuchlessmediatedanddesigned,aswillbeexploredlater.

192Manyofthevoicesontherecordingareactors.

particular.Thelimitedsignagetellsofterriblethings:thebodiesofonegravehad

noheads;anothercontainedonlywomenandchildren.Rowsofpitscoverthe

land,separatedonlybyasmallwindingpaththatthetouristswalkdown.Inthe

pathundertheirfeet,remainsareemerging;shardsofbone:fragmentsofpeople.

Likeanygoodstorythehorrorandtensionisbuilt–itsclimaxatthecentreisstop

fifteen-thetreewherebabies,heldbytheirfeet,hadtheirskullssmashedagainst

thetrunk(figureten).Reachingthisclimax,itcalmsthemood,movingonto

discussCambodia’sfuture,andtheplaceofChoeungEkasamemorialtomass

death.Itendsdrawingconnectionstootherglobalsitesofgenocide:Germany,

Poland,Rwanda,andothers.

Figureten:ChoeungEkkillingtree(source:theauthor)

Thefinallocationisthecentralstupa.Atmorethan30metreshighitdominates

thesite,whichrevolvesaroundit.Insidearepiledtheskeletalremainsofover

8,000people193excavatedfromthesiteintheearly1980s(seechapterone,figure

four).Thesedustyremainsarestackedinsideonshelvesbehindglassdoors.

Theirarrangementamplifiestheirimpact;skullsseparatedfromlongbones;long

bonesfromshortbones-thedeadrupturedfromtheirlivingselvesnotonlyby

massburialbutalsobyskeletaldismemberment.Clothingpilesonthebottom

shelf,thenextsevenfilledwithskulls,allfacingoutwards,sonomatterifyouare

childoradult,whereveryoulookhundreds,thousands,ofskullsateverylevel

meetyoueyetoeye.Abovetheskulls,theotherbones;theshelvessohighthat

whenItriedtophotographitsheightmycameracouldnotcaptureit.Thespace

issmall;theconfinementphysicallyforcingyoueye-to-eyeandbody-to-bodywith

theremains.Insideishumidandslightlyfetidandtingedwiththefaintbut

distinctivesmellofdecomposingbone;sweatandbonedusttangledtogether:

scentsofthelivingbutalsothedead.

HavingintroducedtheplaceoftourisminCambodia,andtourismatsitesofwar

anddeath,thissectionwillnowmoveontopresentthreeethnographic

encountersatChoeungEk,illustratinghowmyinformantsviewthedesignofthe

siteanditsuseintourism.Bydoingsoitwillshowhowmyinformantsconceive

tangibleandabstractbenefitsfromitsuse,asthetouristsbecomeengagedin

reciprocalrelationswiththesiteandcountry.Threestoriesarepresented.The

firstshowshowSreySreyandOmTaviewtheuseofhumanremainsasavital

elementofthetouristexperienceatChoeungEk,whichtheyviewassignificantto

Theexactnumberofpeoplerepresentedbytheremainsinthestupaisunknown:thesitereportsitis8,995,butthatseemsverypreciseandbasedonmyexperienceofotherforensiceffortsinCambodia,unlikelytobecompletelyaccurate.Iprefer,therefore,togiveanestimatedfigure.

thelocalcommunity’swellbeinganddevelopment.InthesecondwemeetTa

Chann,amanlivinglocallytoChoeungEk,whosesister,cousin,theirhusbands

andchildren,werekilledatthesite.Thisencounterdemonstrateshow,evenfor

thosewhosedeadareatthesite,itsplaceasalocationofhistoricaleducationis

viewedascrucial,butalsohowsuchdisplaysrelatetoideasofinternationalaid

andawareness.ThefinalencounteriswithBongLa,whoviewstouristsas

integraltofuturepoliticalstabilityandsocialdevelopmentofCambodia.

Displayingdeath,ensuringlife

OmTawasprobablyoneofthehardestworkingpeopleatChoeungEk.Herarely

tookarest,movingconstantlyaroundthesite,keepinganeyeopenforjobsthat

neededtobedone,peoplethatneededhelping,oranimalsthatneededtending.

‘Myjobisimportant’hetoldmeonedayasIaccompaniedhimaroundthesite.

‘It’slikewe’rehelpingournation.ThereasonIsaysoisthatitisthegovernment.

Thegovernmentisthecountry.It’slikeI’mhelpingthecountry.EventhoughI

can’thelpmuch,asacleaner,Iamhelping.’

AsheworksOmTacarriesasmallplasticbag,tuckedintoapocketofhisshirtor

trousers.Asweweretalkingonedayhepulledthebagoutofhispockettoshow

mewhatitheld.Thereinhishandwasagrislycollection:teethandshardsof

bone,splinteredfromlargerones.WalkingaroundthesiteOmTakeepshiseyes

alertfortheseremains.Ifheseestheminthegravepitsheleavesthemalone,

butanyheseesinthepathsthatwindaroundthesitehelifts,addingthemtothe

baginhispocket.Oncehehasasmallcollectionhetakesthemtothecasewith

theotherremains.

Collectingtheremainswasimportantfortworeasons,hetoldme.Firstly,putting

themallinonelocationtogetherisameansofrespectingthosewhohavedied.

Butsecondlytheyareanimportantpartofwhytouristscometoseethesite.The

useoftheremainsinsuchawayisnotnew,heexplained;ithasbeensosincethe

sitewasfirstdiscovered.OmTahasmuchexperienceoftheremains:hisfirst

encounterwithChoeungEkwasintheearly1980swhenhecametolootthe

graveswithhisfather;hefoundawatchandhisfatherfoundalongmilitarycoat

whichheusedforyearsbeforeitworeout.Hewasemployedsoonafterthisasa

guardatthesite,andwatchedastheremainswereunearthedandpreparedfor

display–allclothing,ligatures,andblindfoldswereremovedandtheflesh

detachedfromthebones.Afterseveralmonthsofdryingtheyweremovedtothe

woodenp’teahkhmouch,andcarefullyarrangedtomakethemostimpacton

thosevisitingthesite.Whentheycameacrossaskulltheybelievedtobeof

foreignorigintheworkersmadesuretodisplayitatthefront:

Weweretoldtobringtheskullsandbonesandputthemthere.Isawagrave

underthetree.Isawalong,bigskull.Itwasstrange.Thensomepeoplesaid

theywantedtoplacethatinthefront.Weplaceditintheveryfront;weworked

onthatarrangement.Itmusthavebeenaforeigner—eitheranAustralianor

American194.

Itsarrangementatthefrontofthestupawas,OmTaconfided,aimedatthe

foreignersalreadystartingtovisitthesite.Thisconsiderationcontinuedafterthe

centralstupawasbuilt;beforethebonesweremovedexpertscamefrom

Vietnamtoconductsomebasicskeletalanalysisontheskulls,organisingthemin

Over500foreignerswerekilledatChoeungEkandTuolSleng.MostwereVietnamese,butahandfulofothernationalitiesalsosuffered(EaandSim2001).

thestupabysexandage.Thisanalysisneverhadanyforensicuse:‘itmakesit

betterforthevisitorsiftheyknowsomethingaboutthem’OmTaexplained.

Theselabelscanstillbeseenonthestupashelvesbuttheskullsarenow

confused;aboutayearbeforemyfieldworkstartedtheremainshadbeentaken

outofthestupaforcleaning,andduringtheprocesshadbecomemuddledand

somebroken.Thosebrokenwereputtothebackandtheonesintactarrangedat

thefront,allwiththeirfacesfacingoutwards.

SreySreyparticipatedinthiscleaning.SreySreytakesgreatprideinherwork.

Workingsevendaysaweek,ChoeungEkhasbecomeanextensionofherhome,

andsheviewshercolleaguesasextendedkin.Amongstherdutiesasacleaneris

themaintenanceofthegraves,andthecleaningofremains.Everydayataround

2pmagroupofcleanersandcaretakersgathertosweepleavesandotherdebris

fromthemassgravepits,andtocollectbonesandclothingemergingfromthe

soil.Inthedryseasonlittleemerges,butduringtherainyseason(Mayto

October)therainwashesawaythesoilanderodestheedgesofthegraves,andas

theseasonadvancesandfootfallaidsthesoildispersion,skeletalremainsand

clothingareslowlyuncovered(seefigureeleven).

Figureeleven:humanremainsemergingatChoeungEk(source:theauthor)

LikeOmTa,SreySreycollectsremainsandfreesbitsofclothingfromthesoilas

shecleans.Notalltheremainsarecollectedthough;somearemovedand

displayedindifferentareasto‘improve’thetouristexperience.195Aswellas

remainsbeingmovedaround,SreySreyconfided,otherswereleftinthepaths

thatpeoplewalkedon,toimprovetheattractionofthesitetointernational

visitors;‘oneoftheguyssaid:“Ifweclearallthebonesfromtheground,whatwe

goingtosee?Wewillhavenothingtosee.”’‘Somewanttoshowthemas

evidenceforchildren,’sheexplained,‘butsomewanttoattractmorevisitorsto

seetheCambodianhistoryandimproveCambodianeconomics.’Atfirst,Srey

Sreytoldme,shewasshockedbythisattitude,butfromwatchingthetourists

interactwiththeremainsshesoonrecognisedtheirimpact:‘Theycomehereto

195Ilookedoutforthesemediationswithinterest.Ononedayapairoftheblackrubbersandals

similartothoseusedbytheKhmerRougeappearedunderaphotographshowingtheexcavatedremainsstackedhighintheearly1980s.Theyhadnotbeentherethedaybefore.Onanotherdayafragmentedfemurlayfullyexposedinachainedoffareathatthedaybeforehadbeenemptyexceptforleavesanddirt.

seetheseskeletons,toseewhowaskilled,’shecommented,‘andwhenvisitors

cometheycantellothersthatCambodiahasaplacewheretheykeepthebodies

ofthedeadfromthePolPotregime.’

Bypayingmoneytoenterthesite,thetouristsaredirectlyinputtingtothesite

andthewell-beingofthecommunitysurroundingit,SreySreytoldme,because

notonlydoesitprovidesafe,wellpaid,employmentformanypeople,butsince

thecompanytookoveritsmanagement,infrastructurehasimprovedandmoney

isgivenascharitablecontributionsinthesurroundingareas:

Theysupportorphansandgivescholarshipsto[university]students.Ithink

they’renotwastingthemoney.[Theygivemoneyto]olderpeople….Whenthe

companycame,Iexpectedthatitwasgoingtobehard.Butwhentheyactually

camein,itwasreallygood….It’sbetterthanbefore.Theyhaveclearobjectives

thatareacceptable[and]itimprovesourlives.It’smuchbetternow.

Despitetheseadvantages,SreySreysometimesfeltconflictedaboutthe

mediationofthesite’sexperienceforthetourists;‘they[tourists]worksohardat

homeandtheycomeherejustforfreedom,butsometimes,wealsohave

propaganda,’shecommented.Butoverallshebelievedtheworkofthesiteis

good,andtheuseoftheremainsacceptable.Peoplewanttoseethedead,and

theyarewillingtopaytodoso.Afterseeingthistheyreturntotheircountryand,

shehopes,tellpeopleaboutCambodia;aboutitspast,but,moreimportantly,

aboutitspresentandfuture;‘thevisitorshelpCambodians.Whenthe

internationalvisitorshelpCambodians,itmakesmehappy.SoIthinkwhatthe

governmentdoestodayisright.’

OmTahadnosuchconflictions.HeconsidersChoeungEktobeintegralto

developmentofCambodia,andbyinference,hisjobtoo.‘Maybethisplacedoes

businessusingtheskeletons,’hecommented.‘Buttheyareimportant….Ithink

somepeoplearemaybejealousthatwegetmoney[fromthesite]….Itisgoodfor

peoplewholivearoundhereandforpeoplewhoworkinthisplace.‘It’slike

we’rehelpingournation.’

‘Ifweforgetaboutit,historywillbeerased’

TaSannisanelderlymanwhohaslivedclosetoChoeungEkforallhislife.He

wasintroducedtomebyoneofthemanagersonthesite.Theyhadbeen

acquaintancesforalongtime,becauseTaSannhadbeenoneoftheonlypeople

beyondtheguardsworkingatthesitewhoknewitsfunctionduringtheregime

andassuchhadbeeninvolvedwithmanyresearchprojectsatChoeungEkas

peopletriedtopindownitspast.Beforetheregimetookpowerhesupported

theirsoldiers,dealingfoodandmedicalsuppliestothem,andafterpowerhe

remainedintheareawithhisfamily.HewasamemberoftheMinistryofSocial

Affairs,workingasafarmerinthelocalco-operativethatmanagedfood

distributioninthearea.

TaSannwasoneofthemanythousandlowrankingKhmerRougecadrewho,

althoughworkinginandsupportingtheregime,werealsothemselvesvictimsof

thepurges,socialcontrolandexecutionoffamilymembersandfriends.Towards

theendoftheregime,hissisterwastakenfromtheircommuneoneafternoonas

theyworked.Thiswasfairlycommon,andthosearoundthemknewthatonce

taken,theywouldnotreturn.Someonerantohim,shoutingthathissisterhad

beentakentotheEast.Heknewthisprobablymeantherdemise:

IthoughtiftheyhadtakenhertotheEast,itmusthavebeentothisplace.I

knewthatPreySarprisonwaswheretheyeducatedpeople,andthatTaleong

villagewaswheretheyre-educated[kāsang]them,andiftheycamehere,they

hadtodie.

Hedreadedtheconsequenceofthisnews,andwantedtocheckforhimself.So

heborrowedabike,androdetothesite,wherehesawthetrucksunloadingthe

passengers.‘Ihadaccesstothesite’hesaid,‘becauseIworkedforsocialaffairs.’

Therehesawhissister,herhusbandandtheirten-year-oldchild.‘Isawtheir

faces,andIturnedaroundbecauseIwasafraidthatIwouldcry.ThenIleft’he

toldme.Laterintheregimehisbrother,cousinandcousin’swifewerealsotaken

tothesite,alongwithhisformerboss,whofirstwasprocessedbyTuolSleng.‘I

wenttoseehisphotograph[afterwards].Theypulledouthistoenailsandstuff.’

TaSannisapoliticalpragmatist,whowasnotalwaysasupporteroftheKhmer

Rouge.WhentheLonNolregimewasinpower,hecollaboratedwiththem;when

theylostpowerheturnedtotheKhmerRouge.Followingthefallofthatregime,

heturnedhisallegiancetothecurrentgovernment(‘Theywereallrelated,’he

commentedwhenIaskedhimaboutthis.‘Somedidn’tfollow[politics]closely

likeIdid.Ifolloweditverycloselyineachregime.IlearnedsinceIwasyoung’).

Nowadays,recognisingthelackofsocialbenefittobeingassociatedwiththe

KhmerRouge,hetellsfewpeopleofhisinvolvementintheregime,claiming

insteadthatheknewaboutthesitefromothers.

Followingtheregime’scollapse,hereturnedtothesite,beingemployedtoguard

thoseexcavatingthegraves.Heworkedalongsideothers,countingtheskullsthat

wereunearthed,andassistingtheirarrangementfordisplay.Amongstthebones

ofthosedisplayedarepotentiallythoseofsixfamilymembers-hisbrother,sister,

herhusband,hisniece,cousinandcousin’swife-andatleastoneformer

colleague.Wetalkedaboutthisatsomelength.Hetoldmehecameregularlyto

thesite,andwaspleasedwiththewayithadbeenmanagedovertheyears,

particularlytheuseofthehumanremainsasatoolofeducation.Thatticketsare

chargedisnotaproblem,becauseitisahistoricalsite,andhistoricalsitesallsell

tickets–hehadheard,hetoldme,thatatAngkorWattheticketswere$20or

more,andstilltouristswent.‘Foreignerswanttovisithistoricalplaces,’he

commented,beforecontinuing:

Notonlyforeignerswanttovisit,someCambodiansalsodon’tknowanything

aboutChoeungEk.Everyonewantstoknow,wantstolearnthishistory.Ifthey

knowthatthereisaplace,thereisevidence,showingthekillingduringthe

regime,everyonewouldwanttoseeit,bothforeignerandKhmer,especiallythe

youngergeneration….Itisimportant.Ittellsmorefromwhatweseeherethanif

weonlyhearthestoryfrommouthtomouth.Peoplewerekilledwithoutreason.

Sowelearnaboutitbyseeingthisplace.

Thepreservationoftheremainsisintegralinthis.‘Ifeelproud’hetoldmewhenI

askedhimabouthisfamiliesremainsbeingdisplayedatthesite.‘Iftheyknock

thisplacedown,Iwouldbedisappointed….[Theregime]isover.’ChoeungEkisa

place,TaSannfelt,wherethosewhodiedcouldbehonouredandremembered,

andthestupaholdingtheirremainsgaveaplaceforthegovernmenttolookafter

them.Butmostimportantly,heexplained,itpresentsKhmerhistorytoyoung

Cambodiansandforeigners.

[iftheremainswerecremated],itwoulddisappear,andtheyoungergeneration

willnotrememberit.Ifit’shere,theycouldsayohthat’swheremymother,my

fatherwerekilled.Bonesbecameamountain.Thisismyidea.Ithinkit’sgoodin

thehistory.It’sbettertokeepthem,toletKhmerandforeignersknow.It’san

importantthing.Weneedtoletforeignersknow.Somanypeoplewerekilled

becauseforeignersdidn’tknow.

Buildingafuturebyusingthepast

ThefinalethnographytellsthestoryofBongLa,andrelatestosomeofthemore

abstractbenefitsoftheChoeungEkuseasatouristsite.OnedayasBongLaandI

satchattinghestartedtellingmeabouthischildren.ItwaslateJanuaryanda

breezewasblowingacrossthesite,makingthedaycoolbyCambodianstandards.

Afewtouristswerewanderingaround,butitwasstillearly,sowehadtimetosit

andenjoythetime.

BongLa’stwoboysweresevenandten,andweregettingtotheagewherethey

werebecomingmoreindependent,listeninglesstotheirparentsandmoreto

theirfriendsandpeopleatschool.ThisworriedBongLa.Thoughheloves

Cambodiaandisgenerallyhappyinhislifethere,heisconcernedaboutthemoral

economyofthecountry;thedisregardpeoplehaveforeachotherandthe

environment,andtheendemiccorruptionofgovernmentandotherauthorities.

‘TheKhmerarealloppressednow’heconfidedoneafternoon;‘wecanonlyhope

forinternationalhelp.’

Thishelpcouldcomeinmanyforms.Butonewayofgettingitwasthroughthe

workofChoeungEk,andbyinteractingandlearningfromthetouristswhocome

tovisitit.Heoftenbringshischildrentothesitenottoteachthemaboutthe

KhmerRougeanditsresults,buttoshowthemthebehaviorofthetourists,

particularlytheirrespectfortheenvironment:

Iteachthembyexample.Youknowalongtheroad,peopledrinkteaor

somethingandthentheyjustthrow[litter]onthestreet.Ifonepersondoesit,

thechildrenwillfollow.Sowhathappenstenyearslater?Thisplacecouldbea

fieldofrubbish.SoIwanttoteachthemthis,andIlearntalotaboutitfrom

visitors,alotabouthygiene.Liketheplasticfromaroundthetopofabottleof

water–theyevenputthatinthebin–it’sverynice;Ilikethataction;it’sgood

thattheyalwayscleanthearea.SoIbringmykidshereandsay‘lookatwhat

thatmandoes,[throwingaway]hisdrinklikethat.’Soit’sgoodyeah.Ihopethat

Cambodians,wholostalotofhistory,willstartlookingatothercountriestohelp

Cambodia.Notthebadthings,thegoodthings.

BongLahasastrongaffectionforthetouristsatChoeungEk.Hehasalways

enjoyedlearningfromotherpeople,particularlythosefromothernations;itwas

thisthatinfluencedhisdecisiontobecomeatourguideinthelate1990s.We

oftensatwatchingthetouristsarriving,chattingaboutthemandtheiractions.

WhenIfirststartedworkingatChoeungEkIwouldoftenfeeloffendedbywhatI

viewedastheinappropriateanddisrespectfulclothingthatmanytouristswore.

Onedayayoungwomanarrivedwithherboyfriend.Sheworeminutedenim

shortsandatopthathunglooseattheside,exposingherbra.AsIrantedtoBong

Laaboutthisattire,helaughedandsaid‘itdoesn’tmatter:wedon’tmind.At

leastshehascomeandwillseeandlearn.’Laterheexplained‘whentheycome

here,theylearnaboutCambodia’hetoldme.‘SometimesIfeelsadseeing[the

dead]allstackeduplikethat’hesaidcommentingontheremains,‘butIdon’t

knowtoohowtokeepthestoryineveryone’smind….manyofthemtheyreally

sharetheseexperienceswithothers,becausetheyknowabout[Cambodia’spast]

onlyfromChoeungEkKillingFields.’Thissharingcouldonlybepositivehetold

me,becauseastheyshared,otherswouldwanttovisit,andthisbroughtpeople

whocouldhelpCambodiadevelop.

Thatisnottosaythatheisnaïveaboutthepotentialrisksoftourism,andwehad

manydiscussionsaboutsomeofthemoreseriousissuesCambodiafacesrelated

tothis,suchassextraffickingandpaedophilia.Butheviewedtheseasminimal

comparedtotheoverallbenefitsthathepersonallyengagedin,andthattourism

broughttothecountry.Althoughthemoneyraisedbythesitewasusefulin

generalforCambodia’seconomicdevelopment,itwasthescholarshipsgivento

universitystudentsthatBongLathoughtmostimportant:

Thereasonweareprovidingmoneyisbecausewewantthestudentsto

concentrateontheirstudies,notanythingelse,sothattherewillbemorehuman

resources[inCambodia].Becauseinthepast,itwasalackofhumanresources

thatledtokillingwithoutanyconsideration.Ithinkthatwhentherearen’t

enoughhumanresources,thecountrycan’tdevelop.Forexample,HongKong

candevelopbecausetherehavealotofhumanresources.

TheKhmerRouge’spropagandaisconsideredbymanytohavebeensosuccessful

becausetheyeliminatedtheintelligentsia,andinsteadreliedonpoorlyeducated

ruralfarmers,childrenandyoungpeopletorunthecampsandenforcetheirlaws.

Improvingeducationtherefore,isviewedasawaytopreventmovementsofthis

typeandscaleinthefuture.Thetourists’moneyatthesitehelpsenablethis

throughthecharitablelegaciesinwhichtheyengage.

AswetalkedIaskedBongLaaboutthenegativeperceptionsofthesite’s

privatisation.‘Yes,’hereplied,‘thisisdifficult.Iknowthisisdifficultbecausethis

siteisnotonlyhistorical,itisalsopolitical.’Hefoundithardtoexplainthe

advantagesofprivatemanagementtoforeignvisitors,aswellasthebenefitsof

thesite,buthesummedituptome:

thiscompanyismuchbetterthanbeforebecausewehaveamanagement

system;it’smuchbetterthanthestate–theCambodianState–butforeign

visitors,youknow,whentheyaskme‘Iheardthatthisisprivatecompany,isthis

aprivatecompany?’sometimesIcannotexplaineverything;actuallythey’re

Cambodian,butthenameisjustwrittenlikethat.Sometimesit’sreallyhard.All

ofthemfeeltheywanttocomeandhelp,andtopreservethissite,notjustfor

business,buttohelpfindjustice.ButithelpsCambodiansdevelopthemselves,

becauseatthattimewelostalotofteachers,alotoflife….

Overall,heexplained,‘[thecompany’s]workislikemeritforCambodia.’The

meritcomesfromitsplaceintheeducationoftouristsabouttheregimeandthe

country,aswellasinthemoneyitraisedthatgoes,notonlytothePhnomPenh

municipality,butalsotothelocalcommunity.Thisisbecausemattersleftonlyto

Cambodians,hebelieved,werecorrupt:

IthinkthatifwehopeontheKhmer,there’snohopeatall.Wecanonlydepend

ontheinternationalcommunity.

Discussion

Invokinghistorytogenerateincomeandthecommodificationofsitesoftragedyis

neitheranewnorunusualphenomenon.AsVenbrux(2010:44)writes,

‘throughoutourcontact[withotherpeople]death-tourismhasbeenaprominent

modeofcross-culturalinteraction.’Whatisnewinrecentdecades,however,is

theglobalizedaspectofsuchtourism,andtheincreasingstateharnessingofthis

ineconomicdevelopmentandregionalstrategy.Inthisglobal,increasingly

neoliberaleconomy,Schwenkel(2006:5)arguesthattheuseofsuchiconsofwar

entwinethepastandthefuture,byrecyclingandreimaginingsuchsitesin‘a

transnationaleconomyofmemoryforthesakeofprosperityanddevelopment.’

Thiseconomyisfluidandflexible,andisusedandmanipulatednotonlybythe

state,butalsobyeverydaypeopleinvolvedinthesesites.Aswesawinthecases

ofSreySreyandOmTa,theuseofsuchsitesintourismhavetangiblebenefitsfor

thepeoplewholivethere.Butbeyondthattheyexertinfluenceonthewider

localcommunity,andCambodiaasawhole,andsomeofmyinformants,suchas

BongLasawthemascontributingtofuturestabilityofthenationandtheregion.

Thedesiretoexplore‘war-torn’historiesdrivesexoticismbyinternationalvisitors

whoactivelyseektoviewandexperienceitstragicpast(Schwenkel2006).Indoing

soitappearstoreifysomeoftheimagesandnarrativesbeingpresented.Asmy

informantsconstruct,reconstructandperformthesenarrativeseveryday,they

becomefurtherentrenchedas‘truth’inthemindsofthoseconsumingthem.But

thesenarrativescanhavepositive,futureorientedresults,asarguedbyHughes

(2009)withregardto‘dutifultourists,’whoaftervisitingsuchsitesfeelanobligation

toprovideaidofoneformoranothertoCambodia.ThemarketingofChoeungEkis

notsimplyamatterofpresentingitasis.Itrequiresanunderstandingaboutthe

globalperceptionoftheKhmerRouge,andknowledgeofwhatattractsinternational

visitors.Althoughthishasbeenfacilitatedrecentlybycollaborationwithforeign

stakeholders196,myinformantswerealreadyskilledatthis.

ThepowerofChoeungEkisinitsphysicality,itsmaterialityandtheembodied

connectionitgivesthevisitortoCambodiaandthisperiodofitspast.Thesensory

immersionofferedbythechoreographedtourmomentarilycollapsestemporal

distance.Thedeliberateexposureofhumanremainsandpreservationofthe

graves197inparticularprovideanotionofauthenticityandrealismtothesite.On

wartourisminVietnam,Schwenkel(2006:8)notedthattouristsfeltthat‘warwas

moretangibleinCambodia,’itwas‘morereal’thaninVietnambecauseofthese

humanremainsandtheirlocationinaplacewherevisibletracesoftheirdeathand

massburialisstillevident.TouristsIwatchedvisiblyslumpedastheyreachedthe

graveofwomenandchildren.Peoplecriedastheyroundedthelakeatthebackof

thesite,listeningtocommemorativemusic.‘TheKillingFields’were‘raw’onetold

meafterwards.Afriendcomingbackfromvisitingthecountrytoldmehefelt

‘ashamed;soashamed;’another‘weleftthekillingfieldsfeelingveryheavy.’But

thisauthenticityisframedandperformed,andthedisplaywithinitheavily

mediated.Theaudiotourdirectsattention198;employeesatthesitearrangethe

TheJapanesearmofJCRoyal&Coproducedthedevelopmentplansaimingtoimproveitsappealtointernationaltourists,andtheAustralianbasedNarrowcastersthatdevelopedtheaudiotour(whichwaswrittenbyanAmericanscriptwriterinEnglishfirstsoastoappealtoanaudienceusedtomuseumtoursandparticularwaysofseeing).

197Astheyearspassthemassgravepitsarestartingtoerodeanddisappear.Somepitshave

merged;othersbecomeshallower.Thisisworryingthesite’smanagement.‘Iwantedthegovernmenttobuildglasscoversoverthegraves,becausetheyweren’tthisshallow[before]…therainerodesthemandfillsthemin.’onetoldme.

198Beingsodirectedmanymissmuchofthesitetheyarelookingat.Theywalkonbonesand

clothingwithoutnoticingitundertheirfeet,becauseearlierinthetourtheyhavebeendirectedtopayattentiontothosecomingthroughtheearthinchainedoffareas.TheywalkorsitonChinesegravestones,notnoticingtheyaregraves,ornotcaringbecausetheyarethewrongsortofdead:theydonotrepresentthehorrorthesevisitorshavecometosee.Theywerenottossedinpitsandpiledontopofeachother.Thatthisisagravesiteofappropriate,familialburials,aswellasmassgraves,becomesirrelevant-onlyonetypeofdeadistobenoticed:thosekilledduringtheKhmer

artifacts;andbydoingsotheyembraceandharnessthetouristgaze.Myolder

informants,suchasOmTa,seemedparticularlyadeptandcomfortablewiththis.

Thisisnotsimplypredatorycommodificationinsearchofeconomicprosperity,

althoughsometimesitmightappearthatway.Norisitnecessarilyexploitativeof

thedeadandtheirremains.Aswesawinchaptertwo,thoughpolitically

motivated,thedisplayofhumanremainsandtheuseofmassgraveswasnot

viewednegativelybymyinformants,andeventhosewhoobjectedpersonally(for

exampleBuSothwhothoughtno-oneshouldmakemoneyfromthedead),

thoughtperhapsthedeaddidnotmind;theydidnothauntandhadnevermade

peoplesick.ThecaseofTaSannshowsthateventhosewhoserelativeswere

killedatthesite,andwhoseremainsmaythereforebeamongstthosedisplayed,

sawthemasplayingapositiveroleinthefuturedevelopmentofCambodia.Chan,

ateacherfromtheschoolclosetothesitecommented:

Theincometheycollect…theirsufferings,gaveus…givesusall…givesme…

providesbenefitstoallthepeople…providesabenefittosociety,whichistolive

comfortably/safely(soks’roal),becauseoftheirhorrificdeaths.SoIthinkthat

theirsufferingdeathisvaluableforthenextgeneration,likemyself.

Byengagingwithimaginedvisitormotivationsinthedesignandperformanceof

ChoeungEkmyinformantsperceivedbothtangibleandabstractbenefitsto

themselves,Cambodia,anditsfuture.Thesitegivesthemajob,SreySreytold

me,andsupportsthelocalcommunity.OmTacommentedthathewashelping

thecountrybyworkingtherebecauseofitsplaceinCambodia’seconomic

Rouge.Itisnotthetourists’faultperse:alltheliteratureclaimsthatthesite‘usedtobeaChinesegravesite,’eliminatingfromconcernthefewChinesegravesthatremain.

development.BongLasawpersonal,nationalandglobaladvantages:intheways

hecouldteachhischildrenabouttheenvironment,andtheuseofincomefrom

thesiteinfundingscholarshipsthatwouldhelpensureamoresecureandstable

future.ThishasimplicationsforthefutureofCambodia:BongLalikenedits

potentialtoHongKong,Singapore,andJapan,andindoingsoillustratedthe

promiseofdevelopment.Andasitimproves,liketveabonandbangskol

ceremonies,ChoeungEkishelpingthecountryasawholetogainmerit,and

improvingitskarmaasitdoesso.Itswork(theirwork)isrelatedtothemoral

economyofCambodia;somethingmanyIinterviewedconsideredlackingandin

needofsupport.

Thisisnot,however,aunilateralrelationship.Insteaditwasviewedasareciprocal

relationshipbetweenthesiteanditsvisitors.MoststaffatChoeungEkusedthe

termvisitor(neaktossna)orguest(phngeav),ratherthantourist(neaktesschor–

literallypersonwhomakesatour)torefertothosewhocometothesite,whether

foreignorlocal.Impliedtherefore,inthetouristencounter,isanelementof

hospitalityandahost-guestrelationship.Hospitalityactsinthemodeofagift,and

althoughTesart(1998)insiststhatagiftoughtnotbereciprocated,Iagreewith

Mauss’s(2002[1950])assertionthatthereremainsanobligation,andan

expectationofreturn.AtKhmerRougesitesthisreturnisbothtangibleand

abstract,andimaginedbybothsides:thetouristandthoseworkingatthesite.The

site’scentralroleinCambodiantourismisdirectlylinkedintheimaginationsofthe

staffandthestatetoeconomicprosperityandinternationalassistance,andthe

reciprocatedrelationship,therefore,iswiththetouristswhohelpdevelopthe

country.Myinformantsembracedtourism,andthereciprocationitimplied.

ItisnotonlyChoeungEkthatusesthepastinsuchaway.Thep’teahkhmouchat

KohSophasbeenpreservedandthepastorfromtheisland’schurchregularlybrings

foreignvisitorstoseeit.AghoulishpaintingclosetotheentranceofPhnom

SampeauinBattambangindicatesitsformeruse;therelocalguidestaketouristson

thebackoftheirmotorbikestoseewherepeoplewerethrownfromthetopofthe

mountainintoacavebelow,beforeguidingthemtothespotwheretheirbodies

weresmashedandtheremainsnowsit,piledhighinaconcretecheddei(figure

twelve).199InAnlongVengTaMok’shouse,theallegedsiteofPolPot’sfuneral

pyre,andtheburialsiteofhiscremains,haveallbeenturnedintotouristsites,

renamedas‘TheCulturalSiteoftheKhmerRouge.’MarketsellersinPhnomPenh

haveembracedthisinterest,producingacrylicTinTincoversfeaturingtheKhmer

Rouge,andsellingreplicapropagandapostersfromtheVietnamesewar.

Figuretwelve:KhmerRougetourismatPhnomSampeau(source:theauthor)

AtBananinBattambangprovince,however,wherethemaintouristattractionisanAngkoriantemple,thebodiesonthesurfacewerecollectedandcremated,orcoveredwithsoil,becausepeoplereturningafterDemocraticKampucheathoughttouristswouldnotliketoseesuchbodieswhentheyhavecometoseeanancientsite.

NeitherisitonlyKhmerRougesitesthatarehoninginonthissideoftourism.

ThereisanincreasingmarketforsitesofsympathythroughoutCambodia.

OppositeChoeungEkarestaurantrunbythe‘Cambodianhandicapassociation’is

alwaysbustling,butnodisabledpeopleareemployedthere,theyarenotallowed

insidetherestaurant,andthemoneyraisedgoesalmostentirelytothefamily

whorunit.InPhnomPenhandSiemReapcafesandshopsadvertisetheir

employmentoftraffickedwomen,ex-prostitutes,orphansanddisabledpeople.

AstouristsmovearoundCambodiatheyareimmersedinanimageofacountry

thatnotonlysufferedfromaterriblepast,butcontinuestoneedhelp.The

resultingimpressionleftontouristsvisitingthesesitesisoneofoverwhelming

sufferingandongoingproblemsthatcannotberecoveredfrom.Asonetourist

toldme,‘IgottheimpressionCambodiaisawholenationwithPTSD.’

Ofcoursenotalltouristsconsumethesiteinthesameway,andalthoughtheaudio

guidesprovidesadirectednarrationthereisnotahomogenousreceptiontothe

site.Evenwhentheirconsumptionisdesignedandchoreographed,landscapesare

notstatic.Theyarecontested,negotiated,politicalanddynamic(Bender1993:2-

3),theirmeaningbeingworkedandreworkedthroughdifferentpeople’s

engagementswiththem.Theyaremulti-layered,andtheinterestsinthemand

meaningsinscribedwithinanduponthemmove,overlap,collideand,sometimes,

clash.ChoeungEkandotherKhmerRougesitesareinternationallandscapesthat

speaktoaglobalimaginaryofmassdeathandviolence.HenceChoeungEk’s

transformationfromamemorialintoamuseum,madeintelligibletothethousands

oftouristswhopassthroughitsgateseverydaybyaguidedaudiotour:onethat

directsthemwheretolook,whattosee,howtofeel.Atthemoment,my

informantsviewitsuseasatouristsiteprimarilypositively,withtangibleand

abstractadvantages.Butaswesawinchapterfive,theusesandnarrativesrelated

tosuchsites,whileappearingstaticarefluid,particularlytothosewhoproduce

them.200

WherefrustrationagainsttourismexistedamongstmyinformantsatChoeungEk,

itwasnotdirectedatthetourists201,butatthegovernment’scontinued

corruption.CriticismagainstChoeungEkwasturnedintoapoliticalmatter–a

desiretoerasetheviolentpast.‘Thepeoplewhosaidthismaybedon’twantthis

placetoexist,’OmTacommented.‘Ifthisplacedidn’texist,wewouldforgetall

thepainfulstories.’Beforethecompanytookover,BongLatoldme,amanhad

arrivedfromtheMinistryofDefence.ThoughhewasKhmeranddidnothaveto

pay,hetooktwodollarsoutinfrontoftheticketbooth.‘$1forSihanouk;$1for

HunSen’hesaid.ForthisreasonOmTa,BongLa,andotherbesides,preferred

thesitesmanagementbyaprivatecompanywhichhadtomakepublicits

accounts,andwhosepoliciesofsocialresponsibilitywerevisibleinthelocal

community,tosoledirectionbythegovernment.Touristswereseenaspotential

alliesintheendeavouragainstthis;themorepeoplewhocametoCambodia,and

themorewidelyitwasknownabout,BongLacommented,thelessablethe

governmentwouldbetocontrolthemsostrongly.202‘Thisisforthebenefitof

humanity’hecommented.

Althoughperhapstherewasmoreflexibilitybeforetheaudioguides,becausetheknowledgebeingsharedreliedonatripartiteencounterbetweentourguidesandtourists,andthephysicalencounterwiththesite.

201ThismightbepartlybecauseofChoeungEk’ssegregationfromthehomelivesofthosewho

workthere:thesiteisfencedoffandclosedat17:00,soeventhosefewfamilieswholiveonthesitehavespaceawayfromthetourists.

202Myinformantswerenot,however,naïveaboutthepoliticalnatureofChoeungEk.Thedirector

toldmethatthemunicipalityistheirparent,andtheyatChoeungEkarethetechniciansofthegovernment’svision.Oneoftheotherguidesrefusedtocommentonthesiteanditsuses;‘if

Conclusion

WhenIfirstarrivedatChoeungEkoneofthemanagersaskedmeifIhadever

beentoanyoftheHolocaustmemorialssuchasAuschwitzorDachau.‘Howdoes

thissitecompare?’heaskedme;‘howcanwemakeitmorelikethose?’Another

askedmetoconductbasicskeletalanalysisontheskulls:providingsexandage

categories‘becauseitwillmakeitbetterforthevisitors.’203Althoughprivatizedin

2005thesitehasalwaysbeenexternallyfocused;fromdayonethisrequireda

shapingofthenarrativeaboutthesesiteswhichwhilsttargetedtoattractan

internationalaudience,whichhasmostlikelyaffectedlocalunderstandingsas

well,particularlygiventhelackofotherhistoricalnarrativesontheperioduntil

veryrecently(Latinis2011;Tyner2012a).Khmervisitorsreceiveaverydifferent

site.Thoughseveralthousandvisitperyear,mostcomeaspartoftheECCC

sponsoredvisits;theirtripsarebrief(usuallyaroundtenminutes),theyreceive

littleguidance,andmostsimplywanderinandwanderoutagainwithlittleideaof

whattheyareseeing.ThefewsignsthatexistareinEnglish,andevenwhen

‘remembrance’ceremonies(suchasPchumBenhandNewYear)areheld,they

takeplaceatthesideofthesitesoasnottodisturbthetouristpathsaroundthe

someonebreastfeedsyou,youshouldbreastfeedthemback’hesaid,aKhmeridiomequivalentto‘I’llscratchyourbackifyouscratchmine.’WhenIfirstknewSreySreysherefusedtodiscusssuchtopics,sayingitwasnotherplacetocomment.‘IknowthatthetouristsjustcometovisitCambodia.Sometimes,theyvisitheretolearnaboutthelivingconditionsinCambodia.SomepeoplejustcometoseewhatCambodiaislike…’shetoldme.‘It’sdifficultformetotalkaboutit;thisispolitics.’Overtime,however,shestartedtotalkmorefreelyandcoulddiscussherviewsontheuseofremains.

203Ineverdiddoanyanalysis,althoughwhenIleftCambodiathemanagementwasstillplanning

tohaveitdoneatsomestage.

Thiscommoditisationfortheinternationalmarkethasbeencriticisedbymany,

however,asthischapterhasshown,itwasnotdeemedoffensiveordisrespectful

bymyinformants,butratherembracedandengagedwithasameansofproviding

futurebenefits.Supportingmanipulationsandtransformationsofthepastare

embracedbecausetheyprovidesecurityinthepresent,andofferfuture

potentialsforpositivechangeforCambodiaanditspeople.

ChoeungEkrepresentssomethingslightlydifferenttomostCambodiantourism,

wherethebenefitsoftheincomedonottrickledowntoordinarypeople.The

impactofthemoneyisevidentinthesupportofthelocalcommunityandthe

scholarshipsgiventostudents.Thebenefitofthetouristsisvisibleintheroads

thesitehasbuilt,theimprovementstothesite,thenewjobsandsocial

relationshipsithascreated.TourismatChoeungEkwasviewedbymyinformants

notasmanipulativeandexploitative,butaspositiveandsupporting.Touristshelp

thecountry,bothnowandforthefuture,andbyworkingforthesite,theydotoo.

Ofcoursethefuturemightnotturnoutthewaymyinformantsimagine,

particularlyifthecurrentgovernmentremainsinpower.Anumberofissuesare

alreadyapparentinCambodiantourism.Someofthese,suchassextrafficking

anddrugs,werediscussedbymyinformants,butmanyotherswereomitted:the

stressoninfrastructurecausedbyincreasingdemand(Becker2013),orthe

increasinglandinsecurityaspeopleareforciblyevictedfromlandthatisthen

developed.Butwhetherthefuturearrivesintheformimaginedisnotreallythe

point.Inusingthesite,BongLa,OmTa,SreySreyandTaChannallamodeof

assertingtheirplaceinCambodia’sfuture,andbydoingsoprovidingmeritfor

themselvesandtheirnation.

Oneafternoon,aswewalkedaroundthesite,myresearchassistant,Bunnwath,

turnedtome.‘Youknow,’hesaid‘PolPotdidsometerriblethings.Butitleftalot

ofsitesthatarereallygoodfortourism.’Thiscomment,madewithahitofirony,

wasanobservationontheuseofChoeungEk,andthevoraciousappetiteofforeign

touristsforsuchsitesofdeath.Butsuchastatementcanalsosuggestaconnection

betweentheviolenceoftheKhmerRougeregime,andthepoliticalsphereof

contemporaryCambodia,athemethatwillbeexploredinthenextchapter.

Chapterseven:Deadoftoday,ghostsoftomorrow-electionsand

thespectralKhmerRouge

Fear,thearbitratorofpower–invisible,indeterminate,andsilent.

-LindaGreen1994:227

********

The2013generalelectionsinCambodiawereatenseaffair.OmSreywas

nervous;‘IremembertheKhmerRouge’shetoldmeaswesatchattingafter

dinneroneevening.‘IwillkeepvotingforHunSenbecausehesavedusfrom

them.’OurchatcameasIplannedtoreturntoPhnomPenhforameetingafew

daysbeforetheelection.‘Areyoureallygoing?’sheaskedme,‘aren’tyou

scared?’

ThepoliticalsphereinCambodiaisfraughtwithviolence,particularlyaround

elections.In2012and2013,tensionwashigh,becauseforthefirsttimeinnearly

30years,itseemedthattherulingCambodianPeople’sParty(CPP)faceda

genuinechallengefromthemainoppositionparty,theCambodianNational

RescueParty(CNRP).Therulingparty’smodeofdealingwiththiswastwofold:

reinforcingthethreatofdirectandstructuralviolence(particularlytoopposition

voters)thathelpsmaintaintheirrule,andbeginningasmearcampaignagainst

theoppositionparty.Forbothends,theyharnessedthesymbolicpowerofthe

KhmerRougeandtheirdead;raisingthespectralpresenceoftheregimeandits

violence.TheCPPwerenotaloneinthis.TheoppositionCNRPalsousedthe

KhmerRougeandtheirgravesitesintheirpoliticalpropaganda,butforthemit

wastoremindthepopulousoftheformerstatusofthePrimeMinisterandother

CPPofficialsasKhmerRougecadre.Bothpartiesusedrhetoricsofviolence

throughouttheircampaigningthatmanifestedthreatsonindividual,community

andnationallevels.

Thischapterexploresthe2013electiontimeinCambodia,asalocusthatmakes

visibletheviolencepervadingKhmerpolitics.UsingDerrida’s(1994)conceptof

hauntology-thespectersofapastthatinhabitthepresentandshapethefuture;

thehauntingbyspiritstowhichallexperiencesareconnected–Iwillarguethat

contemporarypoliticsinCambodiaisanewmanifestationoftheviolencethathas

scourgedCambodia’spast,particularlytheKhmerRougeregime,which

contemporarypoliticswasformedinoppositionto,butwhichhasbeenpoliticized

toreinforceviolentnarrativesthatmaintainitsspectralpresenceasaconstant

threatwithintheKhmerimaginary,reinforcingpoliticalinsecurityamongstthe

population.

Toexploretheseconcepts,Iwillfirstexaminethetheoreticalframeworkforthis

chapter,beforebrieflydescribingelectionsinCambodia.Thiswillprovidethe

frameworkfortheethnographicsection,whichwillfirstdescribetheannual

remembranceceremonyheldbytheCPPatChoeungEk,nextapoliticalrally

organizedbytherulingpartyagainsttheoppositionshortlybeforetheelections,

beforediscussingtheelectiontimeasexperiencedbymyinformantsandmyself

inKohSop.TheseexampleswillhighlighthowtheKhmerRougeregimewas

revitalizedbythe2013elections,heighteningtheinsecurityandfearalready

inherentinthepoliticalsphere.ThediscussionwillreturntoDerrida,butalso

considerLindaGreenandAllenFeldman’sexplorationsoffearandinsecurity,to

showhowtheactivehusbandryoftheKhmerRougespectersnotonlyreminds

peopleoftheirviolence,butalsoreimaginesandrecreatesapoliticalspherein

whichviolentdiscoursesarethenormandauthoritarian,violentruleis

maintainedundertheguiseofliberaldemocracy.

InSpectersofMarx,Derrida(1994)createdthetermhauntologytodescribethe

continuedpresenceofMarxisminthepost-Marxistworld.Whilehaunting

expressestheongoingpresenceofsomethingpast(orinthecaseofdeceased

beings,passed),hauntologyderivesfromtheFrenchhantise,andincludesmore

nuancedexpressions,including‘obsession,aconstantfear,afixedidea,ora

naggingmemory’(Derrida1994:177,noteXX).204Derridausedthisconceptto

arguethat,despitesomeacademicsargumentsthatitwasnolongersignificant

followingthefalloftheBerlinwallandtheassociatedendofcommunism,

Marxismwas,in1993,morerelevantthanever.Itisbothimpossible,heargued,

andunjust,toclaimtoexistintheworldwithoutreferencetoMarxbecause

contemporarydeconstructionsofMarxismactuallyservetocreatenew

conceptions,basedon,andevolvingoutof,preciselythosedeconstructions.In

thischapterIwillusethisconcepttoexplorecontemporaryKhmerpolitics,which

204Althoughthetranslator,PeggyKamuf,continuestotranslatethetermashauntingthroughoutthebook,itisundoubtedlythispluralityofmeaningsthatattractedDerridatotheterm,becauseitsconception,heinformsus,beganashecontemplatedthehauntingobsessionthat,heargued,organizeddominantdiscoursetoday(Derrida1994:37).

isnotonlyhauntedbytheKhmerRougeregime,butwhichwouldnotexist

withoutthemandisformedinrelationtothem.

Thespecters205ofthepastnotonlyinhabitthepresent,butcomefromthefuture:

lineartemporalityiscollapsedbythesespectersbecausetheirmostdominant

characteristicistheirimminence:‘Itisthefutureitself,itcomesfromthere.The

futureisitsmemory’(ibid.).Thiscanbeinterpretedinmultipleways:thatifthere

isanyfuture,itwillbethisone,orthatintheiterationofthespectralpast,its

revivalbecomesnotonlyimagined,butpossible:inre-enteringthepopular

imaginaryitagaintakeslife,andintakinglife,itisbothre-enactedandre-

constructed.

ForDerrida,thereweremultiplespecters–notonlyMarxhimself,butalsothe

ghoststhathauntedMarx’swork,andthosethathauntsubsequentsocieties

(Macherey1999:18).ThesamecanbesaidofCambodia.TheKhmerRouge

hauntitspresent,butconceptionsoftheKhmerRougearethemselveshaunted

bythoseregimesandconditionsthatprecededandfollowedthem:theUS

bombingcampaignofthe1960s,theLonNolgovernmentof1970–1975;thePRK

of1979–1993;evenactionsofthecurrentregime,whoseruleofdirectand

structuralviolencemaintainsthesespecterswithinthepresent,andtakesthemto

thefuture.‘TounderstandtheKhmerRouge’OmTacommented,‘wehaveto

understandthesituationalittlebitbeforeandafterKhmerRouge’:

205Derridausestheterm‘specter’preferentiallyto‘spirit’or‘ghost’becauseunlikePlato’sphantasma-thesimulacrumofaparticularsomething-aspecterisbothintangibleandtangible;itisamemory,arecreation,animprint,ashadow,butitisonethataffectstheformandactionsofthoseithaunts(Derrida1994:7).

thestoryofCambodiawasnotjustfrom1975to1979,therewasmorethanthat.

ThiswastheeffectoftheColdWar.Itwasnotjustthoseyears.Before1975

whathadhappened?After‘79whatwouldhappen?

Thespecterscannotberationalisedaway–theyhauntthehistoricizedpresent

andshapeitsfuture.TheyarethereforeintegraltocontemporaryCambodia,

extendingVeenaDas’s(1997)criticalevents–itisnotonlythatDemocratic

KampucheademarcatesaparadigmshiftinCambodianlife,butthatitformsthe

basisofeveryreimaginingandreconstructionofsocial,politicalandreligiouslife

inCambodia.The2013electionshighlightedthis.

‘Asthecoreofdemocracy’Coles(2004:553)wrote‘electionsareacultural

practiceaswellasapoliticalone.’Theirculturalperformanceisarguably

ritualistic,and,therefore,performativeaswellassymbolic.Althoughdemocracy

‘wieldshegemonicauthority’throughitsapparentdistinctionfromsocietyand

subjectivity(ibid.),itisasociallyembeddedconstruct,constitutedandperformed

locallythroughitsattendantritualssuchaselections.Bydrawingonlocal

discourse,electionscreateandperformthelocalarticulationofdemocracyasa

setofpracticesandartifactsthatreifyconsolidatefeelingsofcommunityand

belongingandstateideologiespurportingfreedomandhumanrights.Democracy

exists,therefore,asaplurality;thelocalarticulationofwhichishighlightedduring

elections.206

206ThepluralityofdemocracyishighlightedbyBjörkman’s(2014)explorationoftheflowofmoneyduringthe2012electionsinMumbai,inwhichsheilluminateshowcontestedissuesofmodernity(suchastheneo-liberalandpoliticallandscapes)arenegotiatedinrelationtotraditionalformsofpatronageandexchangesystemsthatexistineverydayIndiathroughouttheyear.Inthiscase,moneyworksnotasamediumofpurchase,butasagiftexchangedforalliancesandsocialaffiliations.

However,whileseeminglyidealperformancesofliberalismanddemocracy,

electionscanbefraughtaffairssurroundedbydiscordandviolence,andtheir

practiceisoftenasmuchaboutgeo-politicsasitisgenuinelocaldesires.Thisis

exemplifiedbytheviolencethatoftensurroundsthem,particularlyinstatesthat

haveonlyrecentlyadopteddemocracyasthepoliticallandscape.Butthis

violenceisnotnecessarilycompletelydestructive,andcanbesocially

advantageousaswellaspoliticallyuseful.The1994electionsinMexico,for

example,providedasiteofuprisingforindigenouspeople,highlightingeconomic

andsocialinequalities,whichopenedthedoorforpoliticalreformandnewsites

ofpoliticalinclusionacrossthesocialspectrum(Fiederlein1996).Jonathan

Spencer(1990)meanwhileshowsthatin1980sSinhala,SriLanka,socialdisputes

andriftswereexpressedaspoliticaldifferences,andelectionsthereforeprovided

theopportunityfortheexpressionofordinarilyrepressedemotions.Election

times,therefore,althoughsitesofacrimonyandexcitement,providedaspacefor

therenegotiationofsocialdifferences;notonlyintheselectionofrepresentatives

togovern,butmorewidelyinsocialnetworksandrelationships

Uprisingsandcontestationscanonlyoccur,however,whenpeoplenolongerfear

theconsequencesofthesecontestations.Stateengenderedviolencesurrounding

electionsusuallyrelatestotheconsolidationandsolidificationofpoliticalpower

oftherulingelite,throughterrorandviolencethatmaintainsauthoritythrough

fearandtension.Theviolenceismostcommonwhentherulingpowerfeels

threatened(Hafner-Burton,HydeandJablonski2014),aswasthecaseforthe

2013electionsinCambodia.Inthe2002presidentialelectionsinZimbabwe,for

example,RobertMugabeusedrhetoricsofracialdivision(focusingonthe

unilaterallandownershipbywhitepeople)toinciteviolenceagainstthe

oppositionbyyoung,blackpeople,whoposedthegreatestthreattohischances

ofre-election(Lindgren2003).Plotsoflandfromfarmstheyoccupiedrewarded

theirviolence,andtheirsupportforMugabewasconsolidated,whilstre-visiting

theethnicdivisionsandpoliticalviolenceofthe1980s,whendistinctionsbetween

differentgroupingsofpeopleweremanipulatedtogarnersupportthroughfear,

violenceandrhetoricsofoppression.

ElectionsinCambodia–abriefoverview

ElectionsarearecentintroductiontoCambodianpolitics;thefirstnationalones

wereheldin1993underthesupervisionoftheUnitedNationsTransitional

Authority(UNTAC),aspartofthearrangementsofthe1991ParisPeaceAccords,

whichaimedtobringpeacetotheregionandanendtotheongoingconflict

betweentheKhmerRougeandthePRK.Theseelectionsweredeemedasuccess

bytheUNandmanyothercommentators(Findlay1993;McCargo2005;

SandersonandMaley1998)207andreportedlymarkedatransitionalpointin

Khmerpoliticsfromauthoritarianrule,toneo-liberaldemocracy(somethingthat

manyofmyinformantsnoted).However,despitetheirseemingsuccess,

(FUNCINPECreceivedamajority)theresultswereoverturnedfollowingpressure

fromHunSenandacoalitionpartyformedinstead.Everyelectionsincehasbeen

subjecttoviolenceandsurroundedbyaccusationsofcorruption(HRW2015).

SandersonandMaley(1998)arguedthatthe1998elections(whichfollowedthe

1997coup)remainedacontestbetweenliberaldemocracyandauthoritarianrule

–acontestwonbytheauthoritarianruleoftheCambodianPeople’sParty.My

experienceinCambodiaindicatedthesame:therulingparty,usingthreatsand

207McCargo(2005:99)notesoneofthesuccessesbeingthat‘veryfewpeoplelosttheirlives’!

actualviolence,governedwithauthoritarianruleundertheguiseofliberal

democracy,anillusionsupportedbyinternationalgovernmentsandbusiness.

WesawinchapterfivehowtheCPPandHunSencametopowerfollowingthe

1979depositionoftheKhmerRouge,andhowtheirrulehascontinuedeversince.

2013wasthefirstyearsincetheUNTACelectionsof1993thattheCPPfaceda

genuinechallengefromthemainoppositionparty,theCambodianNational

RescueParty(CNRP).Formedin2012bymergingtheSamRainsyParty(led,

unsurprisingly,bySamRainsy)andtheHumanRightsParty(ledbyKemSokha),

theCNRPwasgainingmomentumandsupportintherun-uptothe2013general

election,particularlyamongtheincreasinglydisillusionedyouthofCambodia.In

previousyearsthishadnotbeensuchathreattotherulingregime;themajority

ofvotershadlivedthroughtheKhmerRougeregime,andassuch,werenotonly

gratefultotheCPPformakingpeacewiththeKhmerRougeandrulingarelatively

peacefulcountry,butalsolivedinfearoftheregimes’revival.In2013,however,

approximately1.5millionyoungpeoplebecameeligibletovote(Hughes2015),

andoveronethirdofthevoterswereagedbetween18and25years(Lohmanand

Enos2014).Manyweredisillusionedwiththegovernmentanditsmodeofruling

andwereseekingchange,offeredbythenewlyformedCNRP.Thisyouthdidnot

deterthepoliticalpartiesfromusingtheregimeintheirpropaganda,however;by

doingsotheyaimedtomanipulatetheoldergeneration,andremindthemofthe

violence.However,itwasnotonlythroughremindersandre-vitalisationthat

KhmerpoliticsrevivedthespectersoftheKhmerRouge,themainparties

themselvesre-enactedtheviolenceanddominationoftheregimethroughthe

useoffearandtension,usingterrorasamechanismofpowertogarnersupport

andfostersuspicion.

EthnographicCaseStudies

Havingoutlinedthetheoreticalbackgroundforthischapter,thissectionwill

provideanethnographicexplorationoftheKhmerRougehauntology,made

explicitbythe2013elections.CoveringeventsoccurringbetweenMayand

September2013,itwillshowhowinmyfieldsites,tensionandfearwerebuilt

incrementallybyiterationsofviolenceandremindersoftheKhmerRougethatre-

animatedboththeregimeanditsotherviolenceandinsecurity,reachingaclimax

atthetimesurroundingtheelections.FirstIwilldescribetheMay20thmemorial

eventheldbytheCPPatChoeungEkGenocidalCenter,wheretheviolenceofthe

regimeisre-enactedingrotesquerealismannually.Iwillmoveontodiscussa

politicalrallyheldbytherulingpartyagainsttheCNRPinJune2013inKep

provinceofSouthernCambodia,andfinally,Iwillexploretheincreasingfearand

tensionthatgrewaroundelectiontimeasexperiencedbymyinformantsand

myselfinJulyandAugustinKohSop.

Spiritsofthepast:the‘heroes’ofthenation

May20th2013.Bodieslaystrewnacrossthegrass:women;children;men.AsI

lookedon,aKhmerRougesoldierdressedinblack,witharedandwhitekrama208

knottedaroundherneck,tookapalmleafanddrewitacrossaprisoner’sthroat.

Anothertookthebuttofhisgunandsmasheditontothebackofaman’shead,

knockinghimtotheground.Amalesoldiergrabbedawoman,and,draggingher

byherhair,pulledhertothefloor,wherehethrusthisbodyagainsthers,asifto

rapeher.Thecarnagecontinuedforalmostfifteenminutes.Thesoundof

208AtraditionalKhmeritem,thekramaisalargepieceofstrongmaterial,ofteninachequeredpattern,usedforalmosteverything:headscarf,sarong,dishcloth,baby’shammock,handkerchiefandmoreorlessanythingelsealargepieceofmaterialmightbehandyfor.

gunfire,screamingandbeatingfilledtheair,alongsideanothersound:the

murmurofchatteraspeoplelookedon.

Thisterriblespectaclewasanact:partofaremembranceceremonyheldannually

atChoeungEkbytheCPP.Beforethekillingstarted,wewatchedastheKhmer

RougetookoverCambodiatocheersandjubilation.Wesawpeoplebeingdriven

fromtheirhomesintothecountryside,beforebeingputtowork,fromwhich

manycollapsedandneverrose.Wewitnessedpeoplestarving,dyingfrom

disease,andcountlessexecutions.The3years,8monthsand20daysof

DemocraticKampucheawasenactedinexcruciatingrealismtousspectators;all

Khmerexceptformeandonemediacameraman.

Sompoah,myresearchassistant,andIhadarrivedatChoeungEkaround8.30am,

catchingaliftfromPhnomPenhwithoneofthemanagersfromthesite.After

thecoolofherair-conditionedcar209,theheatwasalreadyoverwhelmingaswe

madeourwaytothecentralstupa,wheretheeventhadalreadystarted.Crowds

circledthegreenthathadbeentheholdingsiteofthosearrivingatChoeungEk

forexecution–nowadaysanemptyspaceofgrass.Threesideswereboundedby

colourfulmarquees,offeringshadefortheimportantguests:overahundred

saffron-robedmonksononeside;theothertwocrammedfullofofficialinvitees,

primarilymembersoftheCPP-localofficialsandgovernmentemployees

conspicuousintheirblacktrousersandwhiteshirts.Therestofusstoodunder

theblisteringheat,crowdingtogetabetterview.SompoahandImadeourway

upthestepsofthestupa:fromthetoplevelwecouldlookdownovertheheads

andwatchtheproceedings.

209AluxuryforSompoahandI,whousuallymadeourwaydownthepot-holedanddustyroadbytuktukormotodop.

Aswemadeourwayupthestepswelistenedtothespeechesbeingbroadcast

overloudspeakers.‘Wecomeheretoremembertheheroeswhosaved

Cambodia,thepartywhoareheroesofournation,whodidsuchgood’the

compère,anâcharfromapagodainPhnomPenh,announced.‘Weallthankyou’

hecontinued,‘andwewishyoualltheluckintheupcomingelections.Wepray

youaresuccessful.’Thenextspeaker,arepresentativeoftheKhmerCham

community210wasnolesseffusive:‘Thankyou[CPP]fororganizingthisevent,and

thankyouSamdechHunSen211forallowingustopracticeourreligionfreely.’

There-enactmentsweregraphic;womenwerebeaten,childrentornfromtheir

parents,peopleexecuted.Thecrowdcrammedtoseeovereachother’sheads;

childrenpushedtheirwaytothefront;onemanliftedhisson,aboyoftwoor

threeyearsold,ontohisshoulderstogetabetterview.Whenthefieldwas

litteredwithbodies(figurethirteen),thetroopscameintosaveCambodia.

210Cham(anethnicgroupinSoutheastAsiawholiveprimarilyacrossCambodiaandVietnamandfollowIslam)weretargetedbytheKhmerRougeasagroupforextermination,particularlyunderHunSen,andHengSamrin’sdirectionsintheEasternzone(HumanRightsWatch2015a).

211 Samdechisanhonorifictitlemeaningprincelyorlordly,usuallygiventothoseprovidinggreat

servicetothenation. HunSenhasrecentlygivenhimselfthetitleSamdechAkkaMohaSenaPedeiTecho:PrincelyExaltedSupremeGreatCommanderofGloriouslyVictoriousTroops.

Figurethirteen:KhmerRougere-enactmentatChoeungEkremembranceevent(souce:theauthor)

Tomuchheralding,soldiersinthemilitaryuniformsofthegovernmentmarched

in,holdinghighthreeflags:theblueflagoftheNationalFront212,theredand

yellowflagofthePeople’sRepublicofKampuchea(PRK),andtheblueflagofthe

CambodianPeople’sParty(CPP),butnoticeablymissingtheVietnameseflag.If

themessagehadbeenobtusebefore,thesefinalflagsmadeitexplicit:theCPP

savedCambodiafromtheKhmerRouge.Asthere-enactmentsended,andaftera

fewshortchantstosendmerittothedead,theattendantmonksstoodtocollect

offeringsfromtheattendees.Astheyrose,theâcharonceagaintookthe

microphone:‘Don’tforgettovoteforthe[CambodianPeople’s]Partyinthe

electionsinJuly.’

ThoughincludingtheBuddhistchantsthatenablemerittobesenttothedead,

thiswasneitherareligiousceremony,noraneventofremembranceofthosewho

212TheKhmerUnitedFrontforNationalSalvation(nottobeconfusedwiththeopposingKhmerPeople’sLiberationFront),usuallyshortenedsimplyto‘TheFront’or‘TheNationalFront’,consistedofopponentstotheKhmerRougeregime,andformedthecoreofthePRK.

haddiedduringtheregime.213Itwasinstead,agraphicreminderoftheKhmer

Rouge,reifiedasahomogenous,evilentityofterrorandchaos,removedfrom

powerbytheheroicCPP.Speakingwithattendeesafterwards,no-onementioned

thedead.InsteaditwastheKhmerRougethatwastheobjectof

commemoration:‘itisimportantforusnottoforgettheKhmerRouge’one

womantoldme‘otherwiseitmighthappenagain.’

OnceallhadfinishedIwanderedtomyusualspotatthefrontofChoeungEkwith

theaudio-guideteam.BongLawastakingheadphonesandaudioplayersfrom

touristsastheyleftthesiteandIjoinedhim,helpingpreparetheplayersforthe

nextpeople.AsweworkedIaskedhimabouttheevent.‘It’sreallyhard’hesaid.

‘I’musedtoitnow,butatfirstIfounditfrightening,anditshockedme.’BongLa,

aged32,didnotexperienceDemocraticKampuchea,buthisparentslivedthrough

itandtoldhimmanystories.BongLahimselfgrewupinKampongCham,andhad

vividmemoriesofthelatteryearsofKhmerRougeviolence:inthelate1980sand

throughouttheearly1990shisvillagehadbeensubjecttomanyraidsbythe

regime.‘Whentheywerecomingthecommuneleaderwouldhitabell,andwe

wouldhear:“PolPot,PolPot;PolPot’scomingagain!PolPot’scomingagain!”

Wewouldrunandhide.Sometimestheystolethings.Sometimestheyburned

thehouses.Onetimetheykilledsomepeople.’

There-enactmentsinitiallyremindedhimoftheseraids,andofthestorieshis

parentshadtoldhimoftheirsuffering.Bynow,havingworkedatthesitefor

213Thepresenceofthemonksservedprimarilytolegitimatetheculturalandmorallegitimacyoftheevent(Gray2014):themonk’spresencealsoprovidedameansbywhichpeoplecouldimprovetheirownkarmathroughtheactionoftveabon–makingmeritbygivingofferingstothemonksandthepagodatheycamefrom.

manyyears,hewasusedtoit,andhadnoticedsomechangesinrecentyears:

‘thereusedtobemanymorepeople’hetoldme,‘buteveryyearitgetslessand

less.Theyoungpeopledon’tcome.Butstilltheyusethesamestoryaboutthe

KhmerRouge.’

‘Theotherparty,theoppositionparty,theyalsohavearemembrancedayhere’

hetoldme.Ihadbeenawayatthetime,andhadnotknownabouttheevent,

anduntilthispointMay20thwastheonlyremembranceeventdatethatIknew

of.‘Dotheycomeonthesameday?’Iasked.‘No’hereplied,laughing,‘different

days.SamRainsy’spartycomeson17thApril.’In2013theCNRPeventat

ChoeungEkwassmall,onlyattendedbyaround200people.SamRainsy,the

leaderoftheoppositionparty,wasinself-imposedexileinParisatthetime,

avoidingan11-yearsentencethatwas,reportedly,politicallymotivated.

However,oppositionpartymembersarrivedfromPhnomPenh,andthedeputy

leaderandactingpresident,KemSokha,ledasmallceremonyduringwhicha

videolinkwasestablishedwithParisthroughwhichSamRainsyspoke.Atthis

event,Rainsy(quotedinMeas2012,myhighlights)stated:

ThenewgenerationofKhmerRouge,puppetsofVietnam,havekilledpeople

littlebylittle….BothPolPotandHunSenhavealwayscelebratedApril17

becausetheyregarditastheirvictoryday.

April17thisthedayin1975thattheKhmerRougemarchedintoPhnomPenhand

tookpower.

Occurringsoclosetotheelections,the2013eventsprovidedaplacewherethe

violenceoftheKhmerRougecouldbereiterated,butalsoprovidedoccasionfor

linkstobemadebetweentherespectivepoliticalpartiesandtheregime.The

parallelsdrawnweremoreconvincingandbetteranimatedbecauseofthe

connectiontothedeadandtheirviolentdeathsofthoseatChoeungEk(see

chapterfive).However,remembrancedaysbythemselveswerenotenough;

althoughtheywereusefultoolsofpoliticalpropaganda,toreallyinstillfearand

insecurity,andtheviablethreatoftheKhmerRouge,continualreferenceand

reanimationwasrequired.Thishappenedincrementallythroughoutthe

campaignperiod,withstatementsmadeeitheralludingtotheKhmerRouge,or

explicitlythreateningtheirpresence.InresponsetoSamRainsy’scommentsat

ChoeungEk,HunSenthreatenedCambodiawith‘internalwar,akintotheKhmer

Rougeperiod’iftheoppositionweretowin(Naren2013).Earlierinthe

campaigninghehadlikenedtheCNRPthemselvestotheregime(quotedin

Vannarin2013a,myhighlights):

Theyhavesaidbothopenlyandinwhispersthatoncetheyareelectedtheywill

eliminateeveryone’sdebt….ThisiswhatImean;theKhmerRougehasreturned.

Suchstatementshowever,neededreiteratingtobecomeagenuinethreatin

people’simaginations,somethinghelpedalongonlyafewweekslaterbya

politicalrallyledbytherulingpartyagainsttheopposition.

Spiritsofthepresent:rallyingagainsttheopposition

InJuneIvisitedPhnomGrahominKep,aKhmerRougere-settlementvillagebuilt

inthe1990saspartofthewin-winpolicy.Oneofthelaststrongholdsofthe

KhmerRouge,theareaaroundthevillageishometoseveralmassgraves,andthe

mountainsandforestsbehinditwerewitnesstomanybattlesandmuchdeath,

bothduringandafterDemocraticKampuchea.Thelocalvillagechiefsandseveral

ofthecommunecouncilwereformercadre;somehadbeenresponsibleformuch

ofthehorrorsthathadoccurredinthearea.AllweremembersoftheCPP.

MylocalassistantwasSoth,areservedmanofaroundthirtywhohadgrownupin

thevillage.Afterfinishingworkeachdaywewouldplanthenextday’svisits:

wherewewouldgo,whowewouldsee.Appointmentswerenevermadeinthe

Cambodianvillages–wesimplyarrivedatpeople’shomesorworkplacesand

askedtotalk.Ifpeoplewerenotthere,orweretoobusytochat,wereturned

anotherday.Sometimesittookseveralvisitstosecureameeting,butusually

peoplewouldstoptogiveustime.OneeveningIaskedtoreturnthenextdayto

speaktoTaThom,oneofthevillagechiefs.Iwantedtoaskabouthisexperiences

immediatelyafterthefallofDemocraticKampucheaintheearly1980s.‘It’snot

possible’Sothtoldme,‘hewillbeattherally.’

Fourweeksearlieramediastormhadbrokenloosewhenarecordingwas

releasedinwhichKemSokha,deputyleaderandactingpresidentoftheCNRP,

allegedlydeniedtheveracityofTuolSlengasaprisonandkillingsiteduringthe

KhmerRouge.Duringtherecording,KemSokha(quotedinMenglengand

Zsombar2013)canbeheardsuggestingtheVietnamesestagedtheprisonasa

siteofpoliticalpropaganda:

TheVietnamesecreatedthisplacewithpictures[ofthevictims].Ifthisplaceis

trulyKhmerRougetheywouldhaveknockeditdownbeforetheyleft…ifthe

KhmerRougekilledpeople,wouldtheykeepittoshowtoeveryone?Ifthey

knewtheykilledmanypeople,whywouldtheykeepthisplace?

Therecording,releasedonMay26th,twomonthsbeforethe2013general

elections,provokedoutrage.Thedayafteritwasreleased,ChumMey214,a

survivorofTuolSlengheldapressconferenceatthesite,atwhichhethreatened

tosueKemSokhaifhedidnotretracthiscomments.Withinaweekthe

CambodiangovernmentbegandiscussinglegislationagainstdenialoftheKhmer

Rouge;followingthebanningof27oppositionlawmakersfromparliament,the

anti-genocidedeniallegislation(the‘LawagainstNon-RecognitionoftheCrimes

CommittedduringDemocraticKampuchea’)wasrushedthroughparliamentand

passedintolawonJune7th,12daysaftertheinitialreleaseoftherecording.

Althoughtheystatedthatitwouldnotbeusedretrospectively,thiswaslargely

heldtobeapoliticalmovebytheCPPintherun-uptotheelections.215Putting

thislegislationinplacewhileKemSokha’sallegeddenialwasstillfreshinpeople’s

mindsservedtwopurposes:itinstilledtheideathatKemSokhawasagenocide

denierand,therefore,acriminal;notsomeoneyouwouldtrustleadingyour

country.Atthesametimeitremindedthecountryofthesufferingcausedbythe

KhmerRouge,andreiteratedthenarrativethatonlytherulingpartycouldensure

Cambodia’scontinuedprotectionfromsucharegime–theoppositionobviously

couldnotbetrustedtosafeguardCambodiaiftheydeniedtheveracityofits

violenthistory.ThiswasmadeallthemorevividbythelocationKemSokhahad

ChumMeyisasurvivorofTuolSlengwhohaswrittenabookabouthisexperiences(Mey2012).ChumMeyhascommoditisedhissurvival;hemakesalivingatTuolSleng,wherehehasasmallboothatwhichhesellshisbooktotouristsandhashispicturetakenwiththem.BouMeng,anothersurvivor,alsosellshisownbiography(Vannak2010)atthesite.BothareofficersofKseanKmey,anassociationthatworkswiththeECCCtocollectvicimnarrativesforthecourtproceedings.AlthoughcommonlyreportedthatonlysevenpeoplesurvivingTuolSlengprison,morethan100peoplehavenowbeenidentifiedashavingpassedthroughtheprisonduringtheregime(Eng2013),however,onlyChumMeyandBouMengmaketheirlivingatthesite.

215InadditiontheArticle19LawProgrammeattheFreeWordCentreinLondonexaminedthislaw

andfoundittobeinviolationofinternationalhumanrightsonfreedomofexpression,andlabelledthelegislativeprocessbywhichitwaspassed‘deeplyflawed’(Article192013).

allegedlydenied:TuolSleng;tortureanddetentioncentre,killingsite,massgrave,

andinternationalsymboloftheviolenceoftheregime.

WhilstthemediaconcentratedontherallyoccurringinPhnomPenh,protests

tookplaceacrossthecountry.BeinginKepatthetime,Iattendedtherallyat

WatKampongTralach,alongwithasomewhatreluctantSoth(whowasanxious

nottobeassociatedwiththeCPP),andmypartner,whowasalsoconducting

researchintheareaatthetime.

LikemanypagodasacrossCambodia,WatKampongTralachhadbeenusedasa

detentioncentreandkillingsiteduringDemocraticKampuchea.Followingitsfall

theKhmerRougeabandonedthesitebutleftitlitteredwiththecorpsesofthose

whodiedthere;‘therewerekhmouch(recentlydeceasedbodies)alloverthe

place.Theywereeverywhereinthepagoda,’aneldertoldmethefirsttimeI

visitedthesite).Aswithmanysites,afterthefallofDemocraticKampuchealocal

peoplehadcollectedthebodiesandpiledtheminap’teahkhmouchreplacedin

lateryearsbyaconcretecheddei.Thisconcretestupanowhousestheskeletal

remains,stackedneatlyontwoshelves.Thecheddeistandsatthebackofthe

pagodaandappearsasanyothermodeststupawithinthetemplegroundsifyou

donotknowwhattolookfor.Forsomeofthemonksatthepagoda,itis

relativelyunimportant.Itis‘somewheretolookafterthebonesofthosewho

havenorelatives’anelderlymonkcommented,butitwas,inhisopinion,no

differenttoanyoftheotherstupaacrossthewatcomplex.However,whenevera

politicalcampaigntakesplacethecheddei,ormorespecificallytheskeletal

remainswithinit,becamesignificant;inthiscaseitwastherallyagainstKem

Sokha.

Attherally,overseventytrucks-officialgovernmentvehicles-eachjammedfull

ofpeople,drovethroughthedistrict,blastingdenunciationsofKemSokhafrom

loudspeakers.ArrivingatWatKampongTralach,peopleunloadedandmarched

tositinfrontoftheKhmerRougecheddei.Manyoftheteenagers,andsomeof

theadults,carriedplacardsbearingreactionaryslogans(figurefourteen):‘Wewill

rememberfortherestofourlivesthePolPotsoldiers’brutalactsonourvillage,’

‘KemSokhaisfightingagainsttheKhmerRougeTrial,’and‘KemSokhaismore

cowardlythanDuch216’.Theplacardshadidenticallettering,andthesame

statementsrepeatedoverandoveragain.217Asmypartnerlaterwrote:‘ithad

theappearanceandfeelofaregimentedspectacle’(Hull2013).

Figurefourteen:protestorsatrallyagainstKemSokha,June2013(source:theauthor)

216Thisplacardisparticularlyinteresting.DuchwascommandantofTuolSlengprisonduringDemocraticKampucheawho,afterbeinglocatedworkingforanAmericancharityinNorthernCambodiain1997,surrenderedhimselfuptothegovernmentforimprisonment.HistrialwasthefirstattheECCC,andin2010hewasconvictedofcrimesagainsthumanity,torture,andmurderandimprisonedforlife.ThenameDuchhasbecomeasymbolformanyoftheterrorandviolenceoftheKhmerRouge.

217SubsequentnewspaperarticlescoveringtherallyinPhnomPenhshowedthesameslogansrepeatedthere,againcarriedbytheCPPYouth(ChansyandZsombor2013)

Oncetheyarrivedinfrontofthecheddei,localCPPofficialsmadespeeches

condemningKemSokhaandtheCNRP.Thecheddeidoorsstoodopen,displaying

thebonesinside;thosespeakingstoodinitsdoorway,backedbytheskeletal

remainsofthosewhohaddiedduringtheKhmerRougeregime(figurefifteen).

Thestupahadbeencleanedanddecoratedinblackandwhite,asusuallydenotes

mourningorafuneral.Iaskedacaretakerwhetherthishappenedoften.‘Only

whenÂngkar(theorganization–meaningthegovernment)tellsus’hereplied.

Acoupleofthousandpeopleattendedtherally,andthenumbersimpliedthat

peoplewereangryandhurtbyKemSokha’sallegeddenialoftheKhmerRouge

actionsatTuolSleng(andbyinferencetherefore,acrossCambodia).Peoplein

thevillage,however,toldadifferentstory.Eachlocalvillagechief,allCPP

membershad,afewdayspreviously,beenorderedbythedistrictofficetosendat

least50villagerstotheprotest.Whenaskedwhatwouldhappeniftheydidnot

comply,onereplied‘it’snotachoice.’Thecommune,Sothtoldme,organisedthe

rally.TheteenagersattendingwerefromthelocalCPPYouth.ACPPofficialfrom

thelocaldistrictofficespokeattheevent;‘KemSokhamustbemadetoanswer

forhiscrimes’hesaid.‘HunSenhassavedthecountry.Wemustcontinueto

supporthim.’

Figurefifteen:Protestorslistentospeechesinfrontofthecheddeiofremains(source:theauthor)

LiketheremembranceceremoniesatChoeungEk,therallywasaneventseeking

toreanimatetheKhmerRouge,butalsoevidenceofhowpoliticsinCambodiais

performedinspheresofdistrust,violence,corruptionandmanipulation.

Spiritsofthefuture:fearandrumour

AtthestartofJulyImovedfromPhnomGrahomtoKohSop.LikeWatKampong

Tralach,KohSophadbeenthesiteofaprisonandkillingsiteduringDemocratic

Kampuchea;asanislanditwasanideallocationforcontainingpeople.Arrivingso

closetotheelections,manypeopleatfirstdidnottrustme;severalmembersof

thecommunityhadoriginallybeensuspiciousofme,supposingIwasworkingfor

thegovernment,recordinginformationaboutthevillagetoreportback.Forsome

ofthemorewarypeopleithadtakenseveralweeksbeforetheywouldtalktome

beyondsayinghello.

Astheelectionsneared,tensionandfearbecamepalpableinthevillage.Afew

daysbeforetheeventIhadameetinginPhnomPenh.Thecitywascloseenough

thatIcouldtravelfortheday,andPhasy(myresearchassistant)decidedtocome

withmetovisitherfriendsinthecapital.WhenwearrivedatOmSrey’shouse

fordinnerthenightbeforewewent,themessagethatweweretravellingto

PhnomPenhhadreachedher.Asusual,afterdinnerwesatchattingonthe

bambooplatformatthefrontofherhouseasshesatonthestepsleadingupto

herhouse.‘AreyoureallygoingtoPhnomPenh?’sheaskedme;‘aren’tyou

scared?’

Theviolentdiscourseofthepre-electionscampaignswasstartlinglyeffectivein

raisingthetensionthataccompaniedKhmerelections.Rumoursstartedto

circulate,amongstbothKhmerandinternationalcommunitiesofimpending

violenceandchaos.InKohSopstoriesreachedusthroughrelativesworkingin

thecapital:thatthearmyhadbeendeployedtoPhnomPenh;thattherewere

tanksonthestreets218;thatHunSen’spersonalguard219hadbeenexpanded;that

oppositionsupporterswerebeingbeatenorkilled.OnestorywasthatDeputy

PrimeMinister,SokAn,wasthreateningtooverthrowHunSen,whichwould

undoubtedlyleadtohorrificviolence,andwar;itwas,afterall,theoverthrowof

anotherleader(LonNol)thathadmarkedthebeginningoftheKhmerRouge

regime.ThetensionwasheightenedbecauseofSamRainsy’sarrivalbackin

218Followingtheelections,withrumoursofelectoralcorruptionanddissatisfactionabouttheresultsmakingprotestsathreat,themediareportedthedeploymentoftanksinPhnomPenhonAugust9

th(CrothersandDara2013)andagainonAugust16

th(AsiaSentinel2013).Friendsin

PhnomPenhatthetimeneversawany,andIamuncertainwhetherthisstorywassimplyare-iterationofthestillcirculatingrumours.Simons(1995:53),whenwritingabouttheviolenceinMogadishuinthelate1980s,wrotethatrumoursbecomeknowledgeintheabsenceofotherinformationthatcouldbesubstantiated.Theremaybeanelementofthis.Nowreportedinthemedia,itappearstanksweredeployedinPhnomPenh.

219HunSenhasaunitof5–10,000personalbodyguardswithintheCambodianmilitarythathavebeenimplicatedinmanyviolentclashesoccurringovertheyears.

Cambodia.TheleaderoftheCNRPpartyhadbeeninself-imposedexileinParis,

avoidinganeleven-yearprisonsentencethatmostcommentatorsagreedwas

politicallymotivated(Curley2014;Karbaum2012;Peou2011).Followingaroyal

pardon,hereturnedlessthantwoweeksbeforetheelectionandpromptlyset

aboutharnessingthedissatisfactionalreadyrifeamongstmanyKhmeryouth.

Theinsecuritypeoplefeltwasmanifestedinanumberofways.Manyofmy

informantswereafraidtodiscussmanyissues,particularlythosetheyconsidered

nottobethebusinessof‘ordinarypeople.’HunSenreportedlykeepsanetwork

ofspiesacrossCambodia.Ontherunuptotheelectionpeoplewerevisiblyafraid

oftheconsequencesofopposing,orbeingdeemedtooppose,therulingparty.

NeakSrey,ayoungwomanwhoworkedinthecity,wasanoppositionsupporter,

butastheelectionnearedshehunglargeCPPpostersacrossthefrontofher

house.HerCNRPstickerswerehiddenfromviewontheinsideofthelegs

supportingherhouse,displayedwhereonlytrustedfriendsandfamilywouldsee.

ApproachingtheoutskirtsofPhnomPenhinlateJune,thedriverofourtaxileant

overtotheglovecompartmentandwithdrewabaseballcapwiththeCPPlogo

embroideredonthefrontofit.Heplaceditinhiswindscreenprominently

displayinghisapparentallegiancetotheparty.Sothlaterexplainedthatpeople

wereafraid,notonlyofviolence,butalsoofthestructuralviolenceopposition

couldresultin.‘Theremightbeviolence,’heexplained,‘butitcanalsobeabout

administration.Iftheyvotefortheopposition,andthenwanttogetapassport,

ormaybesomepaperstheyneedforthehospital,itwillbeimpossible.Whatever

theywanttodointhefuturetheycan’t.’Thisanxietyexistedinsomeofmy

informants,whoclammedupiftheythoughtthesubjecthadgottoopolitical.Om

Yay,forexample,refusedtotalkabouttheretentionoftheskeletalremainsof

thosewhodiedundertheKhmerRouge:

It’shardformetotalkaboutthisbecausetheparty[theCPP]mightthreatenusif

wesaysomethingwrong.It’sdifficulttospeakoutnow….IfIsaysomething,

theremightbeaspy.IfIsaysomethingisnotgood,theymightarrestmeand

imprisonmeinPreySarprison220.It’shard.SoIdon’treallywanttotalkaboutit.

I’mscared.

Alocalshopownerexpressedsimilarsentiments:

I’mafraidtotalkaboutthisissue.Irefusetotalkaboutit.

Everythingisconfidential….

I’mjustafraidthatthisrecordmightbeusedforsomekindofpoliticalissue.

Thesilenceextendsimpunity,engenderingfurtherpoliticalviolence,bothlocally

andnationally.However,mostofmyolderinformantscontinuedtovoteforthe

CPP.‘IremembertheKhmerRouge’OmSreytoldme.‘IwillkeepvotingforHun

Senbecausehekeepsussafefromthem.’ThememoriesofDemocratic

Kampucheamadethefearofthecountrydescendingintowarstrongerthanthe

fearofpoliticalviolence.HoweverbadHunSenandtherulingCPPwere,theyhad

‘saved’Cambodiaand,subsequently,developedthecountryandkeptitstable.

OmSreytoldmethatHunSenbuilttheroads,theschools,thehospitals.Whena

fireburntdownherhouseinthe1990s,itwas,shesaid,HunSenwhogavehera

220PreySarprisoninPhnomPenhisCambodia’slargestprison.Ithousesaround500inmates,(mostlymen)however,itisalsohometoseveralhighprofileandextrajudicialprisoners,includingseveralforeigninmates.ConditionsatPreySararenotoriouslypoor,withovercrowding,littlefoodordrinkprovision,highlevelsofcorruption,andpoorsanitation(LICADHO2015).

tenttostayinandfoodtosurvivewith.HunSenandtheCPPdeservedtheir

support,sheexplained,becausetheyhadrescuedthem:

thepeoplewhorescuedthecountry[theCPP];weallsaidsolongastheyrescued

us,wewoulddoanything[forthem].

Inthedaysfollowingtheelectiontensionremainedhigh,particularlyasthe

resultsweredelayed.Rumourscontinuedtoaboundbutthistimeofelectoral

corruption:theindelibleinkthatmarkedvoter’sfingerswas,apparently,

washable,andsomepeoplevotedtwice.Insomeareas,doubleballotpapers

wereprinted.Inotherspeople(mostlyoppositionvoters)arrivedtovote,onlyto

discovertheywerenotregistered.Theresult,whichwasexpectedon1stAugust,

wasdelayed.Asthedayswentonweallwaitedanxiously:someinhope,somein

fear.OmBrohwasoneofthefewvillagerswitharadio,andheandothermen

fromthevillagewouldsitlisteningtoitintheevenings.Walkingpasthishouseon

ourwayhomefromdinnerwewouldstoptofindoutiftheresulthadbeen

announcedyet.Theycamelessthantwoweekslater,on12thAugust,butthat

twoweeksfeltinterminable.

ThoughthenumberofseatsheldbytheCPPdroppeddramatically(from90to

68),therulingpartyreportedthattheyhadwonthemajorityinallbutfourofthe

25Cambodianprovinces(CNRPwontheotherfourprovinces,and55seatsinthe

senate).221ItwastheCPP’sworstresultsinceelectionshadbegun,heightening

theanxietyalreadyfeltamongstmyinformants.Forweeksaftertheelectionsthe

circulatingrumourssparkedstoriesofpastviolences,maintainingtheever-

presentfearatalevelbubblingjustbelowthesurface.ThedistrictwhereKohSop221TheNationalElectionCommission,asupposedlyindependentagency,consistingentirelyofCPPmembers,subsequentlyinvestigatedtheelectionresults.Unsurprisingly,theresultheld.

issituatedhadbeenwonbytheCNRP,andthismadepeoplenervous:‘wedon’t

knowwhatwillhappennow’anelderlymanexplainedwhenwechattedabout

this.Hisanxietyprovedtobegroundedinreality.Inthecapitalviolentclashes

occurredinaspeopleprotestedtheresult(HumanRightsWatch2014).Afterthe

floodsofAugustandSeptembermyresearchassistant,Phasy,returnedtoher

homeinBattambangprovinceforafewdaystohelpherfamily.Thereshe

discoveredthatwhenthefloodsdisplacedthousandsofpeople,aidfromthe

CambodiaRedCross(runbyBunRany,HunSen’swife)hadonlybeendistributed

tothosewhohadvotedfortheCPP.Administrativeviolencewasasthreatening

andcoerciveasdirectviolenceformanypeople.

Discussion

Derrida’sdiscussionofhauntologyrevolvesaroundcontemporarysystemsof

neoliberalism,anillusionofwhichisthatitsomehowexorcisesthespirits

hauntingitscreation(inthiscaseMarxism).TheKhmerRougefunctionssimilarly

incontemporaryKhmerpolitics,witheachpartyconstructingamyththattheyare

theonlyoneswhocanexorciseitspast.Derridashows,however,thatspecters

arenotsimplyhauntingpasts,butpaststhatformthepresent.‘Haunting’he

wrote(1994:34)‘belongstothestructureofeveryhegemony.’Khmerpolitical

hegemonyiscertainlybuiltonthebackofDemocraticKampuchea,andtheKhmer

Rougeandtheirviolencearepreciselythiskindofspecter.Toomitthemfrom

anykindofinteractionwithcontemporaryCambodiaisnotonlyimpossible,but,if

adheringtoDerrida’smoralargument,unjust.Theymustbeengagedwith,

becausetheyformtherealityinwhichweexistandcreatethatwhichwewill

enterinthefuture.Derrida(1994:13)wrote:

NotwithoutMarx,nofuturewithoutMarx,withoutthememoryandthe

inheritanceofMarx;inanycaseofacertainMarx.

ThesewordscouldjustaseasilyapplytocontemporaryCambodia,bysimply

replacingthewordMarx,with‘theKhmerRouge’:

NotwithouttheKhmerRouge,nofuturewithouttheKhmerRouge,withoutthe

memoryandinheritanceoftheKhmerRouge;inanycaseofacertainKhmer

Rouge.

ThecertainKhmerRougeisthatwhichcontemporarypoliticsandsociallifehas

created.‘Timecontinuestostretchmeaningsaswellassignificance,’Simons

(1995:57)wroteofthe1988-1989violenceinMogadishu.InCambodiathe

meaningsassociatedwiththeKhmerRougearecontinuallyreinterpreted.Forthe

CPP,theyremainusefulspiritswithwhichtomaintainpoweroperatedbyfear.In

theshadowoftheUN-backedtrials,thesespiritsarereshapedbytheCNRPto

demonstratethepushforjusticeandhumanrightsthattheydeemonlytheycan

produce.Whilstdoingsobothperforminpoliticalcirclesformedinthewakeof

theregimethatthereforerelyonitspresencefortheirveryexistence.

Derrida’sspectersexistwithorwithoutattentionbecausetheyarethebasisofall

imaginingsofcontemporaryandfuturewaysofliving.InCambodia,however,the

spectersarecaredfor,maintained,madestronger,manipulated,used,and

abusedbythoseadoptingthem.TallynGray,inhisthesisontransitionaljusticein

Cambodia,notesthatHunSenwinsvotesthroughthenarrativeof‘notbeingPol

Pot’(Gray2014:191).DavidChandlerhasarguedthatHunSen’semphasisofthe

termgenocideinhisdiscourseservestogivefascistimaginingstotheKhmer

Rougeregime(Chandler2008a:360).Indoingso,itprovidesaperfectopposition

tohis(supposedly)democraticrule.InthebookCambodia’sCurse:TheModern

HistoryofaTroubledLand(2011)JoelBrinkleyarguesthatthelegacyofthe

KhmerRougeservestolowernationalandinternationalexpectationsof

conditionsinCambodia,enablingHunSenandtheCPPtogovernwithimpunity

despitehorrifichumanrightsabuse,andhighlevelsofongoingdirectand

structuralviolence.ButtheKhmerRougeisnotsimplyalegacy.Spiritsin

Cambodiaaresocialbeingswhointeractinbothpositiveandnegativewaysto

engendersocialaction.ThespectersoftheKhmerRougeareequallyviablein

contemporaryCambodia,andthroughouttheelectioncampaignsbecamevisible

astheywerecontinuallyreanimatedandrevivedbythemainparties.Butthey

werenotonlyviablespecters;theregimehauntsinthewaycontemporaryKhmer

politicsisformedinrelationtoit,andperformsnewformsofpoliticalviolenceon

thepopulation.

Insecuritybubblesbelowthesurfaceofdailylivesformanyofmyinformants.

Memories(lived,imaginedandnarrated)ofpain,terror,tortureanddeath,of

violentrepressionsandpoliticalhorrorshavepermeatedthesocialmemoryof

manypeople,particularlythosewholivedthroughthedecadesofconflictinthe

1960s,70s,80sand90s.Throughoutthe1990s,MayEbiharaandJudy

Ledgerwood,anthropologistsfromtheUS,visitedSvay,thevillagewhereEbihara

hadundertakenheroriginalfieldworkinthe1960s.Writingofthesevisitsin

2002,theycommented‘Cambodianstodayhavea…generalizedfearabout

violencewithintheirmidst’(EbiharaandLedgerwood2002:283).Atthetimeit

wasfocusedonmilitarypersonnelstillpresentinthearea.Duringmyfieldwork

thisfearwasnolongerdirectedatmilitaryindividuals,buttothewiderpolitical

sphere.

ItwasnotonlytheCPPwhoexecuteviolence.TheCNRP’selectioncampaigning

focusesonrhetoricsofhatredagainsttheVietnamese–theirleaderSamRainsy

regularlyreferstothescourgeofYuan(aderogatorynameforVietnamese),and

everyelectionpromisestoejectthemfromthecountry.Afterthe2013elections,

SamRainsycalledmassivestreetprotestsinresponsetotheelectionresults,and

implicitlythreatenedviolenceandpublicinsecurity,butstateditwouldbeHun

Sen’sfaultifsuchviolenceerupted(Vandenbrink2013).TheCNRPselection

campaigninggarneredanxietyamongstsomeofmyinformants,asdidthefact

thattheyhadneverruled.Myresearchassistanttoldmesheandotherswere

afraidoftheCNRPgettingpower:‘theCPPhavehadpowerforsuchalongtime,

theyalreadytookalot’shesaid.‘ButtheCNRPhaveneverhadpower.Maybe

they’llbeworsebecausetheywanttogetrichandrulethecountry.’

WritingaboutthefearthatherinformantsinGuatemalalivedwithdaily,Linda

Green(1994)commentedthatmanywomenspokefreelyabouttheirbrutalpasts,

butremainedsilentabouttheirpresent.Amongstmyolderinformantsasimilar

self-censorshipexisted:theywoulddiscusstheKhmerRougeperiod;thesuffering

theyendured,thepeopletheylost,wheretheyhadbeen,whattheyhaddone.

Theywouldspeakoftheirterror,andhowitresurfacedatremindersofthe

regime.Butindiscussingthecontemporarypoliticalsituationtheywereguarded.

Afewspokeofcertaindissatisfactions:thelandgrabsthatmanyhadbeensubject

toforexample,butmostattributedtheseactionstolocal,greedypoliticians

ratherthanexamplesofendemiccorruption.222Thissilenceremainsasyet

222Afewpeoplerecognizedthatsuchpoliticianscouldonlysucceedwithsupportoftheparty,by

payingintothepatronagesystem.Oneinformanttoldme:‘peoplewhoclimbtreestopickits

fruit;ifyougivethemthefruits,you’reOK.Ifnot,theywilldragyouoffthetree.Ifyoucanfindbenefitsforthem,theywillletyouclimbhigherandhigherupthattree.’

anotherspecter.DuringDemocraticKampucheano-oneknewwhocouldbe

trusted:childrenbetrayedparents,husbandsbetrayedwives,siblingsandfriends

betrayedeachother.Peoplelearnedtokeepsilent.TheKhmeridiomthat

developedduringtheregime,daumdorkoh–toplantamute[koh]tree–refers

tothissilencing:offear,ofobjections,ofpain,ofsorrow.‘Whateverwesaw,we

didn’ttalkaboutit.Whentheydidsomethingtous,westayedsilent,’OmSrey

toldme.‘ItwaslikethestoryofthebaldKing’OmBroh,anelderlyneighbour,

explained:

Thepeopleduringthattime,therewerenosmilesontheirfaces;wecouldnot

laughorsmileateachother.Husbandsandwivesonlyspokeafewwordsto

eachother.Why?Becausetherewerespiesunderourhouses,listeningtous,in

casewesaidsomethingbad,thatwehatedÂngkar.Thefeelingsofgrieffilledmy

chest.ItwasjustlikeinthestoryoftheBaldKing.Haveyouheardaboutthis

story?

TheKinghadaconfidant.Sincethisconfidantcametoworkforhim,theKinghad

nevertakenoffhishat.Heevenworeitwhenhewassleeping.Theconfidant

wasverycuriousaboutthis.Oneday,whenthekingwasbathing,theconfidant

triedtoseehishead.HesawthattherewasnohairontheKing’shead;itwas

completelybald.Afterwards,theconfidantknewwhatwasunderneaththe

King’shat.Hefeltverytroubled,soheranuntilhesawaRangtreewithaholein

it.Theconfidantwenttoit,andshouted‘TheKingisbald!’Heshoutedintothe

hole.WhatIwanttosayisthatwefeltcompletelytrappedinourchestsbecause

wecouldnotsayanything.

Thismutenessremains.Notknowinghowpeopleareconnectedmaintainsalevel

ofdistrustamongstneighboursandfriendsthatishardtobreak.Thisextendsto

localaffairs,aswellaspoliticalconnections.Oneeveningtwoofthemenfrom

KohSopgotintoadrunkenfight.TaSimtookanaxe,andusingitasaclub,

attackedTaSok.Hebeathimbadlyandbrokehisleg.Everyoneinthevillage

knewwhathadhappened;manyhadwatchedit.Whenthepolicecameto

investigate,however,peopleremainedsilent;‘Wedon’tgetinvolvedinother

people’sbusiness’OmSreytoldme.‘Itoldmychildren,whateveryousaw,don’t

tellanyone.TheymightknowNeakThom[importantpeople].’Thissilence,

evolvingoutoffear,extendsdistrust,whichprovokesfurtherviolenceofmany

villages.

ForpeoplesuchasOmSrey,OmBrohandothers,insecurityinthepoliticalsphere

existshiddenjustbeneaththesurfaceofeverydaylife,notassomething

continuallyterrifyingbutasubcutaneousanxietythatneedsonlyatinypinprickto

makeitburstforth.AviolentpoliticalspherethatmaintainstheKhmerRouge-

throughspokenrhetoricandembodiedpractice-hasbecomeaformofterrorand

amodeofpoliticalrepression.Therevitalizationoftheregimeisallthestronger

becauseofwherecampaigningoccurs:onmassgraves;materialmarkersofthe

violenceandterror;repositoriesofthedead.RemindersoftheKhmerRougeacts

asvisceraltransportersbacktotheregime,notbecausetheytakethemindback

totheperiod,butbecausetheregimeneverdied;eitherphysicallyor

metaphorically.Itspresencehasbeenmaintainedthroughouttheyears,as

articulatedbyoneofmyinformants:

EverytimetheycelebrateBon[aceremony],theyremembertheKhmerRouge.

EradicatetheKhmerRouge?How?Howcanwe?

ThiswaswhatwesawattheremembranceceremonyatChoeungEk,andthe

politicalralliesagainstKemSokha.Attheremembrancedaystheviolencewasre-

enactedatthekillingsite,infrontofthemassgraves,andinfrontofthestupa

holdingtheremainsofthousandsofthosetorturedandexecuted.Thedays

selected-17thApril(markingthedaytheKhmerRougemarchedintoPhnomPenh

andtookoverCambodia)and20thMay(commemoratingthedatein1976when

collectivisationbecamethedefactolifestyleinDemocraticKampuchea)–are

themselvesremindersofviolence,notliberationorpeace.223Talkingoftherallies

againstKemSokha,YoukChhang(MenglengandZsombar2013),directorofDC-

Cam,wasquotedassaying:

His[KemSokha’s]statementsremindmethatthingscanbeforgottenifwedon’t

keepremindingthepublic.

Thiswaswhattheralliesensured.

Therumoursweheardfunctioneddifferentlydependingontheroutesof

circulation.Amongstmyexpatcolleaguestheycirculatedthroughtheglobal

socialmediaspheres,providingaformofsocialcapitaltothosespreadingthem

(lookhowexcitingIam,livinginsuchadangerousplace).FormanyofmyKhmer

informants,however,therumoursreflectedfeelingsofgenuinethreatbecause

theyconsistedofthere-tellingofactionsandexperiencesfromthenottoo

distantpast.Indiscussingthe1988–1989violenceinMogadishu,Simons(1995:

57)wrote:

223December25

th,whenVietnaminvadedDemocraticKampuchea(in1978),andJanuary7

th,the

datewhentheyovercametheKhmerRouge(in1979),meanwhile,havenoceremoniesassociatedwiththemtoday(althoughJanuary7

thismarkedontheKhmercalendar).

itispreciselythisfeltknowledge,thisexperiential,terrifying,time-warping,

never-completesenseofwhatwashappeningthenthathistorywillneverrecord

andthefuturecontextswilllack.

Whilethehistoricalrecordmaynotrecordsuchfeelings,thememoriesofOm

Sreyandothersdid.WhenremindedoftheperiodtheyrecalledDemocratic

KampucheainvisceraldetailasBuBrohexplained:

Iremembermypast.Irememberthesadnessandtheagony.Iremember,andI

amfrightened.

Thisfeltknowledgeissolidifiedbecausetheviolenceneverended.Thecurrent

regimeisbrutal.Theoppositionisracist.Politicallymotivatedkillings,

imprisonments,andexile,iscommon.Domesticabuseisrife.Conflictbetween

rivalgangsisfrequent.LifeinKohSopwhenIwastherewasfuelledwithalcohol

andviolence.

Rumoursoftenco-existwithpoliticalviolenceasformsofnarrativebywhich

peopleattempttowrestlecontroloffrighteningsituationsandassertauthority:

overthemselves;overtheirlives;overknowledge.Althoughtheyexistonthe

‘edgeofsilence’(Feldman1995),theyprovideameansforliftingthatsilenceand

gainingsomeformofempowerment.AsFeldman(1995:230)asserts,rumours

emergewhenpeoplearedisempowered,uniformed,and,often,frightened.224

Theyfunctionbeyondstory-tellingmythandlegendonlywithincirclesofviability,

andthatviabilityexistswherepriorexperienceremainsvibrantandvisible,

particularlyinthecollectivesphere:

224Theycanalsooccurasmodesofgainingsocialcapital:aspeoplecreate,narrate,andreiteratestories,theyassertthemselvesastheholdersofknowledge.

Rumorisprognostic,notintermsofactualprediction,butintermsofaculturally

mediatedsenseofpossibility,structuralpredilection,politicaltendency,and

symbolicprojection.Itprovidesapreviewofhowhistoricaleventswillbe

culturallyandideologicallynegotiated,distorted,transformed,recollected,and

renderedintoallegory.

Thetensionwaspervasive,andinvadedmyownexperience.Onthetripto

PhnomPenhthatOmSreyandIdiscussedItriedtoaccessmyfacebookaccount,

butitwasdown.OtherinternetsitesIcheckedwereworking.InmyfieldnotesI

wrote:

I’mstartingtogetabitparanoidaboutsurveillanceetc.Facebookisdown;Ican’t

gettomypage.Foundmyselfwonderingifit’sbecauseIwaswritingtoafriend

criticizingthegovernment.ButIdeletedit.Surelytheycan’tfindit…?ThenI

startedtoworryaboutmyvisa.WhatwouldhappenifIwasthrownout?Worse:

whatifIwassetupandendupinsomejailwithasentencenoonecan

overthrow?

WritingofhisfieldworkinNorthernIrelandduringthetroubles,AllenFeldman

(1995:248)commentedonthewayhisperceptionswerealteredbyandthrough

theperceptionsofhisinterlocutors:

MyperceptionwasnolongermyownwhenIceasedtohavetelephone

conversationsthatlastedmorethanthirtyseconds,whenIneverusedpeople’s

namesoverthetelephone,whenthebackofmyscalpitchedasIfeltthe

patrollingBritishsoldierstrackingmymovementswiththebarrelsoftheir

automaticrifles,whenIleapedoffthefrontparlorcouchalongwithmyhostsata

carbackfiringinthenight,whenIabruptlyterminatedconversationsbecause

policevehicleswerecirclingtheneighbourhoodstreetswithmorefrequency

sinceIarrived…

Idonotknowhowmuchofmyownfearandtensionreflectedthatofmy

informants,buttheheightenedtensionandincreasedviolencecertainlyhadsome

impact.

Thepervasiveviolenceofthepoliticalspherecontinuestoday.InFebruary2015,

HunSenagainthreatenedthereturnoftheKhmerRougewhenthescopeofthe

ECCCwasexpandedbeyondthefivepeoplealreadyunderjurisdiction,

commenting:‘[Thecourt]expandsitsscope,nearlymakingpeoplefleebackinto

theforest225’(Naren2015).PoliticsinCambodiaischaracterizedbybrutality,

chaosandviolencebuiltfromtheashesofamercilessregimethatformedevery

subsequentimaginingandperformanceofpoliticsinpost-Democratic

Kampuchea.TheKhmerRougeisblamedforissuesasfarreachingasthe

crumblingoftrustincommunities(EbiharaandLedgerwood2002),sextrafficking

andotherhumanrightsabuses(Leakhena2012),theendemiccorruptionacross

thecountry(Brinkley2011),andthepooreducationalattainmentinthenation

(deWalque2004).Butitdoesmorethanjusthaunt:theKhmerRougeisthebasis

onwhichaction,interactionandanalysisareformedincontemporaryCambodia,

anditisreformedthroughcontinuedviolencewithinthepoliticalsphere.

225Theforest(prei)isnotonlyametaphorforthewild,untamedanduncontrollable,butwasalsoacommonmetaphorfortheKhmerRouge,whoinitiallyspentmanyyearsasguerillafightersintheforestsofCambodia.Whenworkingwithex-cadre,theywouldoftenalludetotheirKhmerRougemembershipbysaying‘Ifoughtintheforests.’

Conclusion

Takingsomerespiteoneweekend,mypartnerandItookatriptoSiemReapto

visitthetemplesofAngkor.Stretchingovermanykilometers,thetemple

complexesaretrulymagnificentfeatsofarchitecturebuiltbetweenthe9thand

13thcenturies.Attemptingtoavoidthecrowdsoneevening,wetookatuktuk

awayfromthemainsitestovisitthemoreremotesiteofPhnomKrom–asmall

andcrumblingruinontopofahillwithadramaticviewovertheplainstothe

TonleSapriver.Aswesatbreathingintheview,ayoungKhmermanapproached

us.Atfirstwetriedtolimittheconversation-wewereenjoyingthepeaceand

thesolitude-however,hepersisted.Theplatitudessoondiminishedandhis

reasonforapproachingusemerged.Cheawasaveryangryanddisillusioned

man;upsetwiththecurrentgovernmentofCambodiaandthewayhefeltitwas

ruiningthecountry.‘Cambodiausedtobeagreatnation’hetoldus.Thetemples

werehisproofofthat.Everydayhecycledthetwenty-oddkilometresfromhis

homejustnorthofSiemReaptovisitPhnomKromtemplewherehecould

contemplatethegreatnessofAngkorandwishforitsreturn.Cheaspoketousin

English:itwasonlybyapproachingforeignersinasecludedlocationthathecould

freelyventhisangerandfrustrationatcontemporarypolitics–ifhespokein

Khmerhecouldnotbecertainthathiscommentswouldnotbereported,even

amongstfriends.

PoliticsinCambodiaremainsrifewithcorruptionandviolence.Bothmajor

politicalpartiesuseviolentnarrativestomanipulatethepopulous,andthe

generalpopulationneithertrust,norfeelsafewithinthepoliticalsphere.Several

massgravesinCambodia,suchasChoeungEk,andWatKampongTralach,have

cometoservespecificallypoliticalpurposes,highlightedduringmyfieldworkby

politicalcampaigningoccurringonthemintherunuptothegeneralelection.As

markersofviolenceanddeath,reinforcedthroughthedisplayofhumanremains,

thesegravesitesenablethosewhoappropriatethemtoreanimatethespectersof

theKhmerRouge,revivingtheirviolence,andtheterrorwroughtwithinpeopleat

theirpresence.Thesearenotsimplymemories:theirimaginedpresenceholds

realviability,madeallthemoreconvincingbecauseoftheaffectivepowerof

maintainingthesespirits.Themoreoftenthecurrentgovernmenttellstheir

mythicaltale,themoredeeplyentrencheditbecomesinthecollectivenarratives

ofthepopulation:thattheKhmerRougecouldre-appearatanymoment,and

thatonlytheycankeepthemsafe.Everytimetheviolenceisre-presented,re-

enacted,orrepeated,peopleareremindedofthepainandsufferingcaused.

Everytimethepoliticalpartiesenactnewviolencestheyensureinsecuritywithin

thepoliticalsphere.ThisistheKhmerRougehauntology.

In1998,havingfinallypersuadedKhieuSamphanandNuonCheatomakepeace

anddefecttothegovernment,HunSenmadeastatementtothepressdeclaring

Weshoulddigaholeandburythepastandlookaheadtothe21stcenturywitha

cleanslate(Mydans1998)

Hehimself,however,hasfailedtodothis.UsingtheKhmerRougeregularlyinhis

narrativessince1979,hehasmaintainedthemasagenuinethreatinpeople’s

imagination.Spectres,Derridaexplains(1994:39),arethreateningbecausethey

collapsetimeintoitself:thebordersoftimeandexperiencebecomeblurred,or

completelyobliterated,asthepastbecomesarealpresenceinthepresentand

future.Thepastdoesnotjustpaveapathtothefuture:itbecomesthefuture.If

youdonotvoteforme,HunSenargues,theKhmerRougewillreturn.Politicians

havehijackedtheKhmerRougeasatooltocreateaclimatewheresupporters

rallybehindthemfor‘protection’.Basedontheaffectivedimensionofreal,lived

experience,thisfearismadeallthemoreexplicitbecauseofwheremuchofthis

campaigningoccurs:onthespacesofdeath-thekillingfieldsofCambodia,the

massgravesandthedeadtheycontain.Buttheregimeneverreallyended;itwas

alwayspresent,shapingtheformofpoliticsinCambodiatoday.

Conclusion:NowistheTimefortheLiving

Inheranalysisofdeadbodypolitics,KatherineVerderyassertedthatinthe

creationofnationsthesilentmanipulabilityofcorpsesarepoliticallyharnessedto

createnewcosmologies,cosmologiesthatnotonlyrelatetotheconstructionof

nationalidentities,butalsoworkonunderstandingsofkinship,relationshipsto

ancestors,religion,ritual,spaceandtime(Verdery1999:96).Usingmassgraves

asthelensthroughwhichtoviewit,thisthesisshowshowthesecosmologiesare

beingre-imaginedandre-constitutedtocreatea‘new’Cambodiafollowingthe

devestatingruleoftheKhmerRouge,andtoimagineitsfuture.Thishasinvolved

exploringlocalconnectionstothedeadaswellasstatelevelusesofthemand

theirgraves.

ByexaminingthesetwodifferentaspectsoflifeamongstthegravesinCambodia,

thisthesishasshownthatitisnotonlythedeadthatarepolitical,butalsotheir

spacesoftorture,pain,death,burial,anddisposal.Ithasalsoillustratedhowin

Cambodiaindividualrelationshipsandeverydayinteractionswiththedeadare

equallypoliticaltoextraordinaryandstateusesofthem,becausebothenable

socialrelationshipsandactiontobenarratedandperformedinmultipleand

overlappingways,andfollowingtheKhmerRougeregime,tobereconstitutedin

newandinnovativeways,waysthatnotonlyenablepeopletodealwiththepast,

butalsotocreateanewfuture.

Becauseofthis,theKhmerRougeregimehascreatednewspacesforimagining

lifeandcommunityincontemporaryCambodia,andhastriggeredare-imagining

ofcategoriesofsociallife,includingrelationshipswiththedead,kinship,religion,

andrelationshipsbetweenthestateanditspeople,aswellasbetweenCambodia

andthewiderglobalcommunity.Massgraves,andthedeadtheycontain,are

centralcomponentsinthesereimaginingsbecauseasVerderyargues,social

relations,politicalhierarchies,religioussystemsandwiderunderstandingsof

whatitmeanstobeinaparticularplaceataparticulartimearemadevisibleby

changingrelationshipswithboth.

ThedeadhavebeenintegralintherebuildingofCambodia–inthesupportthey

gavetopeopleintheearlydays,inthesupporttheynowgivetothenationinits

economicdevelopmentandfuturestability,andintheimprintinthemindsof

thosewhoseethemthattheyleave,teachingtheworldaboutCambodia,itspast

andpresent,thatcausesthemtoengagewiththecountryanditspeople.Aswe

sawinthefirstsectionofthisthesis,thedeadinCambodiamakevisiblethe

politicalsituationoftheliving,notbecausetheyareareflectionofit,butbecause

theytooexperienceit.InCambodiathedeadaresociallysalientbeingswhose

livesparallelthoseoftheliving,andtheyaresubjecttomanyofthesamestresses

andtensionsthatthelivingendure.LifeafterDemocraticKampucheawaschaotic

andunstable;theinstabilitywaspartlynegotiatedbymanagingrelationswiththe

deadandneogitatingwaysinwhichthelivingandthedeadcouldnotonlyco-exit,

butsupporteachotherintherebuildingofCambodia.Thisnecessitatedfindinga

waybywhichthehundredsofthousandsofdeadcausedbytheKhmerRouge

regimecouldbecalmedandreintegratedintosociallife,butratherthanthrough

ritual,itwasprimarilythroughrelationshipsofsupport.Neogitatingreciprocal

relationshipswiththedead,thelivingwereabletoengagetheirhelp,andasthe

deadhelpedtheliving,thelivinghelpedthedead,wholikethemhadbeen

disconnectedfromtheirkinandtossedintochaosandconfusionbythemassive

displacementsthatoccurredduringtheregime.Asthelivingandthedeadbegan

tonegotiate,bothwereabletostartrebuildingtheirlives,theirsocialstatuses,

andtheircountry.Thedemiseofthedeadovertimehasparalleledthepolitical

stabilityofthecountryanditspeopleasithastransitionedfromawildand

chaoticcountrytoarelativelycalmandorderedsociety.

Religionisoftenacentralcomponentinthere-assertionofsocial,political,and

moraleconomiesfollowingwarandconflict.InCambodia,Buddhismand

animismhavebeencrucialinthis.Offeringameansbywhichpeoplecould

explainandnarratethechaos,deathanddestruction,Buddhisminparticularwas

centraltothewaymyinformantsrelatedtothedevastationwroughtbythe

regime.Forsomeitenabledthemtorepairtherupturesinkinandsociallifethat

thelossofuptoathirdofthepopulationcaused,forothersitgavethemwaysto

discussandenfoldtheeventsintotheKhmercosmology,becominganexpected

eventwithintheBuddhistcosmiccycleandconnectingtheperiodbeforethe

regimetothatfollowingit.Forothersitprovidedamodeofcosmicjustice,not

onlytotheperpetrators,butalsotothosewhodied.Inthisway,theviolenceof

theregimehasbeenincorporatedintotoday’slife,andratherthanbeing

remindersofterribleviolence,thegravesitresultedincanbeintegratedinto

everydaylivingspace.

Movingonfromrelationshipsbetweenindividuallivinganddead,thesecond

sectionofthisthesisexaminedhowthesymbolicpowerofthemassgravesand

theirdeadisharnessedinthewiderpoliticalsphere.Therulingpartyhastwo

primaryconcernsincontemporaryCambodia:developmentofthecountryand

retentionofpoliticalauthorityandpower.Thegraveshavebecomesignificant

toolsinachievingtheseaims.

Insomecountriesitisthedeadofthenamedandfamousthatperformpolitical

power(thecorpsesofLeninorMaoZedongforexample),butinlocationswhere

genocide,civilconflict,andwarhaveoccurreditisthemass,nameless,deadthat

performthemostusefulpoliticalfunctions.ThisisthecaseinCambodia,where

thosewhodiedduringtheKhmerRougearemostusefultothestateas

anonymousdeadwhocanbeharnessedasacollective:‘thedead,’‘thevictimsof

theKhmerRouge.’Controllingthelocationofthephysicalremainsofthedead,

andthestructureofnarrativesbehindthecreationofthesedeadandtheirgraves,

theCambodianstatelegitimatesandassertsitsauthority,presentingapolitically

salientnarrationoftheperiod:oneofinnocentCambodianvictims,ofanevil

perpetratedbyamythifiedcollective'theKhmerRouge.’Thisnarrativeincludesa

re-tellingofthestate’sroleintheemancipationofCambodiafromtheKhmer

Rouge,andthemaintenanceofrelativepeaceandstability,andbydoingso

assertsthePrimeMinister,HunSen’s,positionaspatronandprotectorofthe

country.Italsoreducestheculpabilityoftheregimetoahandfulofguilty

perpetrators,obsfuscatingthecomplexitiesbehindtheregime’srisetopower,the

placeofkeymembersofgovernment(includingthePrimeMinisterandParty

Chairman)intheregime,andtheongoingstructuralanddirectviolenceaffecting

Cambodiatoday.

Contemporaneously,DemocraticKampucheahasbeenpoliticizedin

contemporaryCambodia,andthoughmostofthegraveshavebeenreturnedto

everydaylivingspace,somehavecometoservepublicpoliticalfunctionsthatare

usedinthedualaimsofensuringeconomicdevelopmentinCambodiaand

ensuringtheongoingpoliticalhegemonybytheCambodianPeople’sPartyand

theirleaderHunSen.Throughthecommodificationofcertainsitesofdeath,in

particularChoeungEkandTuolSleng,theCambodianstatehasembracedthe

growingtrendofdarktourismtoitsadvantage.Itisnotonlythestatewho

exploitsthis.ThecentralroleofsuchsitesinCambodiantourismisdirectlylinked

intheimaginationsofthestaffandthestatetoeconomicprosperityand

internationalassistancetoCambodia.Astouristsvisittheyengageinreciprocal

relationshipswithCambodia,supportingitevenastheycausechangesinit.

ChoeungEk,andothermemorialsdisplayingthedead,havelargelybeenviewed

asexternallyfacedandthereforecontestedandconflictualspaces,however,as

thisthesishasshown,itwasnotviewedasabusivebymyinformants:neither

thosewhoserelativesandfriendswerekilled,buried,andarepossiblydisplayed

there,northosewhointeractwiththemdaily,athomeandforwork.Thiscomes

fromthefactthattheannonymousremainsareeveryone’sandno-one’sandrely,

therefore,onstatecareratherthanindividual.Withno-oneknowingwhosedead

werewhich,thecareofthephysicalremainswasdevolvedtothestate.Eventhe

deadareagreeblewithit–theygetvisitorsandareamongsttheirfellows;they

havebeenbroughtinfromtheforest.

ThepoliticallandscapeinCambodiaremainsasphereofviolence,hauntedby

DemocraticKampuchea.Powerisgainedandmaintainedthroughdirect,

structural,threatenedandrememberedviolence.Atthesametimeasmarketing

KhmerRougesitesfortourism,politicalpartiesusetheminthere-animationof

theregime.RemembranceinCambodiadoesnotmemorialisethosewhodied,

exceptinthewidest,mostabstractsense.Mostlymemorialsaretotheviolence

andterroroftheregime.Asmarkersofviolenceanddeath,reinforcedthrough

thedisplayofhumanremains,thesegravesitesenablethosewhoappropriate

themtoreanimatethespectresoftheKhmerRouge,revivingtheirviolence,and

theterrorwroughtwithinpeopleattheirpresence.Thesearenotsimply

memories:theirimaginedpresenceholdsrealviability,madeallthemore

convincingbecauseoftheaffectivepowerofmaintainingthesespirits.Whilst

claimingauthorityto‘exorcise’theKhmerRougeregimefromCambodia,both

mainpoliticalpartiesactuallymaintainthem.ThehauntingoftheKhmerRougeis

notonlythroughthismaintenance:itisinthewaypoliticstodayisformedoutof

theregime,andrecreatesandreinforcesapoliticalsphereimbuedwithfearand

distrust,inwhichviolentdiscoursesarethenormandauthoritarianruleis

maintainedundertheguiseofliberaldemocracy.

Thestructureofthisthesissuggeststhatthereisastraightforwarddichotomy

betweenthepoliticaluseofmassgraves(wherethedeadarereducedtoa

collectivemass,andsubsequentlyusedinpoliticalmanipulationforeconomic

prosperityandmaintenanceofpower)andindividualrelationshipstothese

spacesandthedeadwithinthem(wherethosewhodiedareremembered

throughindividualinteractionsandrelationshipswiththem).Thisfitswiththe

internationaldiscourseonmassviolence,whichisoneofenduringsufferinganda

contestationbetweenstateandindividualpolitics.Thismightbesoinsome

cases,butitisnotalways,andusuallyisnotclearcut,andevenwherethestate

andindividualsusethegravesfordifferentthings,theyarenotnecessarilyin

opposition.Oftenthesituationismessyandremainsinflux–nowseemingly

steady,itcouldre-emergeatanytime.Thetwoethnographicsectionsofthis

thesisareinextricablylinked,andmanyofthethemesofthisthesisoverlapand

influenceeachother.InCambodiapoliticsofthedeadisnotonlyrelatedtothe

waythedeadareusedbythestate,butalsohowtheythemselvesareintegrated

orexcludedfromthesociallifeoftheliving.Massgravesarenotonlyexploited

bythestate,butalsobyindividualsandlocalcommunities.Comparingchapters

fourandsixforexample,wecanseehowboththedeadandthelivingaresubject

tothewiderpoliticalspherewithinwhichtheyexist,andworktowardsfuture

aims.Chapterstwoandfive,meanwhile,showthattheoftencriticiseddisplayof

humanremainsaroundthecountryalsoservesasameanstocareforthedead

whohavenorelatives,orwhoserelativescannotrecognisetheirremains.

Onlyrecentlyhasmuchattentionbeenpaidtosocio-culturalrelationshipswith

massgraves,andthisthesisaimstocontributetothisgrowingbodyofwork.

Muchworkthatdoesexistconcernsthemissing,andessentialisesmassgravesin

whichtheirbodieslieasnegativeandtraumatic,becausethedeadtheycontain

almostinvariablyresultfromsomedreadfulevent,whetheritbeconflict,

violence,anendemic,ordisaster.Thesymbolicpowerofthedeadmeansthat

theyretainconnectionstotheseterribleeventslongaftertheresultshave

stoppedbeingvisibleelsewhere.Andbecauseoftheconnectionstheyretain,

attentionpaidtomassgravessomehowreviatlisestheeventfromwhichthey

died.Thisis,ofcourse,oftenthecase.Aroundtheglobeweseeanguishand

despairwheremassgravesabound,andmoreandmorecountriesaroundthe

worldarebeginningtoinvestigatethesegraves;returninglonglostremainstothe

kinandcountryfromwhichtheycome.

ButthemassgravesinCambodiaaresomewhatdifferenttothoseofother

conflictssuchasBosnia-HerzegovinaorRwandabecausetheywerecausedby

KhmeronKhmer.Therewasnoeasilyidentifiableforeignothertolaytheblame

atthefeetof,andthosecausingthegravesaremostlystillatlarge,manyin

positionsofresponsibilityinthelocal,regional,andnationalgovernment.There

isnopoliticalmotivation(nationalorlocal)forexcavatingthegraves.The

governmenthaveasmanyremainsastheyneedtotellataleofvictimhoodand

theirsaving.Thereisnosocialuseforvictimidentityrelatedtothedeadofthe

KhmerRouge–everyoneisavictimoftheKhmerRougeinthisnewlynarrated

storyofblameandthesubsumationofblameunderPolPot.Eventhosetriedat

theECCC,withreamsandreamsofevidenceagainstthem,usedthisnarrative.

Neitherdothegravesneedunearthingtodisclosepoliticalviolences;theywere

neverclandestine,neverdenied226,andthedeaddidnotneedunearthing

becausetheycouldbeproperlycaredforandmoveontotheirnextlifewithoutit.

Theunearthingofmassgravesisoftenusedintheformationofanewstate–

gravesmarkthelandandtheirunearthing,bybringingthedeadbackintothe

embraceofthestate,dividesthosewhomadethegravesandthosewhodisclose

them.Assuchtheyoftenreconfiguretime–creatinganeweraandlifewithinit.

AlthoughtheCPPworkedhardtopresentanewtemporality,formostofmy

informants,ratherthananewera,theconnectionsallowedbyBuddhismand

animismcollapsedtemporaldistinctionsandallowedconnectionstobemade

betweentheperiodsbeforetheregimeandthatwhichcameafterit.Viewedasa

periodofdestructionthathadtohappenduetocyclicaltime,theKhmerRouge

regimebecameanexplainableeventofKhmerBuddhistcosmology.Becauseof

226ExceptbrieflybytheKhmerRougeinthe1980s(FawthropandJarvis2005).

this,mostoftheKhmerpeopleIencountereddidnotpresentthemselvesas

victimsoftrauma.TheKhmerRougeperiodwasseenasaterriblehistory,butas

onebelongingtoaparticulartimeandcontext,exceptwhereitwasusefully

harnessedinthepresentoritsmemoryprovokedbysomeevent.However,itis

integraltocontemporaryCambodia,notonlyasaterriblehistoricalperiod,but

becauseallimaginingsandrelationshipswithinthenewKhmerstateareformed

fromit.ThefracturesitcausedinallaspectsofKhmerlifeweredevastating,and

neededrebuildingfollowingitsfall:politicalstability,moralorder,social

relationships,religiousunderstanding.Thishasbeencriticaltothebuildingofa

newCambodia,creatingspacesfornewimaginingsofCambodianlife,kinship,

religion,ritual,politicsandCambodia’splaceintheglobalsphere.

WhilesomescholarshavearguedthatprivilegingtheKhmerRougeperiodin

academicconsiderationlimitsdiscoursesonCambodia,andreifiesparticular

presentationsofthecountryanditspast,thisthesishasshownthatthisisnotthe

case.NorhasthepoliticisationofDemocraticKampuchea,itsdead,andtheir

graves,providedastagnatednarrative.Whilethedeadappeartoonlymeanone

thing,asthisthesisshows,theyareplurivocalandsignificant(andsymbolic)ina

multitudeofways.Theirsignificanceistemporallyandcontextuallyvariable,and

althoughitoftenvariesbetweenthegovernmentandeverydaypeople,their

narrationsandtheworktowhichtheyputthem,sometimesthesecollide.

Thoughthisthesiscentresontwomainfieldsitesitwasfedanddeveloped

throughresearchatfifteenothers.Assuch,althoughitcannotclaimtobea

holisiticstudyofmassgravesinCambodia,itcandrawsomegeneralthemes,as

havebeenexploredherein.However,mytimeatsitesbeyondthesecentralones

wasshort,andfurtherresearchatotherlocationsoutsideChoeungEkandTuol

SlengwouldbenefittheunderstandingofmassgravesinCambodia.Oneofthe

largestomissionsfromalmostallconsiderationsofthemassgravesinCambodiais

thenumberofcadrecontainedwithinthem.Whileitistruethatallwhosebodies

liewithinthegravesarevictimsoftheregime’sviolenceanddestruction,many

KhmerRougecadrehaveaveryparticularrelationshiptothemassgraves,having

beentheircreators,aswellaspotentiallyhavingkinwithinthem.Thiswouldbe

aninterestingavenueoffurtherexplorationthatmayenablefurther

problematisationofthesimplisticdichotomiesbetweenperpetratorandvictim

thatareoftenpresentedwithregardtoDemocraticKampuchea.Inaddition,in

myresearchIworkedmostlywithKhmerpeopleofCambodianancestry.

Relationshipsbetweenthedeadandthelivingareconsiderablydifferentforthe

Khmer-Chinesecommunity,andwouldproveastimulatingavenueoffurther

exploration.Finally,comparativeworkbetweenthegravesinCambodiaand

othercommunistregimes,boththoseinAsiaandbeyond,wouldprovidean

interestingavenueofstudyformoregeneral,widerstatementstobemade.

Thestorytoldinthisthesis,emphasisingmassgravesandthedeadoftheKhmer

Rouge,evolved,ofcourse,frommyowninterestsandresearchagenda.Its

emphasisonthesesubjectsimpliestheyarecentralandomnipresentinpeople’s

dailylivesandimaginations,asiftheseareatopicofcontinualthought,reflection

andconversation.Thisisnotthedaily,livedrealityformostofmyinformants,

althoughithasbeenmylivedrealityforthelastfouryears.Duringfieldwork

thesetopicsappearedonlysporadicallyineverydaylife,however,these

occasionalappearanceswereindicativeoftheongoingimaginedpresenceofthe

KhmerRougeandtheimprintoftheirviolenceincontemporaryCambodia.As

suchamultitudeofotherencountershavebeenlostintheether;Ihopeoneday

theyre-emerge.Thosethatremaindosomething,Ihope,towardsilluminating

theencounterswithmassgravesandthosewhodiedundertheKhmerRouge

regimeofmyinformantsandmyselfincontemporaryCambodia.Cambodiahas

manyghosts,butlifecontinueschanging,andtheymaynothauntitforever.As

SreySreysaidtothedeadonedayaswewalkedaroundChoeungEk:‘youhave

alreadydied.Nowisthetimefortheliving.’

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To live amongst the dead: an ethnographic exploration of mass graves in Cambodia Caroline

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