Uses of the nominative and accusative cases:. Adpositions governing the accusative:

Uses of the nominative and accusative cases:

Nominative Ràmo gacchati. svalpaü sukhaü krodhaþ.

Ràma goes. Anger is a small pleasure.

Accusative Devadatto Ràmaü tudati. nagaraü gacchati. màsam adhãte. dhik puruùam!

Devadatta strikes Ràma. S/he goes to the city. S/he learns for a month. Fie on the man!

Adpositions governing the accusative:

anu after, along

abhita× near, in front of

sarvata× on all sides of

ubhayata× on both sides of

antareõa without, concerning

parita× around

vin without

antar between

prati to, towards

Accusative forms of the personal pronouns:

Singular Dual Plural 1st màm, mà àvàm,

nau asmàn, naþ

2nd tvàm, tvà yuvàm, vàm

yuùmàn, vaþ

Masculine tam tau tàn Feminine tàm te tàþ

3rd

Neuter tad te tàni

Gender:

Usually, males are denoted by masculine nouns (e.g. nara- `man', masc.) and females by feminine nouns (e.g. strã- `woman', fem.); the gender assigned to nouns denoting sexless things has no clear semantic basis.

 There are, however, some fairly reliable

correlations between a noun's gender and the form of its stem. e.g. stems in a are generally masculine and neuter, while stems in long vowels are mostly feminine.

Short-a stem declension: aśva- `horse' (masc.)

Singular Dual Plural Nom a÷vaþ a÷vau a÷vàþ Voc a÷va a÷vau a÷vàþ Acc a÷vam a÷vau a÷vàn Instr a÷vena a÷vàbhyàm a÷vaiþ Dat a÷vàya a÷vàbhyàm a÷vebhyaþ Abl a÷vàt a÷vàbhyàm a÷vebhyaþ Gen a÷vasya a÷vayoþ a÷vànàm Loc a÷ve a÷vayoþ a÷veùu

Short-a stem declension: dàna- `gift' (neut.)

Singular Dual Plural Nom dànam dàne dànàni Voc dàna dàne dànàni Acc dànam dàne dànàni Instr dànena dànàbhyàm dànaiþ Dat dànàya dànàbhyàm dànebhyaþ Abl dànàt dànàbhyàm dànebhyaþ Gen dànasya dànayoþ dànànàm Loc dàne dànayoþ dàneùu

Thematic Athematic Class 1 (suffix -a) Class 4 (suffix -ya) Class 6 (suffix -a) Class 10 (suffix -aya)

Class 2 (root class) Class 3 (reduplicating class) Class 5 (no / nu class) Class 7 (nasal infixing class) Class 8 (o / u class) Class 9 (nà / nã class)

The ten classes of present-tense stems

Characteristics of the four thematic classes

1. The stem always ends in a.2. The stem doesn't exhibit

vowel- grade alternations.

Characteristics of the four thematic classes

3. In an open syllable, the stem-final a lengthens before any ending beginning with m or v; thus, there is no lengthening before ‑m in the 1st person singular imperfect active.

Characteristics of the four thematic classes

4. The stem-final a is dropped before all endings beginning with e.

5. The 2nd person singular imperative active is simply the stem.

Characteristics of the four thematic classes

6. The optative suffix is ‑ã- before consonants and ‑ãy- before vowels. By sandhi,

a- + -ã- e ; a- + -ãy- ey .

Stem formation in the thematic classes

1st class (bhå- class)

stem = root + a- guõa, if possible

Stem formation in the thematic classes

6th class (tud‑ class)

stem = root + a- zero grade

Stem formation in the thematic classes

4th class (div‑ class)

stem = root + ya- unchanged

Stem formation in the thematic classes

10th class (cur- class) stem = root ending in a vowel root ending in aC- vçddhi + aya- = root ending in VC- guõa = root ending in à- + paya-

Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes

Class 1 gam- go' yam- furnish'

gaccha- yaccha-

-ccha:

Class 6 iù- wish' prach- ask' ç- move'

iccha- pçccha- çccha-

Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes

Class 1 guh- hide' kram- step'

gåha- kràma- (act.) krama- (mid.)

lengthening of root vowel:

Class 4 ÷am- become quiet' bhram- wander'

÷àmya- bhràmya-

Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes

Class 1 daü÷- bite' da÷a-

loss of a nasal after the root vowel:

Class 4 ra¤j- redden' rajya-

Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes

insertion of a nasal after the root vowel:

Class 6 muc- release' kçt- cut' lip- besmear'

mu¤ca- kçnta- limpa-

Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes

reduplication of the root:

Class 1 sthà- stand' ghrà- smell' pà- drink'

tiùñha- jighra- piba-

Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes

unexpected vowel grade:

Class 4 jan- be born' dam- tame'

Class 10 janaya- Class 10 damaya-

Active inflectional endings for thematic verbs (conjugations 1, 4, 6, 10) in the present system

Singular Dual Plural Primary endings (present indicative)

1st 2nd 3rd

-mi -si -ti

-vaþ -thaþ -taþ

-maþ -tha -nti

Active inflectional endings for thematic verbs (conjugations 1, 4, 6, 10) in the present system

Singular Dual Plural Secondary endings (imperfect, [optative])

1st 2nd 3rd

-m [-am] -þ -t

-va -tam -tàm

-ma -ta -n [-ur]

Active inflectional endings for thematic verbs (conjugations 1, 4, 6, 10) in the present system

Singular Dual Plural Imperative endings

1st 2nd 3rd

-àni -- -tu

-àva -tam -tàm

-àma -ta -ntu