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Uses of the nominative and accusative cases:
Nominative Ràmo gacchati. svalpaü sukhaü krodhaþ.
Ràma goes. Anger is a small pleasure.
Accusative Devadatto Ràmaü tudati. nagaraü gacchati. màsam adhãte. dhik puruùam!
Devadatta strikes Ràma. S/he goes to the city. S/he learns for a month. Fie on the man!
Adpositions governing the accusative:
anu after, along
abhita× near, in front of
sarvata× on all sides of
ubhayata× on both sides of
antareõa without, concerning
parita× around
vin without
antar between
prati to, towards
Accusative forms of the personal pronouns:
Singular Dual Plural 1st màm, mà àvàm,
nau asmàn, naþ
2nd tvàm, tvà yuvàm, vàm
yuùmàn, vaþ
Masculine tam tau tàn Feminine tàm te tàþ
3rd
Neuter tad te tàni
Gender:
Usually, males are denoted by masculine nouns (e.g. nara- `man', masc.) and females by feminine nouns (e.g. strã- `woman', fem.); the gender assigned to nouns denoting sexless things has no clear semantic basis.
There are, however, some fairly reliable
correlations between a noun's gender and the form of its stem. e.g. stems in a are generally masculine and neuter, while stems in long vowels are mostly feminine.
Short-a stem declension: aśva- `horse' (masc.)
Singular Dual Plural Nom a÷vaþ a÷vau a÷vàþ Voc a÷va a÷vau a÷vàþ Acc a÷vam a÷vau a÷vàn Instr a÷vena a÷vàbhyàm a÷vaiþ Dat a÷vàya a÷vàbhyàm a÷vebhyaþ Abl a÷vàt a÷vàbhyàm a÷vebhyaþ Gen a÷vasya a÷vayoþ a÷vànàm Loc a÷ve a÷vayoþ a÷veùu
Short-a stem declension: dàna- `gift' (neut.)
Singular Dual Plural Nom dànam dàne dànàni Voc dàna dàne dànàni Acc dànam dàne dànàni Instr dànena dànàbhyàm dànaiþ Dat dànàya dànàbhyàm dànebhyaþ Abl dànàt dànàbhyàm dànebhyaþ Gen dànasya dànayoþ dànànàm Loc dàne dànayoþ dàneùu
Thematic Athematic Class 1 (suffix -a) Class 4 (suffix -ya) Class 6 (suffix -a) Class 10 (suffix -aya)
Class 2 (root class) Class 3 (reduplicating class) Class 5 (no / nu class) Class 7 (nasal infixing class) Class 8 (o / u class) Class 9 (nà / nã class)
The ten classes of present-tense stems
Characteristics of the four thematic classes
1. The stem always ends in a.2. The stem doesn't exhibit
vowel- grade alternations.
Characteristics of the four thematic classes
3. In an open syllable, the stem-final a lengthens before any ending beginning with m or v; thus, there is no lengthening before ‑m in the 1st person singular imperfect active.
Characteristics of the four thematic classes
4. The stem-final a is dropped before all endings beginning with e.
5. The 2nd person singular imperative active is simply the stem.
Characteristics of the four thematic classes
6. The optative suffix is ‑ã- before consonants and ‑ãy- before vowels. By sandhi,
a- + -ã- e ; a- + -ãy- ey .
Stem formation in the thematic classes
1st class (bhå- class)
stem = root + a- guõa, if possible
Stem formation in the thematic classes
6th class (tud‑ class)
stem = root + a- zero grade
Stem formation in the thematic classes
4th class (div‑ class)
stem = root + ya- unchanged
Stem formation in the thematic classes
10th class (cur- class) stem = root ending in a vowel root ending in aC- vçddhi + aya- = root ending in VC- guõa = root ending in à- + paya-
Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes
Class 1 gam- go' yam- furnish'
gaccha- yaccha-
-ccha:
Class 6 iù- wish' prach- ask' ç- move'
iccha- pçccha- çccha-
Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes
Class 1 guh- hide' kram- step'
gåha- kràma- (act.) krama- (mid.)
lengthening of root vowel:
Class 4 ÷am- become quiet' bhram- wander'
÷àmya- bhràmya-
Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes
Class 1 daü÷- bite' da÷a-
loss of a nasal after the root vowel:
Class 4 ra¤j- redden' rajya-
Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes
insertion of a nasal after the root vowel:
Class 6 muc- release' kçt- cut' lip- besmear'
mu¤ca- kçnta- limpa-
Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes
reduplication of the root:
Class 1 sthà- stand' ghrà- smell' pà- drink'
tiùñha- jighra- piba-
Irregularities in stem formation in the thematic classes
unexpected vowel grade:
Class 4 jan- be born' dam- tame'
Class 10 janaya- Class 10 damaya-
Active inflectional endings for thematic verbs (conjugations 1, 4, 6, 10) in the present system
Singular Dual Plural Primary endings (present indicative)
1st 2nd 3rd
-mi -si -ti
-vaþ -thaþ -taþ
-maþ -tha -nti
Active inflectional endings for thematic verbs (conjugations 1, 4, 6, 10) in the present system
Singular Dual Plural Secondary endings (imperfect, [optative])
1st 2nd 3rd
-m [-am] -þ -t
-va -tam -tàm
-ma -ta -n [-ur]
Active inflectional endings for thematic verbs (conjugations 1, 4, 6, 10) in the present system
Singular Dual Plural Imperative endings
1st 2nd 3rd
-àni -- -tu
-àva -tam -tàm
-àma -ta -ntu