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LEARNING STRATEGIES
GROUP 3 :1. SISKA FEBRI NURIZA
(14178055)2. MELLATI MANDASARI
(14178032)
DEVELOPMENTS IN LANGUAGE LEARNERS STRATEGIES
INTRODUCTION
Individual learner differencesBelieveAffective statesGeneral factorsPrevious learning experiences
Situational factors The setting formal or informalThe nature of the instruction Specific task of learner
INTRODUCTION
Main finding of this research
1. A number of definitions learning strategy
2. Main method that have to investigate them
3. Discussion of various frameworks for classifying them
4. Factors that influence learners’ choice of strategy
Defining learning strategy
The concept of strategy is unclear until now
General definition Strategy consisted of mental behavioral activity related to some specific stage in
the overall process of language acquisition or language use
General distinction made by three types of strategies:
- Production- Communication
- learning
A production strategy consists of an attempt to use ones linguistic system efficiently and clearly with a
minimum effort
Communication strategies consists of attempt to deal with the problem in communication that have arisen
in interaction
Language learning strategy is an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in target
language
Source Definition
Stern 1983
Weinstein and Mayer 1986
Chamot 1987
Rubin 1987
Oxford 1989
-Strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristic of the approach employed by the language learner. Techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior. -Behavior and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners’ encoding process-Learning strategies are techniques approaches or deliberates actions that students take in order to facilitate learning recall of both linguistic and content area information-Learning strategies are strategies which contributes to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly -LLS are behavior or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.
Cohen (1990:15) refers to learning strategies directed at the language skill of vocabulary learning
(linguistic knowledge)
The table shows reveals a number of problems, because it is not clear whether they are to be
perceived of as behavioral or mental
1. Oxford (1989) appears to see them as essentially behavioral, whereas Weinstein and Mayer (1989)
see them as both behavioral and mental.
2. Stern (1983) distinguish strategies and techniques. (such grammar and vocabulary). In other hand the
other researcher use the term strategy to refer the kind of behaviors Stern calls techniques
4. Learning strategy have seen direct r indirect effect on interlanguage development
3. Whether learning strategy – conscious or subconscious
List the main characteristic of learning strategy1. Strategy refer to both general approach or
specific action or technique used to learn anL2
2. Strategies are problem oriented3. Learner are generally aware of the strategy
they use4. Strategy involve linguistic behavior and non
linguistic5. Linguistic strategy can be perform in L1 and
L26. Some strategy are behavioral and other are
mental7. In the main strategy contribute indirect to
learning and other indirect8. learning strategy use various considerably
as a result of both the kind of the task thelearner is engage and individual preference.
Anderson distinguish 3 stages of skill learning
1. Cognitive sage (concious strategy )2. Associate stage (connect the skill and
construct efficient product)3. Automatic stage (the action become
subconscious)
Method used to investigate learning strategy
Interview and questionnaire are require learner to report on the learning strategies they use or an relation
to specific activity .
Questionaire- Naiman et al (1978) ask general question about the learner technique for studying the sound
system, grammar, vocabulary, and the four skills
Interview- Wenden 1987 conduct interview on which she asked learner to comment on specific learning activities.
Interview and questionnaire diary studies, think aloud task
Collecting the
Diary studies- collecting the information of learning strategies by retrospective report
Think aloud- require learner to introspect the strategy that they use in particular task
Collecting the
Classifying learner strategy
Little classify learning strategies into general
categories
Type of learnerSettingParticular interest
Scehan 1989 identifies in different taxonomies
1. Learner capacity to impose himself on learningsituation (how to use word expression, puttingword in a sentence to check understanding)
2. Technical predisposition (Naiman et al- realizingthat language as a system- analysis the targetlanguage and making inferring about it)
3. Learner capacity to evaluate for exampleNaiman and Rubin both refer to the importance ofmonitoring (guesses, correction error)
Collecting the
Three major type of strategy (o,melly and chamots)
Cognitive strategy
RepetitionNote-takingElaborating
Metacognitive
PlanningMonitoringEvaluating
Working with peers and asking questions toteacher and native speakerSocial / affective
Collecting the
Oxford (1985) classify leaning strategy into primary strategy and
secondary strategy
1990 Classify learning strategy into direct and indirect
Learning strategy
Direct strategy
Memory strategies
Cognitive srategy
Compensation strategies
Indirect strategy
Metacognitive strategies
Affective strategies
Social strategies
Collecting the
Factors affecting strategy choice
1. Individual learner differences
1. Attitude2. Affective strategy3. General factors
2. Believe about language learning
1. Learner with emphasized on the importanceof learning
2. Learner with emphasized on the importanceof using language
3. Learner who stress on personal factors
Collecting the
3. Learner factors
a. Age
Young children Older children
•Employ strategy in a task specific manner •Often simple Example repetition
•Make use of general strategies-more flexible•More complex and sophisticated example: active systematic and elaboration procedures
Collecting the
3. Learner factors
b. AptitudeIt is not strongly related to strategy .
Bialystok (1981) found aptitude was not influence as learners’ believes , in other hand, learner with decontextualized language skill (aspect of aptitude skill) will be able to talk about the strategy they
use
Leino (1998) learner with high conceptual level were better describing their strategies or vice versa
Collecting the
b. Learning style
Oxford (1989) people with different learning style have different learning strategy
c. Learner motivation
Oxford and Nyikos (1989) study at university in the US found that degree of motivation influence the choice of language learning.
Formal practice more popular than functional practice
d. Learner goal
Also determine strategy use . For example strategy us in expression students should concern to with developing communicative
competence rather than reading technical literature
Collecting the
e. Learner personality
Its not reliable because extrovert students are expected to report they strategy use but in some cases the introvert students can
report significantly greater use of strategies than extrovert
Collecting the
The learner personality background
Erman (1990) Found that professional linguistic reported using more strategies
more frequently that untrained instructed and students
Chamoet et al (1987) higher level students at Spanish and Russian in US using more strategies rather than beginning level of students
Factors in strategy use
Indivudual learner differences Social factors
Leaner factors of age and motvation, backgroud emerge as important
factors
The language being learntThe language setting
The type of learning taskThe learner sex
Learning strategies and language use
There are some studies about relationship learning strategies and languge learning
Focus on strategies used to learn
vocabulary
The population 1. Adult L2
learner2. Learning
strategies used by children
The strategies Vs the
criterion of learning
measurement
Good language learner
Successful learner
Five major aspects successful language learning
1. A concern for language form
2.A concern for communication
3. An active task approach
4. An awareness of the learning process
5. A capacity to use strategies a flexibly in accordance with task requirement
Study Learner Method Result
Rubin 1975 Lerner of mixed ages in classroomsettings
Observation (emphazise in importang using video camera)
Following strategies disscussed :1. Preparedness to guess2. Attempt to to communcate3. Willing for appear4. Attention to form5. Practising6. Moitoring and other’s speech7. Attending the meaning
Naiman et al. 1978
1. 34 graduateL2 learner –many multilingual
2. Students of L2 French in grades 8, 10, 12
1.Interview-questionaire2. Classroom observation schedule
Following strategies disscussedidentified :1. Active task approach2. Realization of language as
system3. Realization of language as a
means communication and interaction
4. Management of affective commands
5. Monitoring of L2 performance
Rubin 1981 Young adults in classroom setting
1. Classroom observation schedule
2. observation of
Strategies in these areas identified1. Clarification2. Monitoring3. Memorization
Studies of vocabulary learning strategies
Brown and Perry (1991)Investigate the success of three vocabulary learning
keyword semanticA keyword semantic
Studies of learning strategies used by children
Wong Fillmore (1976 ; 1979)
Five mexican children learning english in the Unites States
Collecting data : children natural speaking in the pair
with native speaker child in a play situation.
Chesterfield and chesterfield (1980)
Succesfully by children in the early stages of language
learning
Fourteen mexican american children where sudy indifferent point during
their first year schooling
Data collected by using observtion in bilingual classroom.
The strategies use is repetition, memorization and use of formulac expressions
Relating learning strategies to second language development
conclusion
.1.The strategies that learner elect to use reflect their general stage of L2 development.
2.Successfulrner appear to use learning strategies more frequently and in qualitatively different ways than learner whoa are less successful
3.successful language learning involves attention in both form and meaning
4. different kinds of language strategies many contribute to different aspects of l2 profiency
5. learner need to employ the strategies flexibly by selecting those strategies that are appropriate for performing a particular learning tasks
6.because of metacognitive strategies is involving identification planning monitoring
and evaluation assume considerable importance at least for adults
7. the successful learner able tot talk what the strategies' that they use
8. the leaner strategies may difference social and interactional strategies maybe more important with young learner
Training learner in the use of learning strategies
Bialystock (1983b )
The ability of grade 10 student of L2 French to inferences meaning
of words in a text
The experimental class: using picture cues
and use dictionaries
improved
Other class:
Less effective
Cohen and Aphek (1980 ) adult learner of L2
Hebrew in vocabulary acquisition through
assosiations
The students more
proficient in using
association in recall tasks
O’Malley (1985b) the effect of two kinds of training on
75 intermedite level ESL students of mixed ethnic
background
The control group
The experimental group 1 using imagery and
grouping (cognitive strategy). The second
group received training with the
similar strategy and also in self evaluation
(metalingualstrategy)
More useful for advanced learners
The learning styles of different groups
need to be account in
planning strategy training
There are many issues that need we choose before strategy training can be implemneted effectively
1. More work is need to discover what strategies and, in particular, what combination of strategies that should be taught
2. we have to found of taking into account learner own preferred learning strategies
3. some learner need convincing that strategy learning in worth while
4. it is not clear whether learner training will work best when the exists as separate strand in language program or when is fully into the language teaching materials
5. When strategy training should be attempted6. Whether learners should be made conscious of the
strategies they are taught, or whether just providing practice opportunities is sufficient
1. The origins of Language Learners Strategies
The history of research in second
language acquisition
Two lines of development that show the birth of LLS
Researchers’ attention changed from the teacher
and his/her method of teaching
The revolution of the researchers, practitioners and policy makers’ beliefs
about definition of learning a language
a. Rejoice :
The ‘Good Language Learner’
is Born
In the late 1960s and early 1970s
Why some learners learnt language better than others?
The characteristics of good learners
Large and universal
Researchers’ attention changed from the teacher and his/her method of
teaching
Disappoinment
• Characteristics of good language learners
• 1. An active approach to the task
• 2. Experimentation and planning
• 3. Willingness to practice
• 4. self-monitoring and critical sensitivity
Stren (1975)
• Characteristics of good language learners
• 1. The willingness and ability to guess the meaning of unknown words
• 2. The willingness to monitor one’s own speech
• 3. A strong drive to communicate
• 4. A willingness to attend to both form and meaning
• 5. A lack of inhibition
Rubin (1975)
• Characteristics of good language learners
• 1. The comprehension of the learners about language as a means of communication
• 2. An ability to manage the affective demands of language learning
Naiman et al. (1978/1995)
b. Searching for Communicative
Competence
The conceptualization about what it was to be competent in language was changing in 1980 where the communicative competence include
not only grammatical competence but also sociolinguistic and discourse competence and it also includes strategic competence
Linguistic knowledge and strategic knowledge
Strategic competence focused on communication strategies
Means a sufficiently large mental lexicon and a rule system sufficiently to allow learner to put an utterance or sentence together. For example,
grammatical knowledge
Knowing what to do with linguistic knowledge: knowing
how to put it to its best use
2. Exploring a Language Learner Strategy
a. The Relationship between
Knowing and Doing
If you are being able to do something requires you to have the knowledge about it. And also you to have knowledge of the strategies .
The knowledge- behavior relationship in a strategy has become an issues because the theory of ‘proceduralization or automaticity
b. The Size of Strategy
Practically achievable The strategies must bee
effective
The achievement (learning goal in a specific task or learning situation)
SMALL
c. What Makes an Action Strategic?
Dornyei (2005) Whether strategies actually exist? The previous researcher didn’t confirm which strategy that indicate the behavior or non strategic
Good learners = good strategies
Poor learners = bad strategies
Choosing all of strategies in the right combination, available and in appropriate time
The solution of the problem :
- Small and mental activity
- Conscious behavior should be classified
- There are no good or bad strategies
3. Developments in Strategy
Elicitation InstrumentsThere are two types of elicit instruments : the questionnaire and the verbal self-report (think aloud protocol). LLS questionnaire here divided into two types :
The general questionnaire : try to draw out the overall strategic behavior of the learners. The best general questionnaire is the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) , developed by Rebecca Oxford in the late 1980s
Task specific questionnaire
4. The Good Language Learner Reborn
There are four terms that usually use in the LLS literature by some researchers: ‘proficiency’, ‘successful’, ‘high achieving’, and ‘experienced’.
‘proficiency’ = the measurement
‘achievement’ = the outcome of education
‘success’ = someone has gotten the good result in language test
‘expertise’ = someone who learnt a lot of languages and show their ability in language continually.
5. Developments in Strategy-based InstructionThere are five familiar steps in SBI:1. Increase the size and types of LLS that
appropriate for the students2. In the process of introduction the teacher or
peers show the model of strategies that they use directly
3. Students’ opportunity to practice the strategies with teacher/researchers’ support
4. Elimination of the support5. Evaluation the effectiveness of the SBI
Strategy evaluation – attribution – self efficacy (Graham, 2004)
The phenomena that also happened in implementing SBI for young children and adult:
1. Older learners seem opposed to SBI
2. Using L1
The solution : change the strategic behavior as part of the assessment system. Assessment would need to focus on the process of learning than the
product of learning
The solutions : 1. mixing the L1 and L2 in the instruction, but trying to increase the use of L2.
2. To provide evidence that SBI instruction is so effective in raising achieving
6. The Research Evidence in LLS and SBI
The relationship between LLS –other Variables and research on SBL = in the learning process
The research evidences:Learners that have high levels of proficiency, use more and very different strategies
In fact, higher proficiency facilitates different strategic behaviorIts not mean that using more different strategies make the students reach
the high levels of proficiency
The second evidence is the older learners use different strategies than younger learners
The result of the study show that the older learners using more cognitively complex strategies while the younger learners tend to use the social
strategies
Females are more strategic than malesWhatton (2003) and Griffiths (2003) did not find females using more or particularly
different strategies than males
The differences of cultural groups approaches to L2 study have also not been support by LLS research
Beddel (1993) found that only limited differences between the Chinese students he studied and Western students report in other studies
Grainger (1997) found that no significant differences in reported strategy use
The variable that occur to interact with high or different strategy use the most is motivation
Motivated learners = use more or different strategies Different strategies = learning is success and higher levels of motivationThe fact both of them achieve the learners with high levels of education
There is no evidence for
a causal link between
Strategic behavior Proficiency or achievement measure
One of the evidence that show the link, if the research evidence on strategy based instruction was POSITIVE
Hasan (2005) stated that some evidence that L2 learners using strategic behavior give the faster progress than do not
Flaitz and Feyten (1996) and Nunan (1992) didn’t find the improvement because of the strategic behavior
The vast majority of SBI studies have focused on a single skill and the result of study showed the positive improvement toward four skills (Listening,
Speaking, Reading and Writing)
CONCLUSION1. This study described about LLS movement because of the
interest of researchers have changed and their interest in the learners because what learners do with their linguistics knowledge is important than the knowledge itself.
2. Without understanding of how the good language learners becomes good it is impossible to say that strategic behaviouras a students’ factor in success
3. In explaining the strategy the teacher should be explained carefully and make it as small as possible, should consider with the material and flexible combination
4. Strategic behaviour can be achieved by beginning investigate if and how strategies transfer from one task to another and one educational setting to another
5. We should be considering ‘achievement’. By identify high-achieving and low-achieving students and identify the strategies they use and why they use them
Suggestion
M.Hafdi : we should be careful as a teacher in order to believe our students in doing the task or assignment or their proficiency. Because as I saw in the reality many students are doing the task. The tend to copy/paste in the internet.
Elwin Zebua: I did not agree with mr.Hafdi’sstatement because proficiency cannot see as the students’ ability is good or bad. If you do not trust the students, you won’t be able to transfer the knowledge to the students
Questions 1. Hesti : related to the first article, stage of learning: cognitive, associative and
automatic. How to determine these stage of learning?2. Desfi yenti : should the strategy based instruction be taught to the students?3. Robby Ibrahim : what is the appropriate strategy for each level of students that
related to the Oxford strategy? 4. Iftitah Rahmi: asking about our opinion about ‘the attitude that is not strongly
related with the strategy’ which is the researchers said in the article.
Additional idea: Question no 2= Dorsy Deshongfa : yes, because it is really important. Strategy
based instructor also finding the students’ difficulties before decide the appropriate strategy for the students.
Question no 3=Ifitah rahmi : not the appropriateness, but how the strategy influence that use by
the students and frequency the use of strategy. Elwin Zebua : strategy is the key of the students’ need. What aspect or
considering about and it will in crease the size or types LLS.
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