makalah english phonoloy (lakidende university)December 15, 2012 by syahdarsaputra

ENGLISH PHONOLOGY

 

Makalah ini disusun untuk memenuhi

salah satu tugas mata kuliah English Phonology semester III A

 

DOSEN

 

UMAR,S.Pd.M.S

 

 

SAHDAR SAPUTRA210 501 040

 

 

 

FACULTY OF TEACHER TRAINING AND EDUCATION

ENGLISH PROGRAM DEPARTEMENT

LAKIDENDE UNIVERSITY

2011

 

CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND

 

This paper is arranged to introductory on English phonology of the sort taught in the first year of The English Language. The students on such courses can struggle with phonetics and phonology ; it is sometimes difficult to see past the new symbols and terminology, andthe apparent assumption that we can immediately become consciously aware of movements of the vocal organs which we have been making almost automatically for the last eighteen or more years. This paperattempts to show us why we need to know about phonetics and phonology, if we are interested in language and our knowledge of it,as well as introducing the main units and concepts we require to describe speech sounds accurately.

When it’s arranged to presenting the details of phonology, I have also chosen to use verbal descriptions rather than diagrams and pictures in most cases. The reason for this is we need to learn to use our own intuitions, and this is helped by encouraging us to introspect and think about our own vocal organs, rather than seeing disembodied pictures of structures which don’t seem to belong to them at all.

Our hope is that a through grounding in the basics will help us approach more abstract theoretical and met theoretical issues in more advanced courses with greater understanding of what the theories intend to do and to achieve, and with more chance of evaluating competing models realistically.

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER II

DISCUSSION

 

A. PHONOLOGY

Phonology  is the study of sound patterns,  where sound refers to the auditory effect of

articulations made by the vocal apparatus during speech,  and patterns, to abstract

structures that correlate to mind —they “attract our notice, they grab our attention,

they seem in varying degrees to somehow fit human processes of cognition, to be sense

making, to bear intelligibility” . As a core discipline of generative linguistics,

phonology is driven by the following assumption:

The overt aspects of language—the articulatory actions and the acoustic

signal they produce—cannot be properly understood without reference

to the covert aspect of language, that is, to the implicit knowledge

that enables individuals to speak and understand a language.

The modern view of phonology —as the study of an aspect of human cognition

rather than the study of an external, physical or social reality— originated during the

late 1950’s and early 1960’s with Morris Halle and Noam Chomsky who were hired at

the Massachusetts Institute of Technology amid concerns that the Russian KGB were

close to being able to use telepathy.  While phonology has never been used for telepathy

(by definition, it can’t!),  to be sure it now has many other applications outside linguistics.

For instance, it is of great consequence to language instructors andhas received attention among educators because of its importance to reading.

 

B. PHONETIC

1. Phonetics is the study of the articulation and acoustic properties of the sounds of human language.

2. Phonetics is the study of the sounds of language.  These sounds are called phonemes.Phonetic has three different aspect:

1. Articulatory phoneticsThe study of how speech sounds are produced by the human vocal apparatus.

2. Acoustic phoneticsThe study of the sound waves made by the human vocal organs for communication.

Auditory phoneticsThe study of how speech sounds are perceived by the ear, auditory nerve, and brain.

 

 

       a)  The Vocal Tract

 

Vocal tract is the airway used in the production of speech, especially the passage above the larynx, including the pharynx, mouth, and nasal cavities.

Ø  Alveolar Ridge

A short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle of the roof of the mouth. (In some people it’s quite abrupt, in others very slight.) This is the alveolar ridge. Sounds which involve the area between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars.

Ø  Hard Palate

The hard portion of the roof of the mouth. The term “palate” by itself usually refers to the hard palate.

Ø  Soft Palate / Velum

The soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hard palate. The tongue hits the velum in the sounds [k], [g], and [ng]. The velum can also move: if it lowers, it creates an opening that allows air to flow out through the nose; if it stays raised, the opening is blocked, and no air can flow through the nose.

Ø  Uvula

The small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate. The uvula vibrates during the [r] in many French dialects.

Ø  Pharynx

The cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upperthroat.

Ø  Tongue

The flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip.

Ø  Tongue Body / Dorsum

The main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate. The body, specifically the back part of the body (hence “dorsum”, Latin for “back”), moves to make vowels and many consonants.

Ø  Tongue Root

The lowest part of the tongue in the throat.

Ø  Epiglottis

The fold of tissue below the root of the tongue. The epiglottis helps cover the larynx during swallowing, making sure (usually!) that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs. A few languages use the epiglottis in making sounds. English is fortunately not one of them.

Ø  Vocal Folds / Vocal Cords

Folds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs. They can vibrate against each other, providing much of the sound during speech.

Ø  Glottis

The opening between the vocal cords. During a glottal stop, the vocal cords are held together and there is no opening between them.

Ø  Larynx

The structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords. The “Adam’s apple” in males is the bump formed by the front part of the larynx.

     b)  Voice and Voiceless

            Voice :  A simple explanation of voiced consonants is that they use the voice. This is easy

to test by putting your finger on your throat. If you feel a vibration the consonant is voiced. Here is a list of some voiced consonants. Pronounce each consonant sound (not the letter) and feelthe vibration of your vocal chords.

 

bdth (as in then)vlrzj (as in Jane)

Voiceless :  Voiceless consonants do not use the voice. They are percussive and use hard sounds. Once again, you can test if a consonant is voiceless by putting your finger on your throat. You will feel no vibration in your throat, just a short explosion of airas you pronounce. Pronounce each of these consonant sounds and feel NO vibration in your throat.

ptksshchth (as in thing)

 

a)      C) The Place  of Articulation

 

These are the abbreviated names for the places of articulation used in English:

1)      Bilabial

The articulators are the two lips. English bilabial sounds include [p], [b], and [m].

2)      Labio – dental

These sound are formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v].

3)      Dental

Dental sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth.

4)      Alveolar

These sounds are formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind the upper teeth. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s],[z], [l].

5)      Alveo palatals

Formed by  hard part in the root of mouth called palate. Sound whichis produced with the tongue at the in front of palate near alveolar ridge is called alveo palatal.

6)      Palatal

These sounds are formed with the tongue middle and the palate.

7)      Velars

The active articulator is the tongue body and the passive articulator is the soft palate or velum. Sounds produced with the back of tongue against the velum are called velars. English velars include [k], [g].

8)      Uvular

The sounds are produced from the tongue back and the uvula.

9)      Glottal

Glottal sounds are made in the larynx. There are two other sounds which are produce without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. English glottal include [ h]

 

b)      Manner of Articulation

      Consonants are sounds which involve full or partial blocking of airflow.  In English, the consonants are p, b, t, d, ch, j, k, g,f, v, th, dh, s, z, sh, zh, m, n, ng, l, r, w, and y.  They are classified in a number of different ways, depending on the vocal tract.

According the manner of articulation ( how breath is used) the consonants are:

1.         Stops, also known as plosives.  The air is blocked for a moment, then released. The word stop refers to stopping the air , the word plosives refers to the release the air.  In English, they are p, b, t, d, k, and g.

2.         Fricatives these are sounds produced by having the air rub against some surface in the mouth causing friction.  In English,these include f, v, th, dh, s, z, sh, zh, and h.

3.         Affricates are sounds that produced by made up of two parts a stop and fricative.  In English, we have ch (unvoiced) and j(voiced).  Many consider these as blends:  t-sh and d-zh.

4.         Nasals are sounds made with air passing through the nose.  In English, these are m, n, and ng.

5.         Laterals

These sounds are produced by having the air go out of the mouth fromboth besides of tongue. In English, these include [l].

6.         Vibrant

These are sounds produced by having the tongue vibrate in the mouth.

7.         Semivowels

      Semivowels are sounds that are, as half consonant and half vowel. In English, we    have w and y, which you can see are a lot like vowels such as oo and ee, but with the lips almost closed for w( bilabial) and the tongue almost touching the palate for y (a palatal). 

 

C. PHONEME

 

Phoneme is the contrastive sound unit in a language, it is contrastive because it distinguishes meanings when exchanged for other phonemes in language. It is also called smallest unit of the sound.

 

Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is description as a phoneme. When we considered the basis of alphabeticwriting, we were actually working with the concept of the phoneme asthe single sound type which came to be represented by a single symbol. It is in this sense that the phoneme /t/ is described as a sound type of which all the different spoken versions of [t] are tokens. Note that slash marks are conventionally used to indicate a phoneme, /t/ , an abstract segment, as opposed to the square brackets, [t], used for each phonetic, or physically produced, segment.

 

An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. We know that there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis contrast in meaning between the forms fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test determining the phonemes which exist in a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes.

 

The Kinds of Phoneme1.      Segmental

It is phonology that deals with the analysis of speech into phonemeswhich correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzed speech. Consist of consonant and vowel.

 

The Segmental Sounds of English consist of:

a)   The English Consonant

The English consonants are twenty-four in number. The word consonantis phonemic. Of courses the word consonant here does not refer to the consonant found in the English alphabet, but rather to the consonants as they sound orally. The example of consonants are:

/p/, /b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/,/θ, /ð/, /s/, /z/, / /, ∫/з/,/t /, /dз/, /h/, /m/, /n/, /η/,/l/, /r/, /w/, /j/.∫

 

b)   The English Consonant described

It is a list of the English consonant phonemes and their major allophones. The allophones are describes phonetically.

 

c)   Consonant Clusters

It is a combination of two or more consonant. Such clusters may occur in initial, medial, or final positions.

 

 

d)   The English Vowel

The English vowels are fourteen in number. In addition to these vowels, there are glides and diphthongs, which are really combinations vowels. The examples of vowels are: /i/, /i:/, /ei/,

/æ/, /ə/, /۸/, /з/, /a/, /u:/, /u/, /əu/, /α/, /כ/. 

e)   The English Vowel Described

It is a list of the English vowel phonemes. They are described phonetically, and their distribution is given with example: phoneme / e / , allophone [ e ] description mid open front

unrounded. It occurs only initially and medially. / end / [end] ‘end’ ; / send / [send] ‘send’.

 

f)    Length in English Consonants and Vowels

Means the time it takes to produce a sound. This does not mean the speed at which a person speaks. It means, rather, the relative length of time in which each separate sound is produced, as comparedwith a longer or shorter time in which the same sound or other sounds may be produced in the stream of speech.

 

2.      Supra – Segmental

It is a vocal effect that extends over more than one sound segment in an utterance, such as pitch, stress, or juncture, pattern. In supra-segmental consist of:

a)   Stress

It is the force of breath with which sounds are produced. This forceis relative; that is, the strength or weakness of the force is determined in relation to other forces of breath in the utterance orutterances of person. For example, in the word market, it is clear that the first syllable has stronger stress than second syllable. Four phonemic word stress levels :

·         Primary stress – symbol : /  /

·         Secondary stress – symbol : /  /

·         Tertiary stress – symbol : /  /

·         Weak stress – symbol : /  /

 

b)   Intonation

Means the changes in the pitch (or music) of the voice while producing speech. Every utterance is produced with some intonation and pitch. Pitch levels, like stress levels, are relative to each other.

 

c)   Pause

It is length of silence between parts of an utterance. In English, there are two pause phonemes. (Some linguistics believe that there are three pause phonemes). The two pause phonemes are a short one and a final one. bar The symbols used for these phonemes are a single bar for short pause and a double bar for the final pause.

d)   Juncture

It is really a very short pause; it is space in speech between sounds or word. In English, there is one juncture phoneme. The symbol for juncture phonemes is / + / ( a plus sign ).

 

e)   Rhythm

Means the beat of language. In English, rhythm is stress-timed. Thismeans that the time between two primary stresses is the same. If there are many word or syllable between the two primary stresses, then these syllable will be pronounced fast; this is why native speakers of English jam their syllables. If, on the other hand, there is only a small number of syllables between the primary stresses, then these syllables will be pronounced slowly and more clearly.

 

A.    Minimal Pairs and Sets

        When two words are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pairs.

For examples: fan – van, bet – bat, side –side.

When a group of words are differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position) is a minimal sets. A minimal sets based on the vowels and consonants.

For examples based on vowel: feat – fit, fat – fate, fought – foot.

For examples based on consonant: big – pig, rig – fig, dig – wig.

 

B.     Phones and Allophones

Phones is these phonetic units are technically that have difference in pronunciation.

For examples: seed and seen.

Allophones is these phonetic variants are technically, in English torealize single phoneme. For examples: [t], [th], and [d] are similarsound. They are similar because they are all alveolar stops. The only difference between them is that [t] is voiceless and unaspirated, [th] is voiceless and aspirated, and [d] is voiced.

 

C.     Relation to Phonology        In contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating such concern withother levels and aspects of language. Phonetics deals with the articulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they are produced, and how they are perceived.

Makalah Linguistik Tentang PhonologyPhonology is the study of how the sound are producedThe sound/phoneme: the smallest unit of sound, which distinguishesthe meaning- Big bag

Phoneme:1. Segmental Phoneme a. Simple b. Diphthong- Vowel a. fricative b. nasal c. stop d. literal e. blitzing- Consonant 2. Supra segmental Phoneme- Pitch- Stress- Intonation- Juncture

Organ of speech1. Lip2. Teeth3. Tongue

4. Palate5. Larynx6. Vocal cord

Fonetik : bagian dari general linguistics yang mempelajari prosesujaranBunyi ujaran (speech sound) dalam prakteknya selalu melibatkan tigaaspek:- Pengujar oleh sipenutur- Gelombang suara ujaran yang berlalu lewat udara- Penerimaan oleh pihak penerima

Alat-alat ujar, yaitu:1. Bibir (lips) : Menghasilkan bunyi /p/, /b/, /m/, /w/ memodifikasikualitas vowel /u:/, /I:/ bisa menghasilkan bunyi /f/, /v/ dalambahasa Inggris2. Gigi (the teeth) : bersama dengan ujung lidah menghasilkanbunyi /a/, / / /t/, /d/, /n/, /s/, /z/.3. The teeth ridge : selalau dipakaiberasama ujung lidah 4. Langit – langit keras palate /j/5. Langit – langit lembut /n/, /m/, /n/6. Anak tekak / uvula /r/ Blade, Front, back7. Lidah / tongul, terbagi 3 bagian: 8. Farinx9. Katup pangkal tenggorokan (epiglotik)10. LarinxSecara garis besarnya bunyi ujaran dihasilkan secara voiced atauvoiceless

Phonetic transcriptionAdalah notasi yang teridiri dari lambang-lambang yang langsungsecara konsisten menimbulkan bunyi fonem tertentuKlasifikasi bunyi ujaran1. Vowel: bunyi ujaran yang bersuara yang dalam pengujarannya tiadayang menghalangi, sebagian atau seluruhnya, lewatnya udara dariparu-paru2. Konsosnan bunyi ujaran bersuara atau tak bersuara yang dalampengujarannya terda[ay halangan untuk melewatinya udara dari paru-paru sebagai akibat dari penyempitannya jalan udara atau tertutupsama sekaliKlasifikasi VowelVowel memiliki 2 ciri terpenting:- Kualitas vowel : kualitas bunyinya yang ditentukan oleh bentukriang gema dalam mulut dan posisi bibit- Kuantitas vowel: lamanya waktu dari vowel tersebutBentuk dan ruang gema ditentukan oleh posisi lidah dan bibir. Lidahmembantu pembentukan ruang dalam 2 hal:A. Tingginya lidah diangkatB. Bagian lidah yang diangkatTingginya lidah diangkat terbagi, atas:- Close, half close, half open dan open

Bagian lidah yang diangkat- Front, the center, the backBerdasarkan tingginya lidah diangkat kita membedakan empat kelompokvowel, yaitu: dalam arti kulasinya lidah diangkat setinggi mungkin tanpa adanyabunyi friksiHalf close vowels Dalam arti kulasinya lidah mengambil posisi kira-kira 2/3 jarakclose ke openClose vowel dalam arti kulasinya lidah pada posisi 2/3 dHalf op[en vowels ariclose ke open dalam arti kuaslinya lidah ditempatkan serendah mungkinOpen vowelsKlasifikasi vowels menurut bagian lidah yang dianjurkan dalam arti kulasi bagian depan lidah diangkat ke langit-langitkeras1. Front vowels dalam arti kulasi bagian belakang di tinggikan ke langit-langitlembut2. Back vowels 3. Central vowelsBerdasarkan posisi bibir: bibir menyebar atau netral /i/, /e/1. Unrounded vowels bibir dibulatkan dan terbagi dua yaitu: open lip rounding /o/ danclose lip rounding seperti /u:/2. Rounded vowels Klasifikasi konsonanKonsonan diklasifikasi, menurut:1. Posisi pita suara (the position of the vocal cords)2. Tempat artikulasi (the place of articulation)3. Sikat artikulasinya (the manner of articulation)Melihat posisi selaput suara, konsonan digolongkan ke dalam selaput suara bergetar /b/ /d/ /g/ /z/1. Voiced consonant selaput suara tidak bergetar /t/ /f/ /s/ /k/2. Voicelled consonantBerdasarkan artikulasinya, konsonan digolongkan ke dalam: diartikulasikan dengan dua bibir /p/ /b/ /m/ /w/1. Billabia diartikulasikan dengan bibir bawah menyentuh gigi atas /v/ /f/2.Labio dental diartikulasikan dengan ujung lidah menyentuh gigi atas seperti padabunyi ujaran /a/ / /3. Dental ujung lidah menyentuh the teeth ridge /t/ /d/ /s/4. Alveolar ujung lidah menyentuh bagian bagian belakang the teeth ridge /r/5.Post alveolar daun lidah menyapu the teeth ridge /j/ /3/ tj/aj6. Palato alveolar bagian depan lidah menyentuh langit-langit keras /j/7. Palatal bagian belakang lidah menyentuh langit-langit lembut /k/ /g/8.Velar diartikulasikan dalam glottis9. Glottal

Berdasarkan sifat artikulasi ujaran kita bisa membagi konsonansecara teoritis ke dalam sejumlah kemungkinan yang bisa dilakukanmulut adalah diartikulasikan dengan saluran udara sama sekali tertutup laludibuka hingga menimbulkan bunyi letup atau eksolosif, /p/ /b/1.Plosives 2. Afficates3. Nasal

4. Lateral5. Fricatives6. Semi vowel

FONEMThe smallest unit of sounds that distinjuishes meaning konsonan, vokal- Segment phoneme pitch, stress, intonation, juncture- Supra segmental phoneme Tingkatan stress1. Primary stress : stress yang paling kuat /’/2. Secondary stress : lebih lemah dari primary stess tapi lebih kuatdari tertiary stess /^/3. Tertiary stress : lebih lemah dari secondary stress /’/4. Weak stress / minimal stress /v/ derajat yang paling lemah darisemua stressIntonasi- Raising intonation- Falling intonation

Phonology

CHAPTER IBACKGROUND

This paper is arranged to introductory on English phonology of thesort taught in the first year of The English Language. The studentson such courses can struggle with phonetics and phonology ; it issometimes difficult to see past the new symbols and terminology, andthe apparent assumption that we can immediately become consciouslyaware of movements of the vocal organs which we have been makingalmost automatically for the last eighteen or more years. This paperattempts to show us why we need to know about phonetics andphonology, if we are interested in language and our knowledge of it,as well as introducing the main units and concepts we require todescribe speech sounds accurately.When it’s arranged to presenting the details of phonology, I havealso chosen to use verbal descriptions rather than diagrams andpictures in most cases. The reason for this is we need to learn touse our own intuitions, and this is helped by encouraging us tointrospect and think about our own vocal organs, rather than seeing

disembodied pictures of structures which don’t seem to belong tothem at all.Our hope is that a through grounding in the basics will help usapproach more abstract theoretical and met theoretical issues inmore advanced courses with greater understanding of what thetheories intend to do and to achieve, and with more chance ofevaluating competing models realistically.

CHAPTER IIDISCUSSION

1. PHONOLOGYPhonology  is the study of sound patterns,  where sound refers to

the auditory effect of articulations made by the vocal apparatusduring speech,  and patterns, to abstract structures that correlateto mind —they “attract our notice, they grab our attention, theyseem in varying degrees to somehow fit human processes of cognition,to be sense making, to bear intelligibility” . As a core disciplineof generative linguistics, phonology is driven by the followingassumption: The overt aspects of language—the articulatory actionsand the acoustic signal they produce—cannot be properly understoodwithout reference to the covert aspect of language, that is, to theimplicit knowledge that enables individuals to speak and understanda language. The modern view of phonology —as the study of an aspectof human cognition rather than the study of an external, physical orsocial reality— originated during the late 1950’s and early 1960’swith Morris Halle and Noam Chomsky who were hired at theMassachusetts Institute of Technology amid concerns that the RussianKGB were close to being able to use telepathy.  While phonology hasnever been used for telepathy (by definition, it can’t!),  to besure it now has many other applications outside linguistics. Forinstance, it is of great consequence to language instructors and hasreceived attention among educators because of its importance toreading.

2. PHONETICa)      Phonetics is the study of the articulation and acoustic

properties of the sounds of human language.b)      Phonetics is the study of the sounds of language.  These

sounds are called phonemes.Phonetic has three different aspect:

i)        Articulatory phoneticsThe study of how speech sounds are produced by the human vocalapparatus.

ii)      Acoustic phoneticsThe study of the sound waves made by the human vocal organs forcommunication.

iii)    Auditory phoneticsThe study of how speech sounds are perceived by the ear, auditorynerve, and brain.

(1)   The Vocal TractVocal tract is the airway used in the production of speech,especially the passage above the larynx, including the pharynx,mouth, and nasal cavities.

      Alveolar RidgeA short distance behind the upper teeth is a change in the angle ofthe roof of the mouth. (In some people it’s quite abrupt, in othersvery slight.) This is the alveolar ridge. Sounds which involve thearea between the upper teeth and this ridge are called alveolars.

      Hard PalateThe hard portion of the roof of the mouth. The term “palate” byitself usually refers to the hard palate.

      Soft Palate / VelumThe soft portion of the roof of the mouth, lying behind the hardpalate. The tongue hits the velum in the sounds [k], [g], and [ng].The velum can also move: if it lowers, it creates an opening thatallows air to flow out through the nose; if it stays raised, theopening is blocked, and no air can flow through the nose.

      UvulaThe small, dangly thing at the back of the soft palate. The uvulavibrates during the [r] in many French dialects.

      PharynxThe cavity between the root of the tongue and the walls of the upperthroat.

      TongueThe flat surface of the tongue just behind the tip.

      Tongue Body / DorsumThe main part of the tongue, lying below the hard and soft palate.The body, specifically the back part of the body (hence “dorsum”,Latin for “back”), moves to make vowels and many consonants.

      Tongue RootThe lowest part of the tongue in the throat.

      EpiglottisThe fold of tissue below the root of the tongue. The epiglottishelps cover the larynx during swallowing, making sure (usually!)that food goes into the stomach and not the lungs. A few languagesuse the epiglottis in making sounds. English is fortunately not oneof them.

      Vocal Folds / Vocal CordsFolds of tissue stretched across the airway to the lungs. They canvibrate against each other, providing much of the sound duringspeech.

      GlottisThe opening between the vocal cords. During a glottal stop, thevocal cords are held together and there is no opening between them.

      LarynxThe structure that holds and manipulates the vocal cords. The“Adam’s apple” in males is the bump formed by the front part of thelarynx.

(2)   Voice and Voiceless      Voice :  A simple explanation of voiced consonants is that they

use the voice. This is easy to test by putting your finger on your

throat. If you feel a vibration the consonant is voiced. Here is alist of some voiced consonants. Pronounce each consonant sound (notthe letter) and feel the vibration of your vocal chords.bdth (as in then)vlrzj (as in Jane)

      Voiceless :  Voiceless consonants do not use the voice. Theyare percussive and use hard sounds. Once again, you can test if aconsonant is voiceless by putting your finger on your throat. Youwill feel no vibration in your throat, just a short explosion of airas you pronounce. Pronounce each of these consonant sounds and feelNO vibration in your throat.ptksshchth (as in thing)

(3)   The Place  of ArticulationThese are the abbreviated names for the places of articulation usedin English:

      BilabialThe articulators are the two lips. English bilabial sounds include[p], [b], and [m].

      Labio – dentalThese sound are formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip.English labio-dental sounds include [f] and [v].

      DentalDental sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper frontteeth.

      AlveolarThese sounds are formed with the front part of the tongue on thealveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behindthe upper teeth. English alveolar sounds include [t], [d], [n], [s],[z], [l].

      Alveo palatalsFormed by  hard part in the root of mouth called palate. Sound whichis produced with the tongue at the in front of palate near alveolarridge is called alveo palatal.

      PalatalThese sounds are formed with the tongue middle and the palate.

      VelarsThe active articulator is the tongue body and the passivearticulator is the soft palate or velum. Sounds produced with the

back of tongue against the velum are called velars. English velarsinclude [k], [g].

      UvularThe sounds are produced from the tongue back and the uvula.

      GlottalGlottal sounds are made in the larynx. There are two other soundswhich are produce without the active use of the tongue and otherparts of the mouth. English glottal include [ h]

(4)   Manner of ArticulationConsonants are sounds which involve full or partial blocking ofairflow.  In English, the consonants are p, b, t, d, ch, j, k, g, f,v, th, dh, s, z, sh, zh, m, n, ng, l, r, w, and y.  They areclassified in a number of different ways, depending on the vocaltract. According the manner of articulation ( how breath is used)the consonants are:

      StopsStops  also known as plosives.  The air is blocked for a moment,then released. The word stop refers to stopping the air , the wordplosives refers to the release the air.  In English, they are p, b,t, d, k, and g.

      FricativesFricatives,these are sounds produced by having the air rub againstsome surface in the mouth causing friction.  In English, theseinclude f, v, th, dh, s, z, sh, zh, and h.

      AffricatesAffricates are sounds that produced by made up of two parts a stopand fricative.  In English, we have ch (unvoiced) and j (voiced). Many consider these as blends:  t-sh and d-zh.

      NasalsNasals are sounds made with air passing through the nose.  InEnglish, these are m, n, and ng.

      LateralsThese sounds are produced by having the air go out of the mouth fromboth besides of tongue. In English, these include.

      VibrantThese are sounds produced by having the tongue vibrate in the mouth.

       Semivowels Semivowels are sounds that are, as half consonant and half vowel.In English, we    have w and y, which you can see are a lot likevowels such as oo and ee, but with the lips almost closed for w( bilabial) and the tongue almost touching the palate for y (apalatal). 

3. PHONEMEPhoneme is the contrastive sound unit in a language, it is

contrastive because it distinguishes meanings when exchanged forother phonemes in language. It is also called smallest unit of thesound.

Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a languageis description as a phoneme. When we considered the basis ofalphabetic writing, we were actually working with the concept of thephoneme as the single sound type which came to be represented by asingle symbol. It is in this sense that the phoneme /t/ is described

as a sound type of which all the different spoken versions of [t]are tokens. Note that slash marks are conventionally used toindicate a phoneme, /t/ , an abstract segment, as opposed to thesquare brackets, [t], used for each phonetic, or physicallyproduced, segment.

An essential property of a phoneme is that it functionscontrastively. We know that there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ inEnglish because they are the only basis contrast in meaning betweenthe forms fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive propertyis the basic operational test determining the phonemes which existin a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word andthere is a change of meaning, then the two sounds representdifferent phonemes.

The Kinds of Phoneme  Segmental

It is phonology that deals with the analysis of speech into phonemeswhich correspond fairly well to phonetic segments of the analyzedspeech. Consist of consonant and vowel.The Segmental Sounds ofEnglish consist of:

      The English ConsonantThe English consonants are twenty-four in number. The word consonantis phonemic. Of courses the word consonant here does not refer tothe consonant found in the English alphabet, but rather to theconsonants as they sound orally. The example of consonants are: /p/,/b/, /t/, /d/, /k/, /g/, /f/, /v/,/θ, /ð/, /s/, /z/, / /,∫/з/,/t /, /dз/, /h/, /m/, /n/, /η/,/l/, /r/, /w/, /j/.∫

      The English Consonant describedIt is a list of the English consonant phonemes and their majorallophones. The allophones are describes phonetically.

      Consonant ClustersIt is a combination of two or more consonant. Such clusters mayoccur in initial, medial, or final positions.

      The English VowelThe English vowels are fourteen in number. In addition to thesevowels, there are glides and diphthongs, which are reallycombinations vowels. The examples of vowels are: /i/, /i:/, /ei/,

/æ/, /ə/, /۸/, /з/, /a/, /u:/, /u/, /əu/, /α/, /כ/.      The English Vowel Described

It is a list of the English vowel phonemes. They are describedphonetically, and their distribution is given with example:phoneme / e / , allophone [ e ] description mid open frontunrounded. It occurs only initially and medially. / end / [end]‘end’ ; / send / [send] ‘send’.

      Length in English Consonants and VowelsMeans the time it takes to produce a sound. This does not mean thespeed at which a person speaks. It means, rather, the relativelength of time in which each separate sound is produced, as comparedwith a longer or shorter time in which the same sound or othersounds may be produced in the stream of speech.

  Supra – Segmental

It is a vocal effect that extends over more than one sound segmentin an utterance, such as pitch, stress, or juncture, pattern. Insupra-segmental consist of:

      StressIt is the force of breath with which sounds are produced. This forceis relative; that is, the strength or weakness of the force isdetermined in relation to other forces of breath in the utterance orutterances of person. For example, in the word market, it is clearthat the first syllable has stronger stress than second syllable.Four phonemic word stress levels :Primary stress – symbol : /  /Secondary stress – symbol : /  /Tertiary stress – symbol : /  /Weak stress – symbol : /  /

      IntonationMeans the changes in the pitch (or music) of the voice whileproducing speech. Every utterance is produced with some intonationand pitch. Pitch levels, like stress levels, are relative to eachother.

      PauseIt is length of silence between parts of an utterance. In English,there are two pause phonemes. (Some linguistics believe that thereare three pause phonemes). The two pause phonemes are a short oneand a final one. bar The symbols used for these phonemes are asingle bar for short pause and a double bar for the final pause.

      JunctureIt is really a very short pause; it is space in speech betweensounds or word. In English, there is one juncture phoneme. Thesymbol for juncture phonemes is / + / ( a plus sign ).

      RhythmMeans the beat of language. In English, rhythm is stress-timed. Thismeans that the time between two primary stresses is the same. Ifthere are many word or syllable between the two primary stresses,then these syllable will be pronounced fast; this is why nativespeakers of English jam their syllables. If, on the other hand,there is only a small number of syllables between the primarystresses, then these syllables will be pronounced slowly and moreclearly.

Minimal Pairs and SetsWhen two words are identical in form except for a contrast in

one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words aredescribed as a minimal pairs.For examples: fan – van, bet – bat, side –side.

When a group of words are differentiated, each one from theothers, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position) isa minimal sets. A minimal sets based on the vowels and consonants.

For examples based on vowel: feat – fit, fat – fate, fought – foot.For examples based on consonant: big – pig, rig – fig, dig – wig.Phones and AllophonesPhones is these phonetic units are technically that have

difference in pronunciation. For examples: seed andseen.

Allophones is these phonetic variants are technically, inEnglish to realize single phoneme. For examples: [t], [th], and [d]are similar sound. They are similar because they are all alveolarstops. The only difference between them is that [t] is voiceless andunaspirated, [th] is voiceless and aspirated, and [d] is voiced.

Relation to PhonologyIn contrast to phonetics, phonology is the study of how sounds

and gestures pattern in and across languages, relating such concernwith other levels and aspects of language. Phonetics deals with thearticulatory and acoustic properties of speech sounds, how they areproduced, and how they are perceived.

Phonology “Place and Manner of Articulation” 

CHAPTER IIntroducing

 

1. A.   DefinitionsA. Place of articulation , an active articulator (typically some part

of the tongue), and a passive location (typically some partof the roof of the mouth). Along with the manner of articulation and the phonation, this gives the consonant its distinctive sound.

B. Manner of articulation , how speech organs involved in making a sound make contact.

 

1. Articulation  is the way of saying things more clearly. If someone said “your articulation isn’t good enough. Articulate your wordsmore clearly” means that u need to say the words more precise soit can be more understood and you’re not eating your words, likeyou have something on your mouth while talking.

 

1. B.   General HypotesisAny speech sound characterized by an articulation in which a closureor narrowing of the vocal tract completely or partially blocks the flow of air; also, any letter or symbol representing such a sound. Consonants are usually classified according to the place of articulation (e.g., palate, teeth, lips); the manner of articulation, as in stops (complete closure of the oral passage, released with a burst of air), fricatives (forcing of breath througha constricted passage), and trills (vibration of the tip of the

tongue or the uvula); and the presence or absence of voicing, nasalization, aspiration, and other features.

 

CHAPTER IIDiscussion

 

1. A.   Place of ArticulationWhen we produce and describe consonants, we use vocal track that contains some discrete physical landmarks. In describing the place of articulation, we are describing where in the vocal tract a sound is made.

Articulators are the parts of the oral tract that are used in producing speech sounds. There are two kinds of Articulations, active and passive articulation. Active articulators are ones that move: the tongue tip is an active articulator in sounds like [s t n], since it moves up to behind the teeth. Passive articulators are articulators that cannot move, but are the target for active articulators. In the case of sounds like [s t n], the passive articulator is the bony ridge behind the upper teeth, known as the alveolar ridge.

Most places of articulation are described by reference to the passive articulator. We start our description of them with the lips,working our way down the vocal tract.

Below we will discuss exactly where and how sound is formed.

1. 1.      BilabialBilabial sounds are sounds produced by both lips. ‘Bi-’ means ‘two’,and ‘labial’ is an adjective based on the Latin word for ‘lips’. In English, the sounds [p b m] are bilabial. If you say [apa aba ama] and look in the mirror, you will see that they look identical. If you say the sounds silently to yourself and concentrate on your lips, you will feel that the two lips touch one another for a short period, and the action is basically the same for all three sounds.

1. 2.      LibiodentalLabiodental sounds are made with the upper teeth (‘dental’) against the lower lip (‘labio’). In English  the labiodental sounds [f v] occur. Logically speaking, labiodental sounds could involve the lower teeth and the upper lip, but this is difficult for most peopleto do: it involves protruding the jaw, and most people have upper teeth that sit in front of the lower teeth. Labiodental sounds can be made with the teeth against either the inside surface of the lip (endolabial) or the outside edge of the lip (exolabial).

1. 3.      DentalDental sounds involve an articulation made against the back of the upper 12 teeth. [θ d] in English (as in the initial sounds of ‘think’ and ‘then’) are often dental; they can also be interdental, that is, produced with the tongue between (‘inter’ in Latin) the teeth, especially in North America. Dental forms of [l] and [n] are used in words like ‘health’ and ‘tenth’, where they are followed by a dental; and dental forms of [t] and [d] are regularly used in manyvarieties of English (e.g. some forms of Irish or New York English, and in Nigeria) as forms of [θ d].

1. 4.      AlveolarAlveolar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tipof the tongue towards the alveolar ridge, the ridge of cartilage behind the teeth. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], .

1. 5.      PostalveolarPostalveolar consonants (sometimes spelled post-alveolar) are consonants articulated with the tongue near or touching the back of the alveolar ridge, further back in the mouth than the alveolar consonants, which are at the ridge itself, but not as far back as the hard palate (the place of articulation for palatal consonants). Examples of postalveolar consonants are the English palato-alveolar consonants [ʃ] [tʃ] [ʒ] [dʒ], as in the words “shill”, “‘chill”, “vision”, and “Jill”, respectively.

There are a large number of types of postalveolar sounds, especiallyamong the sibilants. The three primary types are palato-alveolar (e.g. [ʃ ʒ], weakly palatalized); alveolo-palatal (e.g. [ɕ ʑ], strongly palatalized); and retroflex (e.g. [ʂ ʐ], unpalatalized). The palato-alveolar and alveolo-palatal subtypes are commonly counted as “palatals” in phonology, since they rarely contrast with true palatal consonants.

1. 6.      RetroflexRetroflex consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consonants, especially in Indology. Other terms occasionally encountered are domal and cacuminal.

In the International Phonetic Alphabet, retroflex consonants are indicated with a hook in the bottom right, such as [ʂ ʐ ʈ ɖ ɳ ɭ ɽ ɻ]. Alternatively, especially for those sounds with a relatively forward articulation (e.g. in the alveolar or postalveolar region rather than the hard palate), they can be indicated with a retracteddiacritic (underbar); this occurs especially for [s̱ ẕ]. (Other sounds indicated this way, such as [ṉ ḻ ḏ], tend to refer to alveolo-palatal rather than retroflex consonants.)

1. 7.      CoronalCoronal consonants are consonants articulated with the flexible front part of the tongue. Only the coronal consonants can be dividedinto apical (using the tip of the tongue), laminal (using the blade of the tongue), domed (with the tongue bunched up), or subapical (using the underside of the tongue), as well as a few rarer orientations, because only the front of the tongue has such dexterity. Coronals have another dimension, grooved, that is used tomake sibilants in combination with the orientations above. In Arabicand Maltese philology, the sun letters transcribe coronal consonants.

In Australian languages, coronals contrast with peripheral consonants.

1. 8.      PalatalPalatal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the bodyof the tongue towards the hard palate. An example of such a sound inEnglish is [j].

1. 9.      VelarVelar sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the body of the tongue towards the velum. Examples of such sounds in English are the following: [k], [g], .

1. 10.  UvularUvular sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the back of the tongue towards the uvula. Uvular sounds do not exist in English, but the French “r” is pronounced by the uvular sounds  and .

1. 11.  PharyngealPharyngeal sounds are those sounds made by the articulation of the tongue root towards the back of the pharynx. Pharyngeal sounds do not exist in Standard American English, but are found in languages such as Arabic and Hebrew.

1. 12.  GlottalGlottal sounds are those sounds made at the glottis. Examples of glottal sounds in English are the following: , .

 B.   Manner of Articulation

As well as knowing where a sound is made, we need to know how it is made. Consonants involve at least two articulators. When the articu – lators are brought closer together, the flow of air between them changes: for instance, it can be stopped or made turbulent. The channels between any two articulators govern the pressure and flow of air through the vocal tract, and in turn this affects the kinds of sound that come out. The way a sound is made (rather than where

it is made) is called manner of articulation. Most manners of articulation are combinable with most places of articulation.

 1.      Stop articulations

Stop articulations are those sounds where a complete closure is madein the oral tract between two articulators; this stops the air moving out of the oral tract. Stop articulations include a whole range of sound types, which vary according to the kind of airflow (oral vs. nasal) and whether the closure can be maintained for a long time or not.

Plosives are made with a complete closure in the oral tract, and with the velum raised, which prevents air escaping through the nose. English Plosives include the sounds [p t k b d _]. Plosives are ‘maintainable’ stops because they can be held for a long time, and the closure portion arises from a deliberate articulation. The term ‘plosive’ relates to the way the stop is released – with what is sometimes called an ‘explosion’. We look at the release of plosives in more detail in Chapter 7. It is worth pointing out that many phoneticians use the word ‘stop’ to mean ‘plosive’. We are using theword ‘stop’ in Catford’s (2001) sense.

Nasals are made with a complete closure in the oral tract, but with the velum lowered so that air escapes through the nose. For English there are three main nasal sounds, [m n ŋ], bilabial, alveolar and velar respectively. Nasals are usually voiced in English. The other kinds of stopped articulations are trills and taps. In these sounds,a closure is made only for a very short time, and the closure arisesbecause of aerodynamics or the movement of articulators from one position to another.

Trills are rare in English, but they are one form of ‘rolled r’: they involve the tongue tip striking the alveolar ridge repeatedly (usually three to four times). They have a very restricted occurrence in English, primarily among a very particular kind of theatrical performer, though they are often thought of as typically Scottish

Taps on the other hand are quite common in English. These consist ofjust one short percussive movement of the tongue tip against the alveolar ridge. They occur in many varieties of English, but are especially well known as kinds of [t] or [d] sound in many North American varieties in words like ‘bu[ɾ]er’, ‘wri[ɾ]er’, ‘a[ɾ]om’.

 2.      Fricative articulations

Fricative articulations are the result of two articulators being in close approximation with each other. This is a degree of stricture whereby the articulators are held close enough together for air to pass between them, but because the gap between them is small, the

airflow becomes turbulent and reates friction noise. (In lay terms, we might talk about a ‘hissing’ sound.) Fricatives in English include [f v θ d s z ʃ _], the sounds represented orthographically by the underlined portion: fish, vow, think, then, loose, lose, wish, vision. Notice that there are not very consistent representations particularly for the sounds [ʃ _] in English spelling.

Fricative articulations can be held for as long as there is sufficient air to expel. The amount of friction generated depends onthe amount of air being forced through the stricture and on the degree of stricture. If you produce a [s] sound and then push more air out, you will notice an increase in the loudness (intensity) of the friction. If you do this and at the same time make the tongue tenser, the intensity of the friction will increase and the frictionwill sound ‘sharper’. On the other hand, if you relax the articulators in producing a [s] sound, you will notice that the friction gets quieter and that it changes quality, becoming ‘flatter’.

Affricates are plosives which are released into fricatives. English has two of these: [tʃ d_], both postalveolar, as in ‘church’ and ‘judge’.

The sounds [h _] as in ‘heart’ and ‘ahead’ are voiceless and voiced glottal fricatives respectively. These sounds are produced with friction at the glottis.

Tongue shape plays a determining role in the overall sound of fricatives.

 3.      Resonant articulations

If articulators are held so as not to generate friction, but to allow air to pass between them smoothly, then we get articulations known as resonant. The degree of stricture is known as open approximation, and consonant sounds generated this way are called approximants. Vowels are another kind of resonant articulation.

Approximants in English include the sounds [j w l r]. (Note: [j] stands for the sound usually written <y> in English, as in ‘yes’. The phonetic symbol [y] stands for a vowel.) [j w] are often called glides, because they are closely related in phonetic terms to the vowels [i] and [u], and can be thought of as non-syllabic versions of these vowels. [l r] are often called liquids, and they have certain similarities in the places where they occur in consonant clusters. We will use the symbol [r] for now to represent any kind of [r]-sound, though for the majority of English varieties, a more accurate symbol would be [ɹ].

The English approximants [w j r] are central and [l] is lateral. Approximants are among the phonetically most complex of sounds in English because they typically involve more than one articulation.

 

 

 

CHAPTER III

Closing A.   Conclusion

Consonants possess relatively less overall energy than vowels and need not have a clear formant structure. In terms of articulation, they are characterized by the presence of a noise-producing obstruction in the epiglottal cavities of the speech organs; they are produced in a precisely determined manner and have a strictly fixed point of articulation. In addition to the noise source, a tonal sound source—the larynx—may also participate in the articulation of consonants; in the larynx, the “voice” feature is created by periodic vibrations of the vocal cords. Depending on whether only the first source or both sources are present during thearticulation of a consonant, a distinction is made between voicelessconsonants, such as the Russian p, t, s, and x, and voiced consonants, such as the Russian b, d, z, l, and n. The voiced consonants include a group of resonant consonants (sonants), such asl, r, m, n, and j, which are distinguished from the obstruents, bothvoiced and voiceless, by the presence of a clear formant structure. The clear formant structure makes sonants similar to vowels, although sonants are characterized by less overall energy. Sonants include the nasal consonants. During the articulation of nasals, thesoft palate is lowered, thus causing the nasal cavity to act as a resonator.

 

REFERENCES

Ogden, Richard. 2009. An Introduction to English Phonetics. 22 George Square: Edinburgh University PressMcMahon, April. 2002. An Introduction to English Phonology. 22 George Square: Edinburgh University Press Coleman, John, 2001, The vocal tract and larynx, Available from   http://www.phon.ox.ac.uk/~jcoleman/phonation.htm