Architectural Education as a Basis for Planning Work — The Pros and Cons of Professional Enculturation

Journal for Education in the Built Environment, Vol. 5, Issue 2, December 2010 pp. 25-38 (14)

ISSN: 1747-4205 (Online)

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Copyright © 2010 CEBE

Architectural Education as a Basis for Planning Work – The Pros and Cons of Professional Enculturation

Jonna Kangasoja, Mikko Mälkki, Sari Puustinen, Jukka Hirvonen & Raine Mäntysalo: Aalto University, Finland

Abstract

Planning education does not exist as an independent professional education in Finland. The

educational background of the majority of practising urban planners (approximately 50-60%)

is architectural education. Because of this national particularity, this paper concentrates on

architect-planners as a professional group, and presents findings from a national survey the

authors conducted in Finland in January 2009. The key question in this paper is how Finnish

architectural education prepares urban planning professionals for their work, and how

architect-planners perceive the strengths and weaknesses of architectural education with

respect to the competence demands they face. The conclusions of the study point to certain

inner contradictions inside the architectural profession. Architectural education passes on a

somewhat narrow conception of art which translates into an emphasis on individual creativity,

questioning and problem solving skills. Striving for excellence in the art of architecture,

perceived in this way, seems to work against developing the students’ skills in negotiation,

conflict management, interdisciplinary teamwork and leadership, all of which are

indispensable for practising architects. Resolution to the contradiction is sought from the

work of Dana Cuff (1991) and Kristina Nilsson (2003), who associate artistry with the social

ability to manage complex problems creatively and reflexively, in cooperation with other

professionals and actors from other fields. Such a redefinition of art and artistry in

architectural education might help settle the tensions the authors have identified in the

survey analysis.

Keywords: Planning Profession, Architect-planners, Architectural Education, Competence Demands, Professional Identity

J. Kangasoja, M. Mälkki, S. Puustinen, J. Hirvonen & R. Mäntysalo: Architectural Education as a Basis for Planning Work – The Pros and Cons of Professional Enculturation

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Journal for Education in the Built Environment, Vol. 5, Issue 2, December 2010 Copyright © 2010 CEBE

Introduction

Almost two decades ago, Rachelle Alterman (1992) compared planning education and

professional practice on the two sides of the Atlantic. Her study was preceded, and perhaps

also partly motivated by the world’s first large scale meeting of planning educators in the

AESOP-ACSP Congress, which was held in July 1991 in Oxford, UK (1992, p.39). Alterman

proposed a cross-national research agenda in order to develop a systematic body of

knowledge about the contexts in which planning practice and planning education occur. Such

an understanding would enhance mutual learning and exchange between planning educators

and scholars, and strengthen the planning enterprise worldwide (Alterman, 1992, p.52). Her

findings were very clear that there was, and still is, a great deal of variation among the

different countries. Planning education as a distinct professional training is a long-standing,

well-established tradition only in the Anglo-Saxon world, whereas in most of continental

Europe, specialised professional planning education was – at the time, and in Finland still is

– non-existent (Alterman, 1992, p.40).

The differences in the national paths of development and degree of professionalisation are

linked to the professional milieu in a given country. Alterman approaches the professional

milieu from five complementary points of view: first, the saliency of professional association;

second, the competition or interface with related professions (most notably with architecture,

surveying, geography, economists, policy analysis); third, the degree of ‘planning-

mindedness’ of the competing professions; fourth, the range of jobs held by graduates from

planning schools; and fifth, the market share of substantively-planning jobs held by persons

trained as planners. The last one she takes to be a good indicator of the market recognition

of the profession and the potential impact that planning as a profession can have on public

action (Alterman, 1992, pp.44-49).

By focusing on the case of Finland, this paper contributes to the growing body of knowledge

on national particularities in the professional milieu of planning. In Finland, the majority of

practising planners have their educational background in architecture. Hence, the authors

wish to look more closely at the relationship between architectural education and the

competence demands faced by Finnish planning practitioners. The first part of the paper

presents a brief overview of Finnish planners as a professional group. The second part of the

paper presents key findings from a national survey conducted in 2009, and focuses on

architect-planners occupied with what in Finland is called ‘urban planning’ meaning spatial

planning or land use planning, at either a local or regional level, or both. The third part of the

paper discusses the positive and negative sides of professional enculturation taking place in

architectural education. By emphasising certain skills and by omitting others, such education

provides students with a tension-laden professional identity. In the fourth section the need to

expand the social dimension in architectural education is discussed and the internal

contradictions in the architectural profession are identified as problems affecting practitioners

working both as planners and building designers. The concluding section provides a

discussion on the problematic conception of art, which lies at the heart of the architectural

profession, and points to a redefinition of art and artistry in architecture.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249693964_A_Transatlantic_View_of_Planning_Education_and_Professional_Practice?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-dfd1737f-94eb-43c8-a6a2-8778ad85beb8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTYwNjI0NTtBUzoxNDE1OTIxNDQ5MTIzODZAMTQxMDc2OTYwNjU2OQ==




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Planners as a Professional Group in Finland

The most important legislation controlling land use, spatial planning and construction in

Finland is the Land Use and Building Act from 1999. In the Land Use and Building Decree

(895/1999, Chapter 1, section 3) planners’ qualifications are defined as follows: ‘A person

drawing up a plan must have a university degree appropriate for the task and the experience

that is called for by the difficulty of the task’. As noted earlier, a specialised professional

planning education does not exist in Finland to this day. In this regard, the planning

profession does not have a very high degree of professionalisation, since a recognisable and

coherent education is considered to be one of the most significant characteristics of the

traditional professions (medicine, law, clergy) (Hodson and Sullivan, 1990, p.258; Freidson,

1994, p.154).

Educational background of planners

In Finland, most practising planners have been trained at the departments of architecture

(50–60%), or surveying (30%). In addition, about 10-20% of planners have an educational

background in geography or a secondary level designer education (construction architects or

construction engineers). Since the 1960s the number of social scientists has increased in the

field. Social scientist-planners do not usually work as qualified urban planners (drawing up

plans), but rather tend to be occupied with supporting activities, such as making surveys,

reports and impact assessments. There are also administrative lawyers in different positions

(Lapintie and Puustinen, 2002; Puustinen and Hirvonen, 2005; Puustinen, 2006).

Professional organisation of planners

There is no single professional association uniting the urban planning profession. A Finnish

planner can belong to several unions and associations, corresponding to his or her

educational background; the largest and most prestigious is the Finnish Association of

Architects. In all of these professional associations there are also other professionals, and

planners are a minority. However, in 2000 a voluntary, professional register for qualified

planners was established jointly by the Finnish Association of Architects, the Finnish

Association of Landscape Architects, the Association of Finnish Construction Engineers and

Architects and the Association of Finnish Land Use Planners. The main reason for

establishing the new register was an aspiration to demarcate more sharply the Finnish

planning profession, but there was also a strong inclination to raise the status of the

profession (Puustinen, 2006).

Where do Finnish planners work?

The majority of qualified urban planners work as public officials in cities and municipalities.

There are also planners employed in the thirteen regional environment centres. These are

governmental agencies which supervise, coordinate and negotiate in the fields of land use,

building and environmental issues. In addition, there are planners working for private

planning offices, regional councils, certain governmental institutions and for the Ministry of

the Environment.


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There are approximately 800 qualified planners who form the planning profession in Finland

(Puustinen, 2006). Of these planners, roughly:

600 work for the cities and municipalities

50-60 work for the regional councils

90 work as a private consultants

50 work for regional environment centres and

15-20 work for the Ministry of the Environment.

The changing context of planning work

The major restructuring of the public sector which has taken place during the past two

decades has a direct impact on Finnish planners, since a great majority of them work in the

municipal planning offices. Within Nordic local governments, architects have traditionally

occupied central positions in the urban planning offices. This is still the case in Finland. The

local governance systems in the Nordic countries have been gradually changed to reflect the

principles of new public management (NPM), a process which has been described as a shift

from bureaucratic to managerial governance (see for example Healey, 2007).

With the purpose of increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of local public service

provision, the rationales of the market mechanism and private management have been

adopted. New governance instruments have been introduced, such as the outsourcing of

service provision, applications of the purchaser-provider model, competitive bidding,

simulated markets within the public sector, establishment of publicly owned companies, and

the formation of various partnerships and coalitions between the public and private sector

(for a Finnish study see Kangasoja, 2010).

Urban planning in the Nordic countries has become increasingly implementation-oriented,

with decreased attention to the political legitimacy of the planning process itself. The purpose

of planning has been understood as provision of planning services for the enterprise and

citizen clients, rather than democratic conduct and embodiment of the public realm

(Mäntysalo and Saglie, 2009; Nilsson, 2003; Puustinen, 2006; Sager, 2009a, 2009b).

Survey on the Competence Demands and Education of Finnish Architects

In January 2009, the authors conducted a national survey on the work, competence

demands and education of Finnish architects (Hirvonen et al., 2009). A web-based

questionnaire was sent to all those members of the Finnish Association of Architects who

had an email address (approximately 2,900). Five percent of the emails did not reach their

recipients, meaning that 2,700 messages reached the respondents. With 726 replies the

response rate was at 27%.

The aim of the survey was to get a detailed understanding of the working situation of the

professionals focusing on current demands on competences, skills and know-how and to

relate that to the respondents’ assessment of their professional education.


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For the purposes of the analysis presented in this paper, a group of ‘architect-planners’ was

disaggregated from the group of all respondents for closer examination. This was done by

selecting those respondents who indicated that in their current work they were substantially

occupied with city planning and urban design or ‘regional planning’, which signifies spatial

planning on a larger scale. Regional planning often involves a strong element of strategic

planning. This group included 192 persons, which was about 25% of all of the respondents.

The general profile (gender and age) of the architect-planners was very similar to the entire

group of respondents; 43% of the architect-planners were women. All age-groups were fairly

evenly represented among the respondents.

Figure 1 Frequency of various tasks in current work of architect-planners

Figure 1 shows how much various tasks occupy the architect-planners’ time. Besides tasks

related to city planning and urban design, and regional planning, the architect-planners were

most commonly occupied with producing information (collecting background information,

surveys, assessments, reports, etc.), managing projects and other leadership tasks,

architectural design and administration. The architect-planners working in the private sector

were very commonly occupied both with architectural design projects, and urban

planning/design projects. This was seldom the case with the architect-planners working in


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the public sector, who concentrated mainly on land use planning, either drawing plans, or

acting in the role of purchaser of plans from private consultants where the function had been

outsourced in the municipality.

Competence demands and sources of competence

In the design of the survey a list of 28 competence areas was created by the authors. The list

is based on first hand experience of architectural practice as well as prior research

conducted by the authors. The respondents were asked to indicate the important of each

competence area in their current work. Figure 2 shows the answers of the group of architect-

planners.

Figure 2 The importance of various competence areas in the current work of the architect-planners


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As Figure 2 shows, two clusters of competences ranked clearly highest after urban planning

and urban design skills. These were firstly the social and interactional skills including

negotiation, presentation, and conflict management, and secondly the contextual skills and

knowledge indicated in the list as ‘understanding of the societal context and relations’ and

‘knowledge of legislation’. This result indicates that these competence areas need to be

considered as part of the core competences of architects working as planners, along with the

skills of ‘practical problem-solving’ and ‘skills finding innovative solutions’, ICT skills and

management skills. However, according to the survey, the teaching on these competence

areas seems to be non-existent in architectural education.

The sources of competence

Respondents were asked from where they have acquired each competence, and to name

the most important source of such competence. Most commonly, the respondents named

work practice as their primary source of competence. This was especially prominent in

negotiation skills, conflict management, practical problem solving, presentation and

performance skills, as well as in project management. In these competence areas,

approximately 70% of the respondents named work practice as their primary source of

competence.

Basic university education was most commonly named as the primary source of competence

in knowledge of the history of architecture (primary source for 74% of the respondents). It

was also quite commonly named as the primary source of competence in architectural

design (59%), landscape design (33%), product design (33%), interior design (33%), and

design of urban space (30%). In these latter five competence areas, the role of work practice

as the source of competence was, however, the most important.

Self-initiated learning/education plays a very important role as a source of competence in

knowledge of recent architecture. In this competence area, approximately 65% of

respondents regarded self-initiated learning/education as their primary source of

competence. Self-initiated education also plays an important role in gaining knowledge of

new building techniques and materials (primary source for 32% of respondents), ICT skills

(27%), understanding societal context and relations (22%) and skills in finding innovative

solutions (20%). However, in these four competence areas, the most common primary

source of competence was again work practice.

Since the respondents were asked to name only the primary source of competence, it is not

possible to draw direct conclusions from these figures on what may have been the

significance of the basic university studies as the basis for their further learning in the field.

Nevertheless, it is interesting to note the very small share of those respondents who named

basic university studies as their primary source of competence in negotiation skills, conflict

management, project coordination, knowledge of legislation, and understanding of societal

context and relations.


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Competence needs

From the aforementioned list, the respondents were asked to mark those competence areas

in which they especially felt a need for more competence. The two areas that were

mentioned most often were knowledge of legislation and ICT skills; 44% of the respondents

said they needed more competence in these. These are respectively the two areas in which

continuing professional education is available.

The next cluster of competence areas that were mentioned most often were the following:

knowledge of new building materials and techniques, project management and coordination,

urban planning/design. Every third respondent (31%) felt they needed more competence in

these. Approximately every fourth respondent felt that they needed more competence in

urban design/spatial design, financial administration, negotiation skills, presentation and

performance skills, conflict management skills, and understanding the societal context and

relations.

The importance of various contents and methods in education for one’s professional development

The respondents were also asked to assess the importance of various course contents as

well as teaching and learning methods for one’s professional development. Differences

among the three Finnish universities offering architectural education were distinguishable

from the answers. This supports the view that local pedagogical culture and innovations in

teaching methods do play a role in professional development. As expected, urban planning

(land use planning, or spatial planning) and design of urban spaces was most commonly

seen by architect-planners as being “extremely important” in relation to professional

development. Housing design and history of architecture and urban planning were seen as

having almost as much importance. Also, more than 70% of the respondents regarded

basics and theory of architecture being “extremely” or “very important” in relation to

professional development.

Positive and Negative Sides of Professional Enculturation

In the final section of the survey the respondents were asked to describe major strengths and

weaknesses of their education (MSc in Architecture). This section of the questionnaire

included open questions on major strengths and weaknesses of such education and ideas of

how to develop architectural education. On the whole, the respondents regarded

architectural education as a good source of broad general knowledge in the fields of

architecture and construction (including history). Many respondents named the broadness of

knowledge, and the wide range of basic skills in construction, problem solving, planning and

design – typical to a generalist – as the strongest positive aspects of architectural education.

The education was valued, because it had cultivated the respondents into learned

professionals and socialised them into the architectural profession. Besides basic skills and

knowledge, the positive sides of the enculturation included acquiring the “architect’s way of

thinking” – creativity, versatility, curiosity, and the skills of questioning, framing, creating new

solutions.


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“I learned to see and to experience, the importance of fine arts and history of

architecture – the attitude, mentality and curiosity came from the first basic courses

teaching of architecture – the group assignments taught me to handle criticism and to

communicate.”

However, the enculturation was also discussed in critical terms by the same respondents.

“The greatest weakness of the education was the attitudes which I have had to

unlearn in order to be able to act effectively in practical working life.”

This dilemma was expressed in various ways by the respondents, for example as criticism of

the narrowness and only ‘one truth’ at a time, which signifies that the current architectural

trends dominate and dictate design education. Some respondents suspected that because of

this, the education in fact leads to a restricted artistic expression and hindered creative

capacity of the students.

The conception of art was also seen to be connected to the wrong kind of autonomy and self-

complacency of the profession. Many respondents regretted the lack of co-operation with

other departments. This was seen as problematic, because it had led to an inability to

communicate with other professional groups also in working life.

“The education did not provide me with even half of those skills which were

necessary later. I have been completely on my own learning all of that, plus my

employer has provided some courses. It was such a narrow image to which we were

trained: to be only an artistic designer, an ‘artist’ and a preservationist. There was this

attitude: ‘engineers and ordinary people don’t understand anything’. But in working

life one can do nothing without respecting and collaborating with people from different

fields and people who think differently than oneself. I hope this issue is better in

today’s education. In case it isn’t, it is about time to teach negotiation skills, making

compromises, managing projects. First and foremost it would be important to

remember that architecture is also a technical field. This would help architects to

regain professional respect, which has now suffered a severe deflation.”

The narrowness was also associated with the framing of the design tasks and problems.

They were seen as being purified of the messiness and complexity of real life. Architectural

education was on the whole considered to be estranged from the societal context and

practical challenges planners face in their everyday work practice. Some respondents

articulated this criticism more sharply than others. The comments included:

“In the education there were so many general knowledge and unrealistic design

tasks, that in my first workplace I realised I had learned almost nothing that would

have been valuable in the actual work.”

“The greatest weakness of the education was the almost total absence of the

‘practical bureaucracy’ of constructing. The following were missing: the steering and

managing of projects, permit issues (including documents), negotiations with officials,

all financial issues (both concerning individual projects as well as concerning one’s


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own business), marketing etc. These things make up 95% of the practical work, but

only 0.5% of the education...”

“There was nothing about societal relations in the education.”

These critical views on the missing link with practice or ‘reality’ were voiced by the majority of

the architect-planners when asked to identify the greatest weaknesses of the architectural

education they had received. A significant number of respondents also mentioned the

absence of the following topics from the education:

Legislation

Societal contexts (e.g. political decision-making)

Economics and the financial side of projects

Architect’s role in complex projects

A weakness that was articulated especially by older respondents concerned poor

pedagogical understanding and poor quality of teaching by some teachers. This could

support the positive finding that the pedagogical skills of present day teachers are better than

their predecessors.

When compared with the answers of the whole group of respondents (N=726) including

architects working mainly in building design, there were striking similarities in the

assessments of the strengths as well as the weaknesses of the education.

The Need to Expand the Social Dimension in Architectural Education

The work of Dana Cuff (1991) became central in the interpretation of the dilemmatic results

of the survey. Cuff had also identified similar aspects of the architectural education in the

United States. According to Cuff, school assignments are partially the result of an idealised

vision of architectural practice. Design is emphasised as an art and as a craft, and drawing

skills and conceptual design skills are highly valued. The learning of design takes place in a

somewhat protective setting. This is of course the intended purpose, as it provides safe

ground for error and innovation. However, in this way the students do not learn how to

achieve design quality within the context of opposing forces. The extreme uncertainty and

contingency of architectural practice is intentionally avoided in the architectural academies

where design is rarely threatened by pragmatic considerations. Few studios ever deal with

certain issues of practice: changes in the middle of the project, budget cuts or any type of

budget issue, new information learned during the process, conflicts among parties and

interests, ambiguous roles, working with consultants etc. (Cuff, 1991, pp. 65, 71, 90).

Architectural practice has been dominated by ’the cult of the individual’, and therefore the

collective aspects of designing and the importance of architecture’s social context have

traditionally received virtually no pedagogic attention and generated little reflection. Many

practitioners are not trained in the social arts of working with clients and consultants. While

the individual professional will always remain central to design, it is necessary to recognise

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/240917048_Architecture_The_Story_of_Practice?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-dfd1737f-94eb-43c8-a6a2-8778ad85beb8&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzI2NTYwNjI0NTtBUzoxNDE1OTIxNDQ5MTIzODZAMTQxMDc2OTYwNjU2OQ==


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that, both in education and in professional practice, the individuals act in the context of larger

and increasingly significant social environments (Cuff, 1991, pp. 65, 251-252).

Cuff argues that creativity, too, is socially produced. Therefore, the architectural profession

needs to expand its creative domain (Cuff, 1991, pp.153-154). According to Cuff, there is a

dominant belief that design is a kind of problem solving, involving problems that can be

defined, are determinate, and can be solved. Based on her research, Cuff argues that the

more accurate description of the necessary skill is, however, not decision-making but sense-

making. Sense-making implies a collective context, in which we must make sense of a

situation, inherently social, and interpret it through conversation and action with others (Cuff,

1991, p.254). She cites John Forester:

If form-giving is understood more deeply as an activity of making sense together,

designing may then be situated in a social world where meaning, often multiple,

ambiguous, and conflicting, is nevertheless a perpetual practical accomplishment.

(Cuff 1991, p.254 [Forester 1985, p.14])

Following this, the education of architects should lead students to focus on making sense of

the situation before making decisions. This approach would, in the end, lead to more

sophisticated solutions in terms of how well they resolve conflicting interests, or reflect client

concerns (Cuff, 1991, pp.254-255, 259-260). According to Cuff, the schools should retain

their generalist orientation, but instead of training students to become the best designers,

they should train them to become the best leaders. And, for architects to be qualified leaders

of complex design teams, they must be competent designers – but their abilities must be

broadened in new areas, such as political processes, development economics, negotiation,

and leadership skills (Cuff, 1991, pp.259-260).

When the respondents of the survey were asked to suggest how to develop the education,

their ideas ran in parallel with Cuff’s view, in many respects. The respondents wished for

more interaction and shared projects with other professionals during studies. Apprentice

learning and alternation of periods of practical training in the workplace and learning at

school were suggested from the very beginning of the education. Communication and

argumentation skills, also skills on writing were considered necessary additions.

Conclusions

There seems to be a contradiction between the professional identity and values passed on in

architectural education, and the daily challenges professionals face. The emphasis on the

design of the product during the studies masks the significance of understanding the

dynamic process and context of the design work in which decisions are made in close

interaction with professionals from other fields, and other stakeholders. Further, the

emphasis on producing creative artists, understood in a narrow way, hinders the abilities of

the (young) architects to co-operate with other professions, not to mention clients and

stakeholders.







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The strengths of architectural education can turn into weaknesses if they produce an

internalised image of the architect as an omnipotent artistic genius, whose architectural

visions are to be defended against negotiation understood as compromising. This self-image

is fostered by education in which the implicit goal of an architect is the production ‘pure art’.

In the tradition of modernity, architecture as art is evaluated using the distinctions between

high and popular arts, aesthetic and practical art, and between architects and ordinary

people, who are seen to constitute the audience of their architecture (see Shusterman, 1995,

p.13, 49; Mattila, 2007). Particularly in the 20th century, arts and architecture have been

alienated from the appreciative experience of most people (Mattila, 2007, p.50; Nyman,

1998, pp.43-53). Modern art has been associated with the avant-garde of artistic progress,

and art is thus expected to be something that is inherently unpopular, even antipopular

(Shusterman, 1995, p.50 – see also Cuff 1991, p.73).

Whatever appeals to more popular experience and less erudite understanding is

therefore relegated to a sub-artistic realm and pejoratively labelled kitsch,

entertainment, or the ”industry” of popular culture. Its appreciation and the status of

its appreciators are culturally delegitimated, so that, rather than uniting human society

with its communicative power, art comes to divide it into the privileged appreciators of

true art and the blind masses who besot themselves with its sham substitutes.

(Shusterman 1995, p.51)

Architect-planners become dysfunctional if they base their conception of architecture as a

form of art on this modern tradition without being able to reflect on its contradictions. The

architect-planners may consider it their moral obligation to open planning processes to public

participation, but still regard such planning as contemptible because, according to the

conception of art internalised during architectural education, it would mean giving in to kitsch

and shallow populism, and giving up architecture and the respect of their peers (Mäntysalo,

2000, p.210-211).

In her doctoral thesis, Kristina L. Nilsson has made a definition of planning as art:

The concept of art is [here] used to emphasise that planning processes are no

technical rational activity, but a phronetic and creative activity built on reflexivity,

awareness and conscious considerations at all its different steps. These activities

need experienced, reflective and creative professionals, of different types and in

various roles that can facilitate planning and political groups all the way through

planning processes.

(Nilsson, 2003, p.260)

Both Cuff and Nilsson associate artistry with the social ability to manage complex problems

creatively and reflexively in cooperation with other professionals and actors from other fields.

Such a redefinition of art and artistry in architectural education might help settle the tensions

we have identified in our survey analysis and lead to a more balanced relationship between

architectural education and the demands faced in professional practice.



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Documents

Architectural Education as a Basis for Planning Work — The Pros and Cons of Professional Enculturation