CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENTCurriculum: Concepts, Nature and Purposes

I. FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS IN CURRICULUM

Curriculum as a cumulative tradition of organized knowledge

Curriculum as an experience Curriculum as an instructional plan Curriculum as an instructional outcome

Levels of Curriculum

Societal level of curriculum- the farthest from the learners sincethis is where the public stockholders (politicians, specialinterest groups, administrators, professional specialist)participate in identifying the goals, the topics to be studied,time to be spent in teaching/learning, and materials to aidinstruction.

Institutional level of curriculum- refers to the curriculumderived from the societal level, with modification by localeducators or lay people; often organized according to subjectsand includes topics and themes to be studled; may also includestandards, philosophies, lesson plans and teaching guides.

Instructional level of curriculum- refers how teachers use thecurriculum developed in societal level and modified in theinstructional level or what authorities have determined; involvesthe teacher’s instructional strategies styles and materials used.

Experiential level of curriculum- the curriculum perceived andexperienced by each student and many, therefore, vary amonglessons because of individual differences.

Includes both curriculum process (procedures in creating using andevaluating curricula) and curriculum product or projects,resulting from curriculum development processes; includescurriculum guides, courses of study; syllabi, resource units andother document that deal with content of schooling.

II. FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

A. Psychological Foundation Psychology is a unifying element of the learning process. It formsthe basis for the methods, materials and activities for learning and subsequently serve as basis for many curriculum decisions.

1. Edward Thorndike 1. Jean Piaget 1. Abraham Maslow

2. Ivan Pavlov 2. John Dewey 2. Carl Rogers3. Burrhus Frederic 3. Jerome Bruner 3. Lois

RathsSkinner

Behaviorism and Curriculum

Curriculum should be organized so students experienced success in mastering the subject matter.

Highly prescriptive and diagnostic in approach Rely on step-by-step procedure, structured methods of

learning

Phenomenology

Behaviorism Cognitive development

Major Theories of

For students who have difficulty learning, curriculum andinstruction can be broken down into small units with appropriate sequencing of task and reinforcement of desired behavior.

Cognition and Curriculum

The cognitive approach constitutes a logical method for organizing and interpreting learning.

The approach is rooted in the tradition of subject matter.

Educators have been trained in cognitive approaches and they have better understanding of them.

Phenomenology and Curriculum

Phenomenologist view the individual in relation to the field of which he or she operates.

Different things to different people. Phenomenologist attempt to rescue learning theory from

the narrow the rigid behaviorist and from overstress on cognitive process,

The raw data of personal experiences are vital to understanding learning.

B. Philosophical Foundation

Philosophy is an important foundation of curriculum becausephilosophy advocated or reflected by a particular school and itsofficials influences its goal or aims and content as well as theorganization of its curriculum.

Differing View of

Traditional Progressive

Traditional Progressive

Focus 1- Intellectual Development

- Certain subjects train the mind

- Liberal art and science build intellectual power

- Ready made experiences by written and spoken words.

- Education conceived as instruction

- All subjects contribute to intellectual development.

- Liberal arts, sciences and practical arts develop the whole individual

- Acting acquiring meaning and problem solving

- Education conceives as creative self-learning.

Focus 2- Functioning Curriculum

- Intellectual development makes for good citizen- Knowledge and discipline prepare to pupil to exercise freedom

- Development of good morals and useful skills- Direct experience in democratic living

Focus 3- Learners as individual in our society

- Follow traditional modes of learning with prepared curriculum

- Homogeneous grouping and special grouping

- Educated rigorously to accept roles in society

- Develop own learning as undemocratic

- Educated to non-conformity, individuality, creativeness

Focus 4- Learners as actual / potential workers

- Vocational education follows liberal arts

- Subject matter as important and taught for future use

- vocational and liberal education hand in hand

Focus 5- Characteristic of Curriculum

- fixed, absolute- subject matter as important

and taught for future use

- relative- subject as important for

immediate use

Philosophy Curriculum

Idealism Upholds goodness and truths Religious and values oriented

Realism Concerned with world of ideasand things fixed within established subject matter

Theory and principles before application

Includes only the essentials Emphasized reality of things

Pragmatism Emphasis on how to think rather than what to think

Emphasis on development of insights, understanding and skills acquired in creative, reflective, critical thinking

Child0 centered Subject matter for

stimulating exploration and practical action

Existentialism Main concern is to free the child to do his own thing

Free learners to choose what to learn and believe

No course guides and content outlines

Learners set own identities and standards

Perennialism Fixed, because the “ends “ ofeducation are absolute and universal

Liberal arts and science drawn from human wisdom and classical sources

Taught subject in customary, separate from rather than combined

Eliminate “extras” and “frills” (music)

Essentialism Essential skills (3Rs) (English , Science, History, Math & Foreign Language)

Educate the competent personProgressivism Based on students interest

Involves the application of

human problems & affairs Interdisciplinary subject

matter, activities and projects

Reconstructionism Put curriculum as a means inremarking society and rebuilding culture

Curriculum should be a catalyst of change

Aims to lead pupils to rational discussions and contract analysis of issues

C. Socio-Cultural Curriculum discussion should consider the social setting especially the relationship between the schools and society and its influence on curriculum decision. Social

astuteness is essential for curriculum planners and developers today .Curriculum decisions takes place in a complex social setting through demands that are imposed by society and that filter down to schools.

a. Inhibit change through traditionsb. Rate and direction of changec. Correspond to societal changesd. Apply pressure through societal demands

a. Science and technologyb. Improved communicationc. Change family rolesd. Population explosionse. Social mobilityf. Value crisisg. Subject matter related to events

Influence of Society

Societal

h. Facilities/ materials product of technologyi. Active participation of stakeholdersj. Accountability

D. Historical Foundations

The Historical Foundations of curriculum reflects the educational focus prevalent during a particular period or event in Philippine history. This focus could be made or model for curriculum developmentof recent years.

Differences in Education during the Various Historical Events

Period Goal Focus MethodCourse ofStudy

GeneralCharacterist

icPre-

HispanicEra

Integrationof

individualsinto thetribe.

Customs andtradition

Oralimmersion

None Not formal; community; based; no educational system.

Spanish Era Speed of Christianity

Religion Catecheticalinstruction,se of copralpunishment; rote memorization

Not prescribe; flexible; not centralized

No grade level churchbased; no educational system.

American Era

Spread democracy

Academic English Language and Literature

Democratic; English as medium of instruction

Prescribed;uniform; centralized

Formal; structured; existence ofan educational

system.Japanese Era

Spread of the new Asian Order

Principles of the New Order

Rote memorization; use of threat and punishment

Prescribed;uniform centralized

Propaganda tool; repressivelyanti-American andanti-British; military-backed existence ofan educational system.

Adapted from Curriculum Development; Philippine Setting,.A Bago 2001 p79

III. TYPES AND PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM

A. Subject-Centered Curriculum The subject centered curriculum designs are the most popular and widely used curriculum design. Knowledge and content are integral parts of the curriculum. Teacher has full control of the curriculum.

1. Separate Subject Design Strengths- The oldest and best known curriculum design- Based on the concept of knowledge- Is organized by the disciplines on scholarly fields of specialized

inquiry.- Emphasis on verbal activity, the teacher having an active role.- Easily to deliver because complementary materials are readily

available.- Corresponds to textbook treatment and how teachers are trained as

subject specialist

Limitations

- Isolates and compartmentalizes knowledge- Overemphasis on subject matter resulted in a curriculum that is too

technical and too specialized- Inappropriate for a large number of students- Stresses content and neglect student’s needs, interest and

experiences- Teachers tend to foster passivity for learning among the students.

2. Correlated DesignStrengths- An attempt to eliminate the isolation and compartmentalization of

subjects without radically overhauling the subject design curriculum.- Disciplines linked while keeping identities of each.

3. Broad field DesignStrengths- Serve a response to society’s demand for integration of knowledge and

more comprehensive models of knowledge- Dissolve the boundaries in ways that make the information meaningful

for the students.- Knowledge will no longer be fragmented or linear but

multidisciplinary and multidimensional

Limitations

- The issue of breadth versus depth.

4. Process Design- The numerous curricula for teaching critical thinking exemplify this

procedural design- Learning how to learn design.

B. Learner-Centered Design The students are the center of focus of the program. These design are found more frequently the elementary school level where teachers tend tostress the development of the whole child.

1. Child-Centered Design- Students are actively involved in their environment.- “custom made” on students’ lives, needs and interests- Children would attain self-realization through social participation.- Emphasis on the child displaced the emphasis on the subject matter.2. Experienced-Centered Design- Curriculum cannot be pre-planned, that everything had to be done “on

the spot”- Heavy emphasis on learners’ interest and felt needs.- Curriculum would be ever changing in addressing the needs of

students.

C. Problem- Centered Curriculum Problem centered design are organized to reinforced cultural traditions and also addresses those community and societal needs that are currentlyunmet. The major concern is with genuine life problems, and the need to adjust or cater to the concerns and situation of learners.

1. Life Situation DesignStrengths

- Focus on the problem solving procedures for learning.- Content is organized in ways to allow students to clearly view

problem areas.- Utilize past and current experiences of learners as a means of making

them analyze the basic area of living.- Linking of subject matter to real situations increased the relevance

of the curriculum

Limitations

- Ability to determine the scope and sequence of the essential areas ofliving

- Tends to indoctrinate youth into the existing condition.- Mat teachers are not comfortable with it because it departs from

curricular tradition maintained by colleges and universities.2. Core design- Sometimes called “social function”- Aims to creating a universal sense of inquiry, discuss and

understanding among learners of different background.- Center on general education and is based on problems arising out of

common human activities.- Variation of core design

a.) Subject matter core would be classified as subject entered design

b.) Areas of living core rooted in the progressive education tradition

- It unifies content, present subject matter relevant to the learners and encourages active processing of information.

Curriculum Approaches

Several curriculum approaches reflect the developers’ vie ofreality, philosophy, history, psychology, social issues and thedomain of knowledge among others. An approach expression a view pointabout the development design of curriculums. It can be viewed from atechnical or scientific and non-scientific perspective. (Bago, 2001)

A. Technical-Scientific Approach It reflects the traditional view on education and formal methodsof schooling. The technical-scientific approach views curriculumdevelopment as something similar to engineering and architecturewhich used instruments and empirical methods in preparingblueprints.

1. Behavioral-Rational Approach- oldest and still the most preferred approach- it is a means- end approach which is logical and prescriptive.

Ralph Tyler Model; Four Basic Principles.This is also popularly known asTyleer’s Rationale.

Four Fundamental Principles

1. What educational purpose should the school seek to attain?2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to

attain these purposes?3. How can these education experiences be effectively organized?4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained

or not?

Flowchart of Taba’s (1962) Seven Stages of Curriculum Development

Diagnosisof needs

Formulation of

Organization ofcontent

Selectionof content

Selection oflearning

experiences

Organizationof learningexperiences

Determination of whatand how toevaluate.

CURRICULUM

2. System- Managerial Approach- Consider the interconnected elements of inputs, throughputs (process)

and output that comprise the educational system.- Emphasizes the managerial/leadership and supervisory aspects of

curriculum especially in the implementation and organization process.- A cyclic process3. Intellectual- Academic Approach- Emphasis the importance of theories and principle in curriculum

planning- Because the cognitive demand of the approach, it

overwhelms many beginning students who usually lack sufficient philosophical and theoretical insights on the subject.

A. Non-Technical/Non-Scientific Approach

1. Humanistic- Aesthetic Approach- Promotes the liberation of learners from authoritarian teachers- Encourages group learning activities which promote cooperation rather

than individual competition- Emphasis on how to learn, not on what to learn.2. Reconceptualist Approach- Reflects the existentialist orientation- Purpose of education is to anticipate society from traditional,

outmoded orders through individual free choice.- Emphasize learning experiences that develop personal self-expression3. Reconstructionism- Considers the school as an agent of change, an institution of social

reform- Emphasizes cultural pluralism, internationalism and pluralism which

are beyond individual concerns

IV.ROLE OF STAKE HOLDERS IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Include individuals or groups who directly or indirectly influences and make important contributions to the curriculum

May be categorized as community-based (whose influences on the curriculum is at societal or institutional levels) or school-based(whose contributions to the curriculum are either on the institutional level, instructional level, or experiential level)

School-based Learners- The stake holders of the curriculum, whose need and abilities

are the basis of curriculum content solution and whose achievement level measures the effectiveness of the curriculum.

Teachers- Establish direction and implementation of a particular program- Select content to a given emphasis- Assist/contribute in the preparation of the scope and sequence

of the program.- Attend to the pedagogical concerns such that they modify the

curriculum to suit the needs of the learners help in evaluatingthe effectiveness of the curriculum.

School administrators- Supervise curriculum implementations- Select, recruit and hire qualified teachers- Admin students- Take charge in the procurement of school equipment and

instructional materials needed for the effective delivery of instruction

Community-based Parents- Support and participate in parent-school organizations where

priorities for the curriculum are set Publisher- Provide/develop instructional materials based on the prescribed

curriculum Law makers/government officials- Authorize school budget- Enact legislation to effect curriculum change or improvement - Issue guidelines in designing and implementing curriculum Community-at-large- Often dictates the purpose, goals and content of school

curricula- Recommended direction and changes in the curriculum

V. CURRICULUM PROCESS

A. Curriculum Planning

1.Determinants for Curriculum Planninga.) Learners- the consumer of education

b.) Society- any society to progress economically must progress educationally

c.) Knowledge-set up an environment which will challenge all students to master knowledge

2.Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is completed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of the existing curriculum situations and to provide directions for their improvement. It is systematic exploration of the way things are and the way they should be.

3. Formulating Goals

Goals are statement of endpoints or outcomes of education- statement of purposes by analyzing school goals, we can determine the scope its entire educational program.a) Learners- The purpose, interest, developmental needs and

characteristics of the learners should guide the choice of appropriate goals.

b) Society- The values and behaviors defined as desirable by a given society help shape goals of education in that society.

c) Fund of Knowledge- human knowledge that has been accumulated and organized for universal use and should be taken into account in shaping goals.

Levels of Goalsa) Institutional Goalsb) School Level or department Goalsc) Program or curricular goalsd) Classroom or Institutional level

B. Curriculum Designing (Curriculum Organization) Curriculum design is concerned with the nature and arrangement of the four basic curricular parts. (Also called components or elements)

The components of Design

Objectives

Method andOrganization

Evaluation

Subject Matter

Adapted from Exploring the CurriculumH.H Giles 1942 p2

1. Sources of Designa) Science- The scientific method provides meaning for the

curriculum designb) Society- School should draw its ideas for the curriculum

from the analysis of the social situation.c) Eternal and Divine Sources- designers should simply draw on

the past for guidance as to what is appropriate content.d) Knowledge- “What knowledge is of most worth?”e) Learner- Curriculum should be derived from what we know

about the learners, how he or she learns, from attitudes generates interests develop values.

2. Dimension of Curriculum Design (BASIC)Basic- equitable distribution of content, time, experience and other elements of designArticulation- Interrelatedness of various aspect of the curriculum (Vertical and Horizontal)

Scope- the breaths and depths of the curriculum

Integration- refers to the liking of all types of knowledge andexperiences contained within the curriculum plan.

Continuity- vertical repletion and requiring the content

Sequence-provide continuous and cumulative learning

Principle of Sequence a) Simple to complexb) Prerequisite learningc) Whole to partd) Chronological

3. Selection of the Curricular Elements

1) Selection of Objectives

- should descriptive behavior- stated analytically and specifically- Developmental rather than terminal- SMART- consider the three objective domains

2.) Selection of Content- Criteria for selecting content

a.) Validity- if it is authenticb.) Significance/relevance- consistent with social realities,

pursues needsof the time.c.)Balance of breadths and depths- coveraged.) Learnability- adjustable to learners’ ability f.) Utility-useful on theperformance of life activitiese.) Appropriateness- parallel with learner needs and interest

3.) Selection of Learning Experiences- Criteria for selecting experiences

a.) Appropriateness- should be appropriate and suitable to the content, activities and level of development of the learners.

b.) Variety- should include minds on, hands on, and authentic learning experiences.

c.) Optimal value- should encourage the learners to continue learning on their own.

d.) Feasibility- in terms of human, physical and financial resources

4.) Grade Placement- involves allocation of content to definite time for

subject/course; amount of time given to subject- considers such factors as; child’s ability, difficulty

of item importance of content, maturation, mental age,experiential background

5.) Time allotment- refers to specification of definite time for subject/course;

amount of time given to a subject- considers such factors as; importance of subject; child’s

ability; grade level average number of days/hours

C. Curriculum Implementation

Implementation is an interaction between those who have createdthe programme and those who are charged to deliver it. According to Omstein and Hunkins (1998), implementation:

Requires educators to shift from the current programme which they are familiar with to the new or modified programme

Involves changes in the knowledge, actions and attitudes of people

Can be seen as a process of professional development and growth involving ongoing interactions, feedback and assistance.

Is a process of clarification whereby individuals and groups come to understand and practice a change in attitudes and behaviors; often involving using new resources

Involves change which requires effort and will produce certain amount of anxiety and to minimize these, it is useful to organize implementation into manageable events and to set achievable goals

Requires a supportive atmosphere in which there is trust and open communication between administrators, teachers, educators and where risk-taking is encouraged.

D. Curriculum Evaluation The process of delineating, obtaining and providing useful

information for judging decision alternatives Involves value judgment about the curriculum “Did we do what we wanted to do?”

Type of Evaluation1. According to approach

Humanistic vs Scientific2. According to scope

Evaluation of learning vs Program Evaluation

3. According to timingFormative vs Summative

Why Evaluate

1) Meet demands that current educational reforms have made 2) Provide direction, security, and feedbacks to all concerns3) Determine appropriate and available resources, activities,

content, method or whether curriculum has coherence, balance, articulation, scope, integration, continuity and sequence in orderto meet curriculum goals/objectives

What areas in curriculum are quantified for evaluation?1) Mission statement (philosophy)2) Sequence (order)3) Continuity (without disruptors)4) Scope (depth/variety of content)5) Articulation (how parts fit)6) Balance (quantitative and qualitative aspects of content)7) Coherence ( relationships among different components)

E. Curriculum Improvement

- Enriching, modifying certain aspects without changing fundamental conceptions/ elements/ structure.

Levels of Operation for Improvement1) Substitution- substituting a new book for the current

series2) Alternation- adding to instructional time3) Variations- transferring a successful programme4) Restructing- organizing teams for teacher and

specialist5) Value orientation change- shifting from routine

instruction to computer assisted instructionAction that facilitate Curriculum Improvement

1) Change climate and working conditions to encourage improvement

2) Maintain appropriate tempo3) Change for variety of activities4) Build evaluation procedure

F. Curriculum Change - Refers to the basic alteration in the structure and design

of learning experiences based on conceptions which may be atthe school, district or national level.

- To make different by shifting to new goals and means

Principles that guide change process1) People improve when they detect the desire of the

stimulator to improve himself2) Direction of improvement should be determine

cooperatively3) People must identify and examine each other’s

centrally held values4) People improve through experience5) Divide time between contact individual and with go

group.6) People’s resistance to efforts of others constitutes

major individual differences7) Create a climate of freedom8) Keep channels of communication offer9) Use power with great care10) Operate on a limited number of fronts at a given

time.

VII.CURRICULUM ALIGNMENT

Curriculum Alignment- alignment between curriculum and one or more of the following elements, state standards, standardized test/state test, curriculum embedded tests, student’s assignments,lesson plans, textbooks and instruction.

Vertical Alignment- planning curriculum across the grade levels from kinder garden through high school, building uponinstruction based upon standards

Horizontal Alignment- alignment of the curriculum being taught by teacher in common grade level.

Written Curriculum- specifies what is to be taught and is produced by the state, the school system, the school and theclassroom teacher

Taught Curriculum- what the teacher actually teach in the classroom

CURRICULUM TRIANGLE

Tested Curriculum- Provides value feedback about each students’ understanding of essential content, concept and skills.

Benefit of Curriculum Alignment1) Improves students test scores by making sure the information a

teacher in her classroom lines up with the information covered on standardized test.

2) Teachers can collaborate together more effectively of they all have the same basic goal for their classrooms.

3) Helps a school or individual teacher prove the students are learning material that lines up with state standard.

4) Students can travel from school to school and still have the same basic instruction.

5) Ensure an increased in the students’ academic performance.

ALIGNMENT TRIANGLE

INSTRUCTIONEVALUATION

EVALUATION

WRITTENTAUGHT

TESTED